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Development, Control, and Evaluation of an Actuated Car Door
Abstract
Actuated car doors are a promising way to increase the convenience of access to cars. We propose an advanced actuation and control concept which can easily be integrated into conventional car doors. By utilizing a linear, nonbackdrivable actuator and various sensors, both automatic and manual door operations are enabled. A discrete state controller ensures a safe operation of the door, including automatic opening and closing. The realization of a supportive, high-quality haptic interaction with the car door for the manual operation is the principal part of our work. Due to the impracticality of a direct measurement of the user interaction force at a car door, we chose impedance control to render the desired dynamics. The impedance was designed to provide a convenient, intuitive, and safe manual handling of the door. We implemented and tested four different impedance control schemes, of which impedance control with actuator force feedback performed best. Two experimental evaluations with 16 and 27 participants revealed a predominant approval of the actuated car door.
... For example, those emphasizing on tactile stimulation include touch screens [16], mobile devices [19], and gaming [12]. Those utilizing kinesthetic feedback covers robotic teleoperation [9], med ical simulation [3], virtual prototyping [2] [21], switch design [4], knob design [13], and vehicle door [20], to name a few. In par ticular, the fact that haptics is being applied to consumer products, beyond those for special needs, is truly encouraging. ...
... By the second law of motion, the inertial torque is computed by: (20) where I is the moment of inertia and e is the angular acceleration of the door. ...
... This is expected since our haptic interface has a relatively large mechanical impedance due to the large motor and the heavy arm. A standard solution for this transparency problem is to compensate for the device dynamics us ing control-theoretic methods, e.g., impedance control for car door actuation [20]. Instead, we hastened to find the best parameters by manual tuning, as was done by some earlier studies (e.g., [15]), and evaluate the perceptual performance of the system, motivated by the initial nature and restricted by the period of this project. ...
Recently, haptics has begun to impact consumer products, e.g., mobile phones and automobiles. In this paper, we introduce one such new application, that is, haptic simulation of refrigerator operation, and present an initial prototype for the front door. A one degree-of-freedom haptic interface is designed and built to provide torque feedback of the front door. Simulation software consisting of system control, graphic renderer, and haptic renderer are also developed. For haptic rendering, the motion dynamics of a refrigerator door is modeled, and the haptic renderer is implemented based on the dynamics model. Lastly, we report a user experiment carried out to assess the perceived similarity between simulated and real door operations, i.e., the realism, which shows promising results.
... For medium inclines, this specific problem has recently been overcome by employing a (purely mechanical) variable door detent. Strolz et al. [17] considered that these doors can be quite uncomfortable for users in some cases. So, they proposed a new design that uses an actuator instead of a mechanical door detent, which can increase the comfort and safety of the Conventional car doors with only one non-actuating degree of freedom (DOF) are dominant in the market. ...
... For medium inclines, this specific problem has recently been overcome by employing a (purely mechanical) variable door detent. Strolz et al. [17] considered that these doors can be quite uncomfortable for users in some cases. So, they proposed a new design that uses an actuator instead of a mechanical door detent, which can increase the comfort and safety of the door when operating. ...
The design of the space hatch door mechanisms is crucial in the aerospace field, impacting not only durability and reliability but also the life safety of astronauts during space missions. This review extensively researches vehicle doors and hatches in civil and military systems across various environments, including land, sea, deep sea, aviation, aerospace, and extreme conditions. Specially, it focuses on the structural design of hatches and related mechanisms in civil aviation and military aerospace environments, such as opening and closing mechanisms, release mechanisms, locking mechanisms, sealing mechanisms, and the ergonomic design of door structures. The review highlights the integration of bionic design principles with hatch mechanisms to explore future solutions. By systematically examining these aeras, this review addresses the lack of comprehensive studies in previous reviews, which often overlook the interconnectivity and applicability of hatch mechanisms across different fields. The absence of such holistic reviews has led to fragmented knowledge and missed opportunities for cross-industry innovation. This review aims to fill these gaps by providing a wide range of design solutions and offering insights that can enhance the development of more reliable, efficient, and safe hatch mechanisms in aerospace and other high-stakes environments.
... In [3] Badescu et al. describe the development of a rotary haptic knob to control several vehicular instruments usually provided with different haptic feedbacks. In [4] Strolz et al. describe how to actuate car doors and add the haptic feedback. Among those designed to add the sense of touch to VR simulations there are examples of specific 1DOF devices built to reproduce doors for cars [5] or refrigerators [6], and knobs to use as appliance interfaces [7]. ...
The paper describes the design and preliminary virtual testing of OSHap, an open-source low cost 2DOF haptic interface. The aim of the research is to create a mechatronic platform for haptic interaction based mainly on cheap and open source components. The results will be distributed freely in order to provide guidelines for expert users to develop their own haptic interface. Both the mechanical design philosophy and the control electronics are hereby discussed together with a preliminary testing made by using virtual prototyping tools. The kinematic layout is based on a serial double joint scheme. This choice is claimed to be the less expensive one, inasmuch as tolerances do not have to be narrow as for the parallel systems. The system also allows future users to tune dimensions (and relative workspace) easily. The interface is admittance controlled for maximizing the transparency with low cost drives. The device is based on the Intel Galileo open-source development board: this board embeds a powerful chip-sets that enables us to perform real-time 2DOF control tasks that are hardly reachable with the most common open source electronic platforms. All the choices listed above are discussed and evaluated, with focus on performance-to-cost ratio.
This study aims to develop a system to prevent accidents occurring due to footboard travelling in buses. Tragedies resulting from footboard travelling in buses are one of the prominent examples of road accidents. A 16 year old student was travelling on the footboard of an over crowded MTC (Metropolitan Transport Corporation) bus at Velachery, Chennai, in September, 2010. The youngster was crushed to death under the wheels of the bus when he slipped and fell down. In another incident, a speeding bus, having passengers hanging on the footboard was hit by a lorry on Rajiv Gandhi Salai, Chennai, in December, 2012. Four students were fatally caught between the bus and the lorry. The basic principle behind the working of the proposed system is to stop the bus from moving when someone stands on the footboard. Even though automatic doors are available, the negligence of the bus drivers to close the door before starting the bus makes the automatic doors moot. But the system ensures that the bus does not move unless the foot board has no passengers and more importantly, only when the doors are closed. In this way, human interference is completely removed there by reducing the number of deaths drastically.
The paper describes the issues related to the implementation and the control of a low cost 1DOF haptic device. Arduino, which has been widely adopted in the interaction design schools as a means to produce low cost, low-fi and rapid prototypes of interactive systems, has been used here as an alternative to more performing electronic control boards to control a DC motor and simulate a haptic knob. The idea is to explore the possibility of creating simple prototypes of haptic devices before building the final product. At this stage we have explored the implementation of a simple haptic knob, trying to identify the main issues. In particular, some control strategies have been used for the motor, and pros and cons are described in the paper.
Virtual prototyping of car doors enhanced with hap- tic feedback is a promising way to decrease the number of phys- ical prototypes. We clarify, correct, summarize, and extend our previous work on the haptic simulation of car doors. A funda- mental issue is the derivation of the performance specification of a task-optimized haptic interface, which is based on the knowledge of the typical user interaction with a car door and a comprehensive model of the dynamics of a rotatory car door. We reason that a direct drive with a high torque output (≥ 100 N · m) and a high control bandwidth has to be used. Consequently, we created a backlash-free very stiff device providing a safe and high-fidelity haptic rendering. Finally, we conducted an extensive user study with 17 participants. An important result is that the haptic sim- ulation can be reliably used to evaluate different door concepts if the difference between them is larger than 5 N · m. Furthermore, the participants did not like a high effort for closing the door, while both a low and a medium effort are appreciated. This is in accordance with the heuristic findings of the automotive industry, which shows the effectiveness of our virtual prototyping approach. Index Terms—Automotive, car door, direct drive (DD), evalua- tion, haptic device, haptic rendering, robotics, virtual prototyping.
Tightly coupled parallel applications are increasingly run in Grid environments. Unfortunately, on many Grid sites the ability of machines to create or accept network connections is severely limited by firewalls, network address translation (NAT) or non-routed networks. Multi homing further com- plicates connection setup and machine identification. Al- though ad-hoc solutions exist for some of these problems, it is usually up to the application's user to discover the cause of the connectivity problems and find a solution. In this paper we describe SmartSockets,1 a communication library that lifts this burden by automatically discovering the con- nectivity problems and solving them with as little support from the user as possible.
Actuated car doors with more than one degree of freedom are a desirable means to boost the convenience of the access to cars. This paper outlines the problems connected with providing an intuitive, comfortable and safe operation of such doors. An advanced control system is proposed that overcomes these problems. First, a vision system for the monitoring of the workspace of the door is described. The data gathered is utilized by a collision avoidance method, which enables a safe operation of the car door. Second, a method for the support of the manual handling of the door is provided, which is based on predefined convenient paths for the specific kinematics of the door. Finally, the proposed control system is applied to a virtual car door, with successful results.
We apply sensitivity analysis to the design and control of force transmission systems. With this approach, the effect of the values of the system parameters on the response can be investigated: transmission ratio, sensor placement, damping and allowable load variation. It is found that feedbackmust be applied to reduce the sensitivity of the system response to the load. Based on these observations, a loop shaped feedback compensator design is proposed. Such compensators can compensate for the nonlinear behavior of the transmissions due to friction, while exhibiting good disturbance rejection and robustness. This is achieved without detailed knowledge of friction behavior and without measurement nor estimation of velocity. Experimental results using a test bench are discussed. 1 Introduction There is some freedom in the design of force transmission systems. The question arises of how to choose certain design parameters to improve performance: transmission ratio, sensor placement, dampi...
Actuated car doors with a force-based control are promising to increase the convenience of ingress and egress. They presuppose the determination of the interaction force between user and car door. In this work, for the first time, it is discussed which sensor classes meet the demands arising with this. The measurement of the interaction force is studied by evaluating the performance of strain gages, foil sensors and an acceleration applied to a car door test bed. The results lead to sensor concepts which are reviewed based on technical and financial criteria. Our final recommendation is to use an acceleration sensor combined with a few additional sensors.
This paper provides an analytical overview of the dynamics involved in force control. Models are developed which demonstrate, for the one-axis explicit force control case, the effects on system closed-loop bandwidth of: a) robot system dynamics that are not usually considered in the controller design; b) drive-train and task nonlinearities; and c) actuator and controller dynamics. The merits and limitations of conventional solutions are weighed, and some new solutions are proposed. Conclusions are drawn which give insights into the relative importance of the effects discussed.
In this report a classification and analysis of haptic control schemes is given. Whereas standard impedance control algorithms result in a reduction but no explicit shaping of the impedance error caused by the device natural dynamics the admittance control approach aims at forming the closed-loop inertia. The analysis goes along with a set of hardware experiments for performance evaluation of haptic control schemes. In case of admittance control with inner position control loop the results indicate a large benefit of acceleration feedforward. Moreover, the performance of ad-mittance control does not seem to be directly connected to the accuracy of the inner loop control possibly explaining the little advantage observed for advanced position control algorithms considering the nonlinear device dynamics when compared to approximate solutions. Frequency response measurements show that the inclusion of force feedback can substantially increase the force bandwidth of haptic interfaces. The closed-loop bandwidth provided by impedance control schemes, in particular when using derivative action in the force control law, has been found to be superior to the frequency response of admittance control with loop closure on position.
This paper provides an analytical overview of the dynamics involved in force control. Models are developed which demonstrate, for the one-axis explicit force control case, the effects on system closed-loop bandwidth of a) robot system dynamics that are not usually considered in the controller design; b) drive-train and task nonlinearities; and c) actuator and controller dynamics. The merits and limitations of conventional solutions are weighed, and some new solutions are proposed. Conclusions are drawn which give insights into the relative importance of the effects discussed.
The authors propose hybrid control of force and position without a
force sensor. The proposed hybrid control system uses both the motion
control method based on a H ∞ acceleration
controller and a force control method based on the reaction force
estimation system. This system uses a position sensor signal and an
estimated value of reaction force, instead of the force sensor. The
H ∞ acceleration controller realizes a fine and
fast motion control. The proposed hybrid control was implemented in a
three-degree-of-freedom direct drive robot manipulator. The test results
are presented
Friction compensation is a broad area that has recently been surveyed in [3]. The survey considers over 250 references from the journals of controls, tribology, lubrication engineering, acoustics and general engineering and physics and is perhaps 20 times too large to fit in this conference paper and its companion. Rather than trating one or a few topics to the neglect of many others; this paper is composed as an outline of topics literature references important for the analysis and compensation of servos with friction.
Tribology is the science of friction and wear. In tribology, long effort has been devoted to the study of the physics and dynamics of friction. Controls is concerned with the dynamics of servo machines, but the friction models used for controls analysis are often very basic. This paper presents a brief outline of tribological results important for control.
Easy operation of vehicle functionality is an important distinguishing mark for competitiveness. Recently, several approaches are presented in order to assist the entry for passengers. In this paper a novel vehicle door is proposed that offers useful functionalities and increases the passengers' comfort. Based on a mechatronic door system, containing an environment sensor system, a semi-active actuator and a suitable control algorithm, features like a door protection, a variable detent position of the door and get-out assistance is realized by the suggested approach.
While considerable progress has been made in friction compensation, this is, apparently, the first survey on the topic. In particular, it is the first to bring to the attention of the controls community the important contributions from the tribology, lubrication and physics literatures. By uniting these results with those of the controls community, a set of models and tools for friction compensation is provided which will be of value to both research and application engineers.The successful design and analysis of friction compensators depends heavily upon the quality of the friction model used, and the suitability of the analysis technique employed. Consequently, this survey first describes models of machine friction, followed by a discussion of relevant analysis techniques and concludes with a survey of friction compensation methods reported in the literature. An overview of techniques used by practising engineers and a bibliography of 280 papers is included.
In this paper, a force estimation method is proposed for force
control without force sensor. A disturbance observer is applied to each
joint of an n degrees of freedom manipulator to obtain a simple
equivalent robot dynamics being represented as an n independent double
integrator system. To estimate the output of disturbance observer due to
internal torque, the disturbance observer output estimator (DOOE) is
designed, where uncertain parameters of the robot manipulator are
adjusted by the gradient method to minimize the performance index which
is defined as the quadratic form of the error signal between the output
of disturbance observer and that of DOOE. When the external force is
exerted, the external force is estimated by the difference between the
output of disturbance observer and DOOE. A force controller is designed
for force feedback control employing the estimated force signal. Several
numerical examples and experimental results are illustrated for a 2-axis
direct drive robot manipulator
In 1960, R.E. Kalman published his famous paper describing a recursive
solution to the discrete-data linear filtering problem. Since that
time, due in large part to advances in digital computing, the Kalman
filter has been the subject of extensive research and application,
particularly in the area of autonomous or assisted navigation.
The Kalman filter is a set of mathematical equations that provides
an efficient computational (recursive) means to estimate the state
of a process, in a way that minimizes the mean of the squared error.
The filter is very powerful in several aspects: it supports estimations
of past, present, and even future states, and it can do so even when
the precise nature of the modeled system is unknown.
The purpose of this paper is to provide a practical introduction to
the discrete Kalman filter. This introduction includes a description
and some discussion of the basic discrete Kalman filter, a derivation,
description and some discussion of the extended Kalman filter, and
a relatively simple (tangible) example with real numbers & results.
Typescript. Thesis (M.S.)--Washington State University, 1986. Includes bibliographical references (leaves [70]-71).
This article discusses the motion control of such manipulators. Figure 1: Puma Robot Manipulator Robot manipulators are basically multi--degree--of--freedom positioning devices. The robot, as the "plant to be controlled", is a multi--input/multi--output, highly coupled, nonlinear mechatronic system. The main challenges in the motion control problem are the complexity of the dynamics, and uncertainties, both parametric and dynamic. Parametric uncertainties arise from imprecise knowledge of the kinematics and dynamics, while dynamic uncertainties arise from joint and link flexibility, actuator dynamics, friction, sensor noise, and unknown environment dynamics. There have been a number of excellent survey articles on the control of robot manipulators from an elementary viewpoint [2,5,4]. These articles present the basic ideas of independent joint control using linearized models and classical transfer function analysis. That material will not be repeated here. Instead we will survey more recent and advanced material that summarizes the work of many researchers from about 1985 to the present. Many of the ideas presented here are found in the papers reprinted in the collection [8], which is recommended to the reader who wishes additional details. The present article is accessible to anyone having an elementary knowledge of Lagrangian dynamics and the state space theory of dynamical systems, including the basics of Lyapunov stability theory. The textbooks [1,9] may be consulted for the background necessary to follow the material presented here. 1.1 Configuration Space and Task Space
Vehicle Door Operating Apparatus
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