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A quasi-experiment approach to study the effect of e-mail management training
Abstract
This study investigates the question as to whether e-mail management training can alleviate the problem of time pressure linked to inadequate use of e-mail. A quasi-experiment was devised and carried out in an organizational setting to test the effect of an e-mail training program on four variables, e-mail self-efficacy, e-mail-specific time management, perceived time control over e-mail use, and estimated time spent in e-mail. With 175 subjects in the experimental group, and 105 subjects in the control group, data were collected before and after the experiment. ANCOVA analysis of the data demonstrated possible amount of time saving with an e-mail management training program. In addition, better perceived time control over e-mail use was observed. Since the change of e-mail-specific time management behavior was not significant, but e-mail self-efficacy improved substantially, it suggested that the major mediating process for better perceived time control over e-mail use and less estimated time spent in e-mail was through improved e-mail self-efficacy rather than a change of e-mail-specific time-management behavior.
... The amount of time e-mail use consumes varies among users. 52 For example, some people take 5 minutes to write and send an e-mail that takes other people 1 minute. 52 Fortunately, training has been shown to be effective for making users more proficient in e-mail use (see below section on Learning E-Mail). ...
... 52 For example, some people take 5 minutes to write and send an e-mail that takes other people 1 minute. 52 Fortunately, training has been shown to be effective for making users more proficient in e-mail use (see below section on Learning E-Mail). 21,22,[52][53][54] Because it is important that a manager seeking advice uses a communication channel in which they are proficient or can become proficient with training, e-mail appears to be ideal in this respect because it is ubiquitous and easily used by nearly all professionals. ...
... 52 Fortunately, training has been shown to be effective for making users more proficient in e-mail use (see below section on Learning E-Mail). 21,22,[52][53][54] Because it is important that a manager seeking advice uses a communication channel in which they are proficient or can become proficient with training, e-mail appears to be ideal in this respect because it is ubiquitous and easily used by nearly all professionals. ...
For many problems in operating room and anesthesia group management, there are tasks with optimal decisions, and yet experienced personnel tend to make decisions that are worse or no better than random chance. Such decisions include staff scheduling, case scheduling, moving cases among operating rooms, and choosing patient arrival times. In such settings, operating room management leadership decision-making should typically be autocratic rather than participative. Autocratic-style decision-making calls for managers to solicit and consider feedback from stakeholders in the decision outcome but to make the decision themselves using their expert knowledge and the facts received. For this to be effective, often the manager will obtain expert advice from outside the organization (e.g., health system). In this narrative review, we evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of using prompt asynchronous written communication (i.e., e-mail) as a communication channel for such interaction between a decision-maker (manager) and advisor. A detailed Appendix (Supplemental Digital Content, http://links.lww.com/AA/B72) lists each observational and experimental result. We find that the current ubiquitous role of e-mail for such communication is appropriate. Its benefits include improved time management via asynchronicity, low cognitive load (e.g., relative to Web conferencing), the ability to hide undesirable and irrelevant cues (e.g., physical appearance), the appropriateness of adding desirable cues (e.g., titles and degrees), the opportunity to provide written expression of confidence, and the ability for the advisor to demonstrate the answer for the decision-maker. Given that the manager is e-mailing an advisor whose competence the manager trusts, it is unnecessary to use a richer communication channel to develop trust. Finally, many of the limitations of e-mail can be rectified through training. We expect that decades from now, e-mail (i.e., asynchronous writing) between an expert and decision-maker will remain the dominant means of communication for intellective tasks.
... Over the last ten years, many studies explored email communications training effectiveness. Most of these studies focused on performance improvements with key themes related to: (a) decreased time spent on emails (Burgess, Jackson, & Edwards, 2004;Huang, Lin, & Lin, 2011;Moore & Moore, 2004;Soucek & Mouser, 2010), (b) better use of subject lines (Burgess, Jackson, & Edwards, 2004;Jackson & Culjak, 2006), (c) decreased message misunderstandings (Aguilar-Roca, William, Warrior, & O'Doud, 2009;Huang, Lin, & Lin, 2001;Jackson & Culjack, 2006;Moore & Moore, 2004), and (d) decreased costs associated with email use (Burgess, Jackson, & Edwards, 2004;Jackson & Culjack, 2006). The training themes in these studies included: (a) use of subject lines, (b) time management when dealing with emails, (c) formatting emails, and (d) writing for clarity. ...
... The training themes in these studies included: (a) use of subject lines, (b) time management when dealing with emails, (c) formatting emails, and (d) writing for clarity. While some researchers found training participants did not take the class and subsequent skill assessment seriously (Pittenger, Miller, & Allison, 2006), others found that participants experienced increased perceptions of emailing abilities (Huang, Lin, & Lin, 2011), improved grammar, spelling and punctuation (Hof & Ashworth, 2010), and faster replies to emails (Huang, Lin, & Lin, 2011;Moore & Moore, 2004;Soucek & Moser, 2010). Combined, these effects produced better-written emails that were both clearer and more succinct, which reduced the overall financial impact on organizations who delivered such training. ...
... The training themes in these studies included: (a) use of subject lines, (b) time management when dealing with emails, (c) formatting emails, and (d) writing for clarity. While some researchers found training participants did not take the class and subsequent skill assessment seriously (Pittenger, Miller, & Allison, 2006), others found that participants experienced increased perceptions of emailing abilities (Huang, Lin, & Lin, 2011), improved grammar, spelling and punctuation (Hof & Ashworth, 2010), and faster replies to emails (Huang, Lin, & Lin, 2011;Moore & Moore, 2004;Soucek & Moser, 2010). Combined, these effects produced better-written emails that were both clearer and more succinct, which reduced the overall financial impact on organizations who delivered such training. ...
Business writing is a much-studied area of corporate training and has the opportunity to enhance the organization's capabilities in a variety of ways. Previous research demonstrated post-training improvements in time spent on emails, better understanding by readers, and decreased costs associated with emails. This study evaluated a 1-hour business writing training workshop's impact on the organization using multiple perspectives, a sample writing analysis, and follow-up measurements to identify improvements. The purpose was to understand how the training changed the participants' email writing practices. Following the training, participants and their supervisors were pleased with the design and improved email effectiveness resulted. Introduction Background Over the last ten years, many studies explored email communications training effectiveness. Most of these studies focused on performance improvements with key themes related to: (a) decreased time spent on emails (Burgess, Jackson, & Edwards, 2004; Huang, Lin, & Lin, 2011; Moore & Moore, 2004; Soucek & Mouser, 2010), (b) better use of subject lines (Burgess, Jackson, & Edwards, 2004; Jackson & Culjak, 2006), (c) decreased message misunderstandings (Aguilar-Roca, William, Warrior, & O'Doud, 2009; Huang, Lin, & Lin, 2001; Jackson & Culjack, 2006; Moore & Moore, 2004), and (d) decreased costs associated with email use (Burgess, Jackson, & Edwards, 2004; Jackson & Culjack, 2006). The training themes in these studies included: (a) use of subject lines, (b) time management when dealing with emails, (c) formatting emails, and (d) writing for clarity. While some researchers found training participants did not take the class and subsequent skill assessment seriously (Pittenger, Miller, & Allison, 2006), others found that participants experienced increased perceptions of emailing abilities (Huang, Lin, & Lin, 2011), improved grammar, spelling and punctuation (Hof & Ashworth, 2010), and faster replies to emails (Huang, Lin, & Lin, 2011; Moore & Moore, 2004; Soucek & Moser, 2010). Combined, these effects produced better-written emails that were both clearer and more succinct, which reduced the overall financial impact on organizations who delivered such training. In this study, instructional designers created the Business Writing 101 Workshop to address a significant organizational business need – the need to write clear and concise emails to customers. Feedback from customers prompted senior leaders to seek out a learning solution in order to improve customer relations. The training development, delivery, and evaluation used these identified themes from the literature with the intent to achieve a positive return on investment for the organization. The training course was a one-hour, instructor-led course attended by 15-30 participants at a time. Each participant received a learning journal to take notes as he or she followed the facilitator's PowerPoint presentation. The presentation focused on the importance of a well-written email. Facilitators used dialogue and real-life examples to explore topics such as email structure, sentence structure, using words for maximum effect, positive versus negative tone, active versus passive verbs, avoiding jargon use, and proper spelling, punctuation, and capitalization. Facilitators showed participants how a G.R.E.A.T.
... Waste within public sector organisations, such as Further Education colleges, has become a central political issue and focus (HM Treasury, 2013). Neither is it something that is easy to justify in the present austerity climate with pressure on the public purse. ...
... Time spent is significantly higher than in studies carried out by Frazee (1996), Lyons (2002) and Silverstone (2010). However, it is lower than observed in studies carried out by Davenport (2005) and Huang et al. (2011). It is worth noting that in each of these cases there are differences in approach, sample size and scope. ...
Haslett, S. K., & Usei, C. B. (eds), 2018. Wales Journal of Learning and Teaching in Higher Education, Volume 1, Number 1, 1-80pp.
... A study of 239 workers by Sevinc and D'Ambra (2010), found that giving people a specific email management tactic significantly reduced perceptions of overload. However, in another interesting study of 416 participants by Huang et al (2011), a formal email training programme resulted in an improvement in people's perceived control over their email, and self-reported self-efficacy (even after three months), but actual time management behaviours were not directly impacted by the training. The authors conclude that it is better to use email training to build a sense of control and competence over email, which will then, in turn create strategy improvements and reduce strain. ...
... The strategies being used by workers (as reported in the studies returned from the SLR) that were found to have a positive relationship with different facets of wellbeing (see Outcomes column) are outlined in the table below, along with example studies reporting this in the SLR. Active checking and clearing of the email inbox Dabbish and Kraut, 2006;Kalman and Ravid, 2015;Pignata et al., 2015;Renaud et al., 2006 Implementing training tactics in better email use Sevinc and D'Ambra, 2010 High reported control Processing more email Barley et al., 2011 Receiving email training that boosts self-efficacy Huang et al., 2011 Catching up with email outside of working hours Middleton and Cukier, 2006;Pignata et al., 2015;Renaud et al., 2006;Wajcman and Rose, 2011;Waller and Ragsdell, 2012 Low reported strain Active email use (filing, responding, etc.) ...
Remit: The remit for this programme of research was therefore to provide Acas with an overview of the current state of empirical research into email-use and to outline validated findings from psychology, management and HCI research domains about: (i) when work email may cause problems for people, (ii) when work email has beneficial outcomes for people, (iii) whether there are particular groups that are more or less impacted by issues associated with work email, and, (iv) what strategies are associated with positive and negative outcomes, relating to how people deal with work email. Our primary aim in this research programme was therefore to identify themes that would explain the emergence of work email strategies, which have positive and negative repercussions for productivity (including work performance and goal achievement) and wellbeing (including engagement and strain). We also aimed to provide evidence-based learning points about which strategies might be adopted by workers and organisations, to optimise the positive impact of work email, and reduce potentially negative outcomes.
... Self-efficacy is a regulation resource that Park and Kim (2019) consider to be trainable. It has previously been associated with successful interventions to change work (Wang et al., 2018) and work-email (Hair, Renaud & Ramsey, 2007;Huang et al., 2011) behaviors. Second, we suggest that rationalized action plans be regularly presented to participants across the duration of the intervention program, to continue to remind participants of what they need to do, how they need to do it, and why. ...
We present a Work‐habit Intervention Model (WhIM) to explain and predict how to change work‐habits to be more effective. Habit change has primarily been researched within the health domain. The WhIM contributes a unique theoretical perspective by: (i) suggesting that work‐habit change requires a two‐stage process of exposure to regular rationalized plans and a stated intention to use these plans; and, (ii) defining effective work‐habit change in terms of improvements to both goal attainment and well‐being over time. Self‐regulatory resources are included as potential moderators of habit change. This approach implies that work‐habits (unlike health‐habits) are seldom constitutionally ‘good’ or ‘bad’, which means that change requires a clear rationale in terms of improving goal attainment and well‐being. The WhIM was evaluated in a 12‐month wait‐list intervention study designed to improve work‐email habits for workers in a UK organization (N = 127 T1; N = 58 T3; N = 46 all data). Findings were that the two‐stage process changed work‐email habits for those with higher levels of self‐efficacy, which predicted well‐being in terms of reduced negative affect (via perceived goal attainment). We outline theoretical and practical implications and encourage future research to refine the WhIM across a range of other work contexts. Workers need to regularly engage with rationalized plans of action and state their intention to use these, in order to change work‐email habits. Organizations should consider training workers to enhance their self‐efficacy prior to implementing a work‐email habit change intervention. Providing regular feedback about the impact of work‐email habit change on well‐being and goal attainment is likely to make the change sustainable in the long‐term.
... 720 öğrencinin vermiş olduğu geri dönütlerden elde edilen verilere göre Tablo 1'deki sonuçlar ortaya çıkmıştır [5]: Yukarıda aktarılan bilgiler ışığında internet ortamında en yoğun yapılan işlemlerden birinin "e-posta ile iletişim" olduğu söylenebilir. Bu araç, son 30 yılda özel bir internet uygulamasından genel iletişim aracına doğru gelişmiş [8] ve çalışma ve işbirliği şeklimizi değiştirerek milyonlarca insanın günlük yaşamının bir parçası haline gelmiştir [9]. Tıpkı kimlik numaraları gibi kişiye özel olan bu araç, sadece bireysel anlamda olmayıp aynı zamanda kurumsal anlamda da eşit derecede öneme sahiptir. ...
E-posta hesapları, her türlü işlemin dijital ortam üzerinden hızlı bir şekilde bitirilmesi noktasında her birey için oldukça önemlidir. Bireylere özgü olan bu araç sayesinde, iletişim halindeki taraflar arasında sağlıklı ve hızlı bir iletişim ağı oluşturmak mümkündür. Bu sayede, belki de günlerce sürecek işlemlerin tamamlanma süreleri azaltılabilmektedir. Bu avantaj, kurumlar açısından düşünüldüğünde, kurumlarda çalışan kişilerin hesap sahibi olma zorunluluğunu da beraberinde getirmektedir. Çünkü kurumlarda yapılan her türlü işin daha hızlı bir biçimde çözüme kavuşturulması amacıyla e-posta hesaplarının aktif kullanımı artık bir gereklilik haline gelmiştir. Kurumlarda çalışan kişilerin çok olmasından dolayı, bireylere e-posta hesabının verilmesi noktasında, sorumlu kişilerin iş yükü artabilmektedir. Bu çalışmada, kurumsal e-posta hesaplarının daha hızlı oluşturulabilmesi, bu hesapların kontrolünün daha rahat yapılabilmesi ve bu işlemlerden yetkili olan kişilerin iş yüklerinin hafifletilmesi amacıyla Kırklareli Üniversitesi Bilgi İşlem Daire Başkanlığı tarafından geliştirilmiş olan bir uygulamanın (KLUPOSTA) alt yapısı hakkında bilgiler aktarılmaktadır. E-posta hesabı işlemlerinin daha hızlı ve pratik bir şekilde gerçekleştirilebilmesi amacıyla bu çalışmada kullanılan alt yapının, farklı kurumların geliştirebilecekleri uygulamalara yön gösterebileceği düşünülmektedir.
... Email usage is deeply entrenched into the communication habits of employees within organizations. It has been associated with higher task accomplishment and life enrichment (Huang, Lin, & Lin, 2011) and has also given workers the ability to work anywhere at any time (Barley, Meyerson, & Grodal, 2011). However, the influence of email communication on employees has been equivocal. ...
Agile working practices involve connecting with new technologies in order to operate more flexibly, efficiently and responsively. Electronic mail (or email) is one technology that particularly enables this, owing to its anywhere, anytime, anyplace functionality. However, there is a paradox in the way that workers use work-email, with research reporting as many benefits as drawbacks to this ubiquitous tool. In this chapter, it is suggested that individual differences in personality, resources and goal-preferences can explain why such a paradox has emerged, and guidance is given as to how to tailor agile working to allow individuals to more effectively use work-email.
Email records are important business records. They consist of business emails that capture and provide evidence for official business related activities, events and transactions which have ongoing operational, legal or historical value. In contrast, there are other emails, known as ephemeral emails which serve little to no value at all for business and legal discovery processes. The study sought to establish the importance of email records for business related activities in six state universities. Informed by a mixed-methods methodology, this study was conducted as a survey of six state universities in Zimbabwe where a questionnaire was administered (N = 27) and interviews (N=22) were conducted with purposively sampled respondents. A major finding from the study discovered that nearly half as many of those emails in user mailboxes are only worth retaining as records against almost another 50% of ephemeral emails within the same users mailboxes. When quantitatively interpreted, this revealed the reality of excess ephemeral emails which were not worth retaining as records and the problem of users failing to effectively filter between non-record emails and email records for state university business. Furthermore, qualitative data from the interviews revealed a poor determination or knowledge among email users on how to selectively identify and manage emails as records ineffectively makes email records an obscure source of vital business communication of the state university. This paper recommends for the effective adoption of email policy in particular and email user training using the University of Wisconsin (2012) decision tree as starting points for identifying and maintaining email records which matter most in the state university workplace.
(the article is in Dutch)
English abstract:
This article provides an overview of the literature on time management. A model on time management is provided and an overview of recent research developments is given. Relatively few studies have been devoted to time management among the working population; instead students have been studied. Overall, time management has been found to affect study results favorably, but studies that have included employees show considerable variation in comparison to research on students. Perceived control and stress are related to time management, whereas the results on work performance are not clear-cut. It is probably better to consider time management in interaction with other variables to predict outcomes. Based upon the insights of this review, new developments are described, suggestions for future research are given, and the significance for practice is discussed.
It is well established in the psychology literature that personality predicts performance to some degree. However, personality neither solely nor directly predicts outcome. Rather, performance and outcome are unfolded through mediating constructs that are specific to the context. This study identified two constructs that mediate the relationship between proactivity and perceived control of time in e-mail use, and tested the model with data of 251 knowledge workers. The results show that proactivity predicts perceived control of time in e-mail use through both e-mail-specific time management behavior and e-mail self-efficacy. Further, greater e-mail self-efficacy leads to improved e-mail-specific time management behavior.
The purpose of this study was to examine whether time management behaviours moderated relations between stressors (role conflict, role overload, work-family conflict, and family-work conflict) and strain, as measured by scores on the General Health Questionnaire. It was predicted that use of time management behaviours would be negatively associated with strain. These relations, however, were expected to be mediated by feelings of control over time. It was further predicted that the use of time management behaviours would attenuate stressor-strain relations. Data collected from 525 employed men and women indicated, as predicted, that use of time management behaviours was negatively associated with strain. These relations were partially mediated by feelings of control over time. Moderator tests failed to provide support for time management behaviour as a moderator of stressor-strain relations. Implications of findings are discussed and future directions for time management research are suggested.
Postmodernism has brought about changing demands with respect to time in work organizations. While the impact of this has been given some attention at both the organizational and individual levels, far less has been given to a consideration of the extent to which individual differences might moderate the impact of such changes. In order to proceed with this line of enquiry it is necessary first to be able to measure individual differences related to time. This article through an analysis and synthesis of existing measures of individual attitudes/approaches to time, a subsequent qualitative study, and large quantitative survey study (n = 683), identifies a five-factor structure for time-related individual differences (Time Personality) and reports on the development of five complementary measurement scales: Leisure Time Awareness, Punctuality, Planning, Polychronicity and Impatience. The findings are discussed in the context of the role Time Personality might play in moderating the effects that differing organizational structures and changing work demands might have in organizational settings.
This meta-analysis (114 studies, k = 157, N = 21,616) examined the relationship between self-efficacy and work-related performance. Results of the primary meta-analysis indicated a significant weighted average correlation between self-efficacy and work-related performance, G (r+) = .38, and a significant within-group heterogeneity of individual correlations. To account for this variation, the authors conducted a 2-level theory-driven moderator analysis by partitioning the k sample of correlations first according to the level of task complexity (low, medium, and high), and then into 2 classes according to the type of study setting (simulated–lab vs. actual–field). New directions for future theory development and research are suggested, and practical implications of the findings are discussed.
Although the popular literature on time management claims that engaging in time management behaviors results in increased job performance and satisfaction and fewer job tensions, a theoretical framework and empirical examination are lacking. To address this deficiency, a process model of time management was proposed and tested. 353 employees in a variety of jobs completed several scales; supervisors provided performance ratings. Examination of the path coefficients in the model suggested that engaging in some time management behaviors may have beneficial effects on tensions and job satisfaction but not on job performance. Contrary to popular claims, time management training was not found to be effective. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Purpose
The purpose of this article is to provide an overview for those interested in the current state‐of‐the‐art in time management research.
Design/methodology/approach
This review includes 32 empirical studies on time management conducted between 1982 and 2004.
Findings
The review demonstrates that time management behaviours relate positively to perceived control of time, job satisfaction, and health, and negatively to stress. The relationship with work and academic performance is not clear. Time management training seems to enhance time management skills, but this does not automatically transfer to better performance.
Research limitations/implications
The reviewed research displays several limitations. First, time management has been defined and operationalised in a variety of ways. Some instruments were not reliable or valid, which could account for unstable findings. Second, many of the studies were based on cross‐sectional surveys and used self‐reports only. Third, very little attention was given to job and organizational factors. There is a need for more rigorous research into the mechanisms of time management and the factors that contribute to its effectiveness. The ways in which stable time management behaviours can be established also deserves further investigation.
Practical implications
This review makes clear which effects may be expected of time management, which aspects may be most useful for which individuals, and which work characteristics would enhance or hinder positive effects. Its outcomes may help to develop more effective time management practices.
Originality/value
This review is the first to offer an overview of empirical research on time management. Both practice and scientific research may benefit from the description of previous attempts to measure and test the popular notions of time management.
This meta-analysis (114 studies, k = 157, N = 21.616) examined the relationship between self-efficacy and work-related performance. Results of the primary meta-analysis indicated a significant weighted average correlation between self-efficacy and work-related performance, G(r+) = .38, and a significant within-group heterogeneity of individual correlations. To account for this variation, the authors conducted a 2-level theory-driven moderator analysis by partitioning the k sample of correlations first according to the level of task complexity (low, medium, and high), and then into 2 classes according to the type of study setting (simulated-lab vs. actual-field). New directions for future theory development and research are suggested, and practical implications of the findings are discussed.
Email is one oftl~ most successful computer applicmiom yet devised. Our empin~:al ct~ta show however, that althongh email was origiraUy designed as a c~nmunica/ons application, it is now used for ~tional funaions, that it was not designed for, such as tab management and persona/ afoOt/v/rig. We call this ernt~l oveHoad We demonstrate that email overload creates problems for personal information manageaa,cnt: users eden have cluttered inboxes cor~mining hundreds of n~:age~¢, incl~rling outstanding tasks, partially read documents and conversational threads. Furthermore,, user attemt:Xs to rationalise their inbox~ by ~ing are ~Ron unsuccessful, with the consequence that important rr~ges get overlooked, or "lost" in archives. We explain how em~l over/oad/ng arises and propose technical solutions to the problem.
The statistical tests used in the analysis of structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error are examined. A drawback of the commonly applied chi square test, in addition to the known problems related to sample size and power, is that it may indicate an increasing correspondence between the hypothesized model and the observed data as both the measurement properties and the relationship between constructs decline. Further, and contrary to common assertion, the risk of making a Type II error can be substantial even when the sample size is large. Moreover, the present testing methods are unable to assess a model's explanatory power. To overcome these problems, the authors develop and apply a testing system based on measures of shared variance within the structural model, measurement model, and overall model.
This study investigates the e-mail usage behavior of knowledge workers through an in-depth literature review and a focus group discussion. It finds that people are ruled by e-mail, but think otherwise. In daily usage, many of the weaknesses of e-mail are converted into strengths, and having an information system background does not necessarily lead to sophistication in using e-mail tools. Further, users regard e-mail as a print medium rather than an interactive medium, and it has to a great extent replaced face-to-face communication in the workplace. E-mail users use the medium's carbon copy and forwarding features habitually and not out of necessity, and they do not usually handle work-related and personal e-mail messages separately. Finally, users seek opportunities to learn about e-mail functionality out of convenience, but these are not attained with ease. A contrast between these findings and conventional wisdom is drawn.
In this article, we provide guidance for substantive researchers on the use of structural equation modeling in practice for theory testing and development. We present a comprehensive, two-step modeling approach that employs a series of nested models and sequential chi-square difference tests. We discuss the comparative advantages of this approach over a one-step approach. Considerations in specification, assessment of fit, and respecification of measurement models using confirmatory factor analysis are reviewed. As background to the two-step approach, the distinction between exploratory and confirmatory analysis, the distinction between complementary approaches for theory testing versus predictive application, and some developments in estimation methods also are discussed.
Textbook treatments of training evaluation typically equate evaluation with the measurement of change and focus on formal experimental design as the mechanism for controlling threats to the inference that the training intervention produced whatever change was observed. This paper notes that two separate questions may be of interest: How much change has occurred? and, Has a target performance level been reached? We show that the evaluation mechanisms needed to answer the two types of questions are markedly different, and discuss circumstances under which an evaluator's interests will focus on one, the other, or both of these questions. We then discuss alternatives to formal design as mechanisms for reducing various threats to validity, and discuss trade-offs between internal validity and statistical conclusion validity.
This article reports on the development of a concept of personal initiative (PI). Personal initiative is a work behavior defined as self-starting and proactive that overcomes barriers to achieve a goal. It is argued that future workplaces will require people to show more PI than before, and that current concepts of performance and organizational behavior are more reactive than desirable. The facets of PI are developed along the lines of goals, information collection, plans, and feedback. Personal initiative enables people to deal with job difficulties more actively, for example, with stressors, unemployment, career changes, or becoming an entrepreneur. High PI changes the work situation of employees and relates to success as an entrepreneur. Personal initiative is seen to sharpen and partly modify the concepts of reciprocal determinism, organizational citizenship behavior, innovation, entrepreneurship, work performance, intrinsic motivation, and self-regulation.
In this article, we provide guidance for substantive researchers on the use of structural equation modeling in practice for theory testing and development. We present a comprehensive, two-step modeling approach that employs a series of nested models and sequential chi-square difference tests. We discuss the comparative advantages of this approach over a one-step approach. Considerations in specification, assessment of fit, and respecification of measurement models using confirmatory factor analysis are reviewed. As background to the two-step approach, the distinction between exploratory and confirmatory analysis, the distinction between complementary approaches for theory testing versus predictive application, and some developments in estimation methods also are discussed.
The statistical tests used in the analysis of structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error are examined. A drawback of the commonly applied chi square test, in addition to the known problems related to sample size and power, is that it may indicate an increasing correspondence between the hypothesized model and the observed data as both the measurement properties and the relationship between constructs decline. Further, and contrary to common assertion, the risk of making a Type II error can be substantial even when the sample size is large. Moreover, the present testing methods are unable to assess a model's explanatory power. To overcome these problems, the authors develop and apply a testing system based on measures of shared variance within the structural model, measurement model, and overall model.
Alternative training methods on self-efficacy and mastery of a computer software program were compared in the context of a field experiment involving 108 university managers. A behavioral modeling approach relative to a tutorial approach yielded higher self-efficacy scores and higher performance on an objective measure of computer software mastery. Participants scoring high in self-efficacy performed significantly better than participants with low computer self-efficacy scores. Participants low in self-efficacy reported greater confidence in their ability to master the software training in the modeling compared with the tutorial conditions. Participants in the modeling training reported more effective cognitive working styles, more ease with the task, more satisfaction with training, and less frustration compared with participants in tutorial training. Implications for training interventions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This experiment examined the influence of training method and trainee age on performance during training in the acquisition of computer software skills. A behavioral modeling training method yielded consistently superior computer software mastery compared with a nonmodeling approach. Older trainees exhibited significantly lower performance than did younger trainees in both the modeling and the nonmodeling training conditions. Findings are discussed in terms of strategies for overcoming older worker technological obsolescence.
Using 414 business undergraduates at two universities in the US, a 28-item computer self-efficacy scale is validated and used to examine the relationship between (a) training and computer self-efficacy and (b) user attitudes and computer self-efficacy. Survey responses were collected both at the beginning and end of an introductory computer course. A principal factor analysis of the computer self-efficacy scale supported a conceptually meaningful four-factor solution with high alpha reliabilities. Results suggest that training significantly improved the computer self-efficacy of males and females in this study for all factors. Training programs seemed more effective for male and female respondents with positive attitudes toward computers. Training programs seemed less effective for respondents with negative attitudes toward computers. Implications of these findings are discussed and research opportunities described.
In an increasingly competitive business environment, organisations have sought to increase productivity and reduce costs. The consequences of this for many employees include increased workloads, longer working hours and greater time pressures which, the evidence suggests, are linked to stress, high rates of absence and turnover. At the same time there has been an increasing emphasis on the desirability of achieving work/life balance for individuals. In pursuit of these apparently conflicting demands it has been argued that individuals must work 'smarter' rather than harder and that individuals need to develop the ability to manage their time effectively to achieve this. Yet, previous research on time management training has been limited in scope, open to criticism in terms of research approach and inconclusive in assessing the effectiveness of such training. This paper reports the results of a longitudinal and triangulated evaluation of time management training undertaken in a variety of organisational settings, which sought to establish whether the training was effective, not only from the viewpoint of the participants, but also from the perspective of their managers. The evidence, collected using quantitative and qualitative approaches, suggests that although such training is affected by context and motivation, it does have a positive impact for the majority of participants.
The purpose of this study was to examine the moderating effect of self-efficacy for the relationship between training method and newcomers' anxiety and stress reactions. The two methods of training examined were formal orientation and training and tutorial training. A sample of 198 newly-hired entry-level accountants completed a questionnaire following their first few weeks of entry. The results indicated that self-efficacy was negatively related to anxiety but not stress. However, a positive relationship between anxiety and stress suggested that self-efficacy was indirectly related to stress through its relationship with anxiety. Further, self-efficacy was found to moderate the relationship between training method and anxiety. Formal orientation and training was related to lower anxiety for newcomers with low technical self-efficacy. The opposite result was found for tutorial training. Tutorial training was related to higher anxiety for newcomers with low academic self-efficacy. The relationship between training and anxiety did not vary by training method for newcomers with high self-efficacy. The research and practical implications of a self-efficacy theory framework are discussed for the training, socialization, and adjustment of newcomers.
The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) has been widely used to predict user acceptance and use based on perceived ease of use and usefulness. However, in order to design effective training interventions to improve user acceptance, it is necessary to better understand the antecedents and determinants of key acceptance constructs. In this research, we focus on understanding the determinants of perceived ease of use. Data from three experiments spanning 108 subjects and six different systems supported our hypothesis that an individual's perception of a particular system's ease of use is anchored to her or his general computer self-efficacy at all times, and objective usability has an impact on ease of use perceptions about a specific system only after direct experience with the system. In addition to being an important research issue in user acceptance research, understanding antecedents of perceived ease of use is also important from a practical standpoint since several systems in which millions of dollars are invested are rejected because of poor user interfaces. Moreover, the actual underlying problem might be low computer self-efficacy of the target user group. In such cases, training interventions aimed at improving computer self-efficacy of users may be more effective than improved interface design for increasing user acceptance.
Criteria for evaluating structural equation models with latent variables are defined, critiqued, and illustrated. An overall
program for model evaluation is proposed based upon an interpretation of converging and diverging evidence. Model assessment
is considered to be a complex process mixing statistical criteria with philosophical, historical, and theoretical elements.
Inevitably the process entails some attempt at a reconcilation between so-called objective and subjective norms.
This study used a path analysis of longitudinal data collected from 75 manufacturing employees participating in a computer training course, to test a model of the intrapersonal processes impacting computer-related performance. Gender, computer experience, and attributional style were found to be predictive of computer attitudes, which were in turn related to computer efficacy, task-specific performance expectations, and post-performance anxiety. Computer training was effective in raising user efficacy levels and improving computer performance. In addition, post-training efficacy was predictive of subsequent computer performance. Finally, performance outcomes and future performance expectations were predictive of users’ affective reactions.
Information Technology has assumed a role of growing importance in both private and public sector organizations during the 1980's. It is no longer the private preserve of small groups of computer specialists; rather, the office automation and end-user computing trends are placing information technology into the hands of workers at all levels and in areas. The emergence of the business microcomputer has played a central role in this trend. This study investigates microcomputer usage among professionals and managers. Microcomputer was found to be related to computer experience and anxiety about its impact. The results also indicate that a strong, significant, and positive relationship exists between participation in computer training programs and MIS success, as measured by microcomputer usage.
This article reports on the effects of training on Internet self-efficacy and computer user attitudes. Using a 17-item Internet self-efficacy scale and a 20-item computer user attitude scale in a sample of 189, the relationship between training and computer user attitude and Internet self-efficacy is examined. Survey responses were collected at both the beginning and end of an introductory computer course. Results suggest that training significantly improved Internet self-efficacy for males and females. Respondents with ‘high’ and ‘low’ attitude toward computers seem to equally benefit from training programs. However, respondents with ‘high’ attitude toward computers had higher self-efficacy scores than respondents with ‘low’ attitude toward computers. Training programs did not seem to influence attitudes toward computer usage for males or females. Implications of these findings are discussed and further research opportunities described.
This report investigates the determinants of a successful Computer-Aided Software Engineering (CASE) tool implementation. Success was defined as a perceived increase in both the quality of software produced and the productivity of the software developers as a result of the introduction of technology. To investigate the effects of certain environmental conditions on the relative success, a survey was mailed to two hundred members of a specific CASE tool user group. Approximately thirty-five percent responded. The findings indicate that an environment which includes the enforcement of a development methodology and use of metrics contribute to perceived improvements in quality when using CASE. Also, use of metrics, use of consultants, and formal training contribute to perceived improvements in developer productivity. Apparently, the presence of each of these environmental conditions significantly contributes to a successful CASE implementation and is, therefore, a 'determinant' of a successful implementation strategy.
This study investigated influences on employee self-efficacy of computer technologies resulting from computer training programs that were intended to meet individual and organization objectives for university personnel. Subsequent to training, an assessment of employee computer technology self-efficacy was necessary for determining self-efficacious duration and the usefulness of technical education. A descriptive survey design was used to gather data from a population of 2597 university employees. Results indicated employee computer technology self-efficacy levels remained stable for a 2.5-year period. In addition, select subscales of the variables previous classroom computer training and computer use required on the job predicted computer technology self-efficacy. Frequency of computer use, home computer use, and training responsibility were also noted to influence the transfer of training process as it pertains to computer technology self-efficacy. Interaction relationships were also discovered among certain disciplines of computer use and degree of computer use. Implications of the study are relevant to employee placement and workplace computer education needs.
The present study compared the effects of training method and computer anxiety on learners' computer self-efficacy and learning performance. The study results indicated that the behavior-modeling training method yielded consistently superior performance and higher computer self-efficacy. The significant two-way interaction confirmed the importance of person–situation adaptation. In addition, the adaptation is task dependent. Findings of the study contribute to an expanded understanding of the factors that influence learning performance and self-efficacy and also have important implications for the management of information systems. Future research directions conclude the paper.
Two studies investigated the validity of computer self-efficacy and computer anxiety scales when administered to an Internet sample. In the first study, it was found that existing measures of computer self-efficacy and anxiety, originally developed through paper-and-pencil methods with more traditional samples, were not adequately equivalent when administered to a sample that was recruited and tested via the Internet. In the second study, the existing measures were adapted, and new items were developed to create new measures of computer self-efficacy and anxiety. The relationship of these new measures to computer and Internet use behaviors provided evidence for validity. Confidence and aversion were related to computer and Internet use suggesting that these new measures are adequate for capturing confidence and aversion towards computers when administered to an Internet sample.
Information system researchers have recently devoted considerable attention to the concept of computer self-efficacy in order to understand computer user behavior and system use. This article reports on the development and examination of a contingency model of computer and Internet self-efficacy. User attitude and computer anxiety were assumed to influence the development of computer and Internet self-efficacy. Measures of user attitude, computer anxiety, computer self-efficacy, and Internet self-efficacy were used in a university environment to collect 347 responses at both the beginning and end of an introductory computer course. Results suggested that training significantly improved computer and Internet self-efficacy. Respondents with ‘favorable’ attitudes toward computers improved their self-efficacy significantly more than respondents with ‘unfavorable’ attitudes. Respondents with ‘low’ computer anxiety improved their self-efficacy significantly more than respondents with ‘high’ computer anxiety. The interaction effect between attitude and anxiety was significant for computer self-efficacy scores but not for Internet self-efficacy scores. The implications of these findings are discussed.
This paper describes a series of interviews that focus on the ways that professional office workers use electronic mail to manage their daily work. A number of implications for the design of flexible mail systems are discussed.
Two principal claims are made. First, electronic mail is more than just a communication system. In addition to supporting information management, it provides a mechanism for supporting a variety of time management and task management activities. Some people are prioritizers, concentrating on the problem of managing incoming messages. Others are archivers, concentrating on how to archive information for subsequent use. Similarly, some people use mail to delegate tasks, while others perform tasks delegated to them by others electronically.
The second claim is that use of electronic mail is strikingly diverse, although not infinitely so. Individuals vary in their preferences, both in their general willingness to manage their work electronically and in their specific preferences along the dimensions described above. This diversity implies that one's own experiences with electronic mail are unlikely to provide sufficient understanding of other's uses of mail. Mail designers should thus seek flexible primitives that capture the important dimensions and provide flexibility for a wide range of users.
In this study, 308 small business executives were interviewed and asked to identify the single most important thing they had learned about managing the use of information technology (IT) in their firms. The most common response was staying current/keeping up with changing IT. The training/education of end users, the ability to get information quickly, and accurate data were also given as things the executives had learned. The small business executives interviewed were from a variety of industries including the computer industry, the health care industry, engineering, consulting, manufacturing, insurance, accounting, and law. Ninety-two percent of the executives had acquired new hardware and 89.9% had acquired new software for their firms since their firms had first started using computers. In approximately 90% of the firms, the number of users of computers had increased and the majority of the new users were classified as both managerial and clerical. Again, approximately 90% of the firms had increased the number of functions for which computers were used within their firms with applications in accounting having the greatest increase.
This paper describes a series of interviews that examine the ways that professional office workers use electronic mail to manage their daily work. The purpose is to generate hypotheses for future research. A number of implications for the design of flexible mail systems are discussed.
Two principal claims are made. First, the use of electronic mail is strikingly diverse, although not infinitely so. Individuals vary both in objective measures of mail use and in preferred strategies for managing work electronically. Feelings of control are similarly diverse and are related to the size of the user's inbox, numbers of folders, and subscriptions to distribution lists. This diversity implies that one's own experiences with electronic mail are unlikely to provide sufficient understanding of other's uses of mail. Mail designers should thus seek flexible primitives that capture the important dimensions of use and provide flexibility for a wide range of users.
The second claim is that electronic mail is more than just a communication system. Users archive messages for subject retrieval, prioritize messages to sequence work activities, and delegate tasks via mail. A taxonomy of work management is proposed in which mail is used for information management, time management, and task management activities. Directions for future research are suggested.
Overwhelmed by the organizational imperative to collect every kind of information available, and finding technical solutions generally miss the point, knowledge workers need to improve their personal capacity for inquiry.
Unified Activity Management (UAM) provides support to people in e-business organizations. All people involved in the business processes can see Avtivity descriptions and they can modify and extend the descriptions. The main objectives of the shared Activity representation are to organize work around activities instead of tools and artifacts and to provide a singleplace for people to manage the whole range of their activities. It also helps capture, reuse, and evolve best practices in activity pattern, and integrates informal business activities and workflow-driven business processes. The Seamantic Web is an ideal platform to provide the flexibility, extensibility, and data integration necessary to support the inherent viability and adaptability of business activities. The default mode of UAM is to support flexible and open interactions between people.
This paper discusses the role of individuals' beliefs about their abilities to competently use computers (computer self-efficacy) in the determination of computer use. A survey of Canadian managers and professionals was conducted to develop and validate a measure of computer self-efficacy and to assess both its impacts and antecedents. Computer self- efficacy was found to exert a significant influence on individuals' expectations of the outcomes of using computers, their emotional reactions to computers (affect and anxiety), as well as their actual computer use. An individual's self-efficacy and outcome expecta- tions were found to be positively influenced by the encouragement of others in their work group, as well as others' use of computers. Thus, self-efficacy represents an important individual trait, which moderates organizational influences (such as encouragement and support) on an individual's decision to use computers. Understanding self-efficacy, then, is important to the successful implementation of systems in organizations. The existence of a reliable and valid measure of self-efficacy makes assessment possible and should have implications for organizational support, training, and implementation.
Despite the recent empirical interest and advances in research with regard to the construct of computer self-efficacy (CSE), the results obtained to date have, in some cases, been either equivocal or contradictory. We suggest that such results may be attributable to a general lack of attention to the dynamic, multileveled, and multifaceted nature of the computer self-efficacy construct. We offer examples from the extant CSE literature suggesting weaknesses in existing measures of the construct as well as issues associated with manipulations and the need for control of antecedent and consequent factors directly associated with CSE. The objectives of this paper are: (1) to provide a thorough review of the extant literature related to CSE; (2) to present an integrated model of empirical findings, constructed from a wide variety of disciplines, that comprehensively defines the multifaceted nature of task-specific CSE in terms of its antecedent, consequent, and moderating factors; (3) to present a conceptual model of CSE at the general versus task-specific level; and (4) to use the two models of CSE to proffer guidelines for both measurement and manipulation of the construct. Through our review of the CSE literature, we offer several thoughts regarding the nature of the empirical results obtained to date. The combined objectives serve as a basis for establishing a foundation upon which future research investigating the CSE construct can be based.
While computer training is widely recognized as an essential contributor to the productive use of computers in organizations, very little research has focused on identifying the processes through which training operates, and the relative effectiveness of different methods for such training. This research examined the training process, and compared a behavior modeling training program, based on Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura 1977, 1978, 1982, 1986), to a more traditional, lecture-based program. According to Social Cognitive Theory, watching others performing a behavior, in this case interacting with a computer system, influences the observers' perceptions of their own ability to perform the behavior, or self-efficacy, and the expected outcomes that they perceive, as well as providing strategies for effective performance. The findings provide only partial support for the research model. Self-efficacy exerted a strong influence on performance in both models. In addition, behavior modeling was found to be more effective than the traditional method for training in Lotus 1-2-3, resulting in higher self-efficacy and higher performance. For WordPerfect, however, modeling did not significantly influence performance. This finding was unexpected, and several possible explanations are explored in the discussion. Of particular surprise were the negative relationships found between outcome expectations and performance. Outcome expectations were expected to positively influence performance, but the results indicated a strong negative effect. Measurement limitations are presented as the most plausible explanation for this result, but further research is necessary to provide conclusive explanations. Copyright © 1995, Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences.