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Close Encounters of the Virtual Kind: Agents Simulating Copresence
Applied Artificial Intelligence
Abstract
Results of a field study of an open-access collaborative virtual environment in actual use suggested that awareness of others significantly increases the level of presence experienced by participants. Given the importance of copresence, this paper argues that, in the absence of other human collaborators in a collaborative virtual environment, copresence can potentially be simulated using agent technology. A controlled experiment deploying a prototype embodied conversational agent was conducted to investigate the potential of such agents to simulate copresence. This paper briefly introduces the concepts of presence and copresence, summarizes experiences drawn from the field study, reports on the controlled experiment, and discusses its results. Results suggest that even limited copresence as provided by the current prototype agent is sufficient to help users feel presence in the environment.
... A third property of 3D worlds that may contribute to their usefulness in supporting the creative functioning of groups is that the mere existence of other visible avatars may facilitate a sense of presence, the feeling of actually being in the environment, which in turn may be associated with more engagement in the task. Although, different researchers have different conceptions of presence (see Biocca, Harms, & Burgoon, 2003), case studies and experimental work have shown that individuals have a greater sense of presence when other avatars are in the same space, and even when the other is a computer generated embodied conversation agent (Gerhardt, Moore, & Hobbs, 2005). Although other technologies that support group interaction (e.g., Elluminate) have presence awareness features, such as a list of other participants who are logged in, the salient visual representation of avatars in 3D worlds may give them an edge in producing a sense of presence. ...
Internet use has increased dramatically in the past two decades, including the use of three-dimensional virtual environments in which individuals represent themselves via avatars and can develop and share creative content within those worlds. The authors examine the content of virtual worlds with particular attention to tools that allow expressing individuality, objects that appear to imitate real world content, as well as those that break from real world constraints. The authors also introduce the construct of individualized collaboration. Unlike face-to-face group activities in real world settings, in which the ambient conditions are largely the same for all participants, virtual worlds have properties that make it possible, in principle, for individuals to personalize their experience even while interacting with others in collaborative groups. Virtual worlds provide an opportunity to ask traditional questions about creativity in a new context, but also introduce a range of new questions that can lead to new insights and understandings about creativity in general.
... Interaction appears to increase presence in VR (Choi et al., 2001;Gerhard et al., 2005;IJsselsteijn et al., 2006;Lin et al., 2004;Persky et al., 2009) and has been proposed to be an important element in VRE environments for SAD (Emmelkamp et al., 2020). This study points to the fact that noninteractive VR that prompts interaction can lead to an acute sense of artificiality. ...
Social anxiety disorder (SAD) is a highly prevalent and impairing disorder. Current best practice is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), but there are several challenges associated with performing exposure therapy. Virtual reality exposure (VRE) may improve treatment efficacy of SAD in a group therapy context, because it allows for greater control, flexibility, and individualization of the exposure stimuli. However, to date no study has investigated the use of VRE for SAD in a group context. In the present study, nine patients who had undergone group CBT with VRE for SAD and three therapists responsible for the treatment were interviewed about their experiences. The objective of the study was to investigate the practical and therapeutic challenges of using VRE in a group therapy context. Thematic analysis was used to analyze the data. The results showed that it was difficult for the patients to engage with the VRE in a group therapy context and that there were several practical challenges. However, all participants found the VRE exercises to be meaningful, because it gave them a medium to practice and understand typically avoided social situations. The latter has not previously been described as a treatment mechanism for anxiety through virtual reality. However, the appropriateness of VRE in group therapy remains unclear. Implications are discussed.
... So, among other ways, the enactive mode can be achieved through a human guide lecturer. Taking into account that several research works on virtual and mixed environments have shown the co-presence g imapact of virtual humans (Gerhard, Moore, and Hobbs 2005) (Luo, Shimada, and Sato 2014), we propose to simulate the presence of a human guide by a virtual human in M.A.R.T.S. As it will be detailed further, the enactive mode is represented by a virtual human guide simulating the presence of a human guide and supported by our "Selection" paradigm. ...
This article presents the design and implementation of a handheld Augmented Reality (AR) system called Mobile Augmented Reality Touring System (M.A.R.T.S). The results of experiments conducted during museum visits using this system are also described. These experiments aim at studying how such a tool can transform the visitor's learning experience by comparing it to two widely used museum systems. First, we present the museum's learning experience and a related model which emerged from the state of the art. This model consists of two types of activity experienced by the observer of a work of art: sensitive and analytical. Then, we detail M.A.R.T.S architecture and implementation. Our empirical study highlights the fact that AR can direct visitors' attention by emphasizing and superimposing. Its magnifying and sensitive effects are well perceived and appreciated by visitors. The obtained results reveal that M.A.R.T.S contributes to a worthwhile learning experience.
... Perception of sensory stimuli and the understanding of symbols In this paper we presented a new set of tools designed to are ways to sense the others' presence. In this case, presence is closely related to immersion [16]. ...
Avatars are virtual characters making the communication between user and machine more natural and interactive. The main advantage of using avatars within interfaces is to allow user to interact intuitively with the system by giving him the illusion of communicating with a real human. This illusion is obtained by mimicking human communication, i.e. giving avatar the ability of expressing emotions through facial and body language. We proposed the method based on multi-layered representation for a kind of 3D anthropomorphic avatar, and validated it as an information presenter. The way of controlling the avatar's emotion is to use parameterized facial muscle model and skeleton skinning, scheduled with multi-thread. Then a series of naturalistic avatar animation produced.
... Believability of interactions goes beyond traditional focus on modelling the visual co-presence (Gerhard, Moore, & Hobbs, 2005), Context awareness (perceiving other agents/objects in static environments) (Bickmore, Mauer, & Brown, 2007) and communication style (e.g. short vs. long utterances, usage of specific vocabulary) of the agents. ...
In this paper we investigate the concept of believability and make an attempt to isolate individual characteristics (features) that contribute to making virtual characters believable. As the result of this investigation we have produced a formalisation of believability and based on this formalisation built a computational framework focused on simulation of believable virtual agents that possess the identified features. In order to test whether the identified features are, in fact, responsible for agents being perceived as more believable, we have conducted a user study. In this study we tested user reactions towards the virtual characters that were created for a simulation of aboriginal inhabitants of a particular area of Sydney, Australia in 1770 A.D. The participants of our user study were exposed to short simulated scenes, in which virtual agents performed some behaviour in two different ways (while possessing a certain aspect of believability vs. not possessing it). The results of the study indicate that virtual agents that appear resource bounded, are aware of their environment, own interaction capabilities and their state in the world, agents that can adapt to changes in the environment and exist in correct social context are those that are being perceived as more believable. Further in the paper we discuss these and other believability features and provide a quantitative analysis of the level of contribution for each such feature to the overall perceived believability of a virtual agent.
... When they do, research shows that this increases the degree of presence experienced by the human in the virtual environment (Gerhard, Moore, & Hobbs, 2004Groom et al., 2009;Guadagno, Blascovich, Bailenson, & McCall, 2007;Guadagno, Swinth, & Blascovich, 2011). Presence is the subjective sense of being in an environment, and studies have suggested that presence is positively related to copresence, which involves a person's perception of another mind that is capable of perceiving them (Gerhard et al., 2005). In other words, the extent to which a person feels immersed in a virtual social environment is related to the person's perception that there are other sentient beings in that environment. ...
To determine the feasibility of automating the process of interviewing applicants for Federal security clearances, the authors examined behavioral and physiological responses of individuals (n = 120) to questions concerning their mental health, drug, alcohol, and criminal histories. The interviews were administered by a computer-generated (CG) agent. The results indicated that the number of relevant admissions during the CG interview exceeded the number of admissions made using a self-report questionnaire. In addition, significant blood volume and skin conductance amplitude differences were observed between individuals who made two or more relevant admissions and individuals who made less than two admissions. An interaction between perceived locus of interview control (either computer or human) and behavioral activation systems (BAS) on skin conductance (SC) responses was also observed.
... A third property of 3D worlds that may contribute to their usefulness in supporting the creative functioning of groups is that the mere existence of other visible avatars may facilitate a sense of presence, the feeling of actually being in the environment, which in turn may be associated with more engagement in the task. Although, different researchers have different conceptions of presence (see Biocca, Harms, & Burgoon, 2003), case studies and experimental work have shown that individuals have a greater sense of presence when other avatars are in the same space, and even when the other is a computer generated embodied conversation agent (Gerhardt, Moore, & Hobbs, 2005). Although other technologies that support group interaction (e.g., Elluminate) have presence awareness features, such as a list of other participants who are logged in, the salient visual representation of avatars in 3D worlds may give them an edge in producing a sense of presence A fourth important characteristic of 3D worlds is the ways in which they may support and encourage extra-work activities. ...
Internet use has increased dramatically in the past two decades, including the use of three-dimensional virtual environments in which individuals represent themselves via avatars and can develop and share creative content within those worlds. The authors examine the content of virtual worlds with particular attention to tools that allow expressing individuality, objects that appear to imitate real world content, as well as those that break from real world constraints. The authors also introduce the construct of individualized collaboration. Unlike face-to-face group activities in real world settings, in which the ambient conditions are largely the same for all participants, virtual worlds have properties that make it possible, in principle, for individuals to personalize their experience even while interacting with others in collaborative groups. Virtual worlds provide an opportunity to ask traditional questions about creativity in a new context, but also introduce a range of new questions that can lead to new insights and understandings about creativity in general.
... Believability of interactions goes beyond traditional focus on modeling the visual co-presence (Gerhard et al. 2005), Context awareness (perceiving other agents/objects in static environment) (Bickmore et al. 2007 ) and communication style (e.g. short vs long utterances , usage of specific vocabulary) of the agents. ...
Research on embodied conversational agents' reason-ing and actions has mostly ignored the external en-vironment. This papers argues that believability of such agents is tightly connected with their ability to relate to the environment during a conversation. This ability, defined as awareness believability, is for-malised in terms of three components -environment-, self-and interaction-awareness. The paper presents a method enabling virtual agents to reason about their environment, understand the interaction capabilities of other participants, own goals and current state of the environment, as well as to include these elements into conversations. We present the implementation of the method and a case study, which demonstrates that such abilities improve the overall believability of virtual agents.
To examine the relationship between verbal response time, response duration, and deception during an interview with a computer-generated agent, we developed a model using logistic regression conducted on a training group (n=90) and cross-validated the model on an additional 127 participants who either did or did not engage in a simulated crime at a mock security checkpoint. Verbal responses during the interviews required simple “yes” or “no” utterances, which examinees were instructed to produce “promptly” but not in a speeded manner. The results showed that, overall, 75 of 127 (59.1%) participants in the cross-validation group were correctly classified (p<.05). This result was due to the ability to correctly classify nondeceptive participants (specificity), and we interpreted this finding as being due to the presence of subpopulations of deceptive participants. Group analyses also revealed that response durations to mock crime-relevant questions were shorter when participants believed that a human was controlling the interview (p<.05), and that relative changes in response durations among different types of questions during the interview were related to deceptive status. The response duration shortening observed in the present study was attributed to variations in social dominance, motivational systems, or some combination of these factors.
Cognitive-Behavior Therapy (CBT) is considered the "treatment of choice" for a broad range of psychological disorders. Although effective, there are many difficulties in implementation. Virtual Reality (VR) is a relatively new technology that has been effectively integrated into psychotherapy for a multitude of disorders, and its technologies and presentations enable therapeutic endeavor to overcome these difficulties. However, as with any treatment, VR efficacy varies among clients. One parameter that has been suggested as increasing VR treatment efficacy is presence. "Presence" is the subjective experience in which the client/subject feels as if s/he is "in" the situation even though it is not real. Presence is influenced by personality and technological factors, as well as by the interaction between the two. Our lab has conducted numerous research projects to elucidate the main psychological and interaction ingredients responsible for increasing presence. This chapter presents an up to date summary of our findings that aim to elucidate the optimal VR user profile.
Virtual Reality (VR) technology has been effectively implemented in psychotherapy as an alternative to exposure. VR has also
been employed in treatment of eating disorders, body image disorders etc. As with any other treatment, efficacy varies among
clients. One parameter that has been suggested as increasing treatment efficacy is presence. "Presence" is the subjective
experience, so that the client/subject feels as if s/he is "in" the situation even though it is not real. Presence is influenced
by both personality and technological factors. This chapter presents a comprehensive review of studies examining variables
impacting on presence, with the aim of elucidating the optimal VR user profile.
KeywordsVirtual Reality–Presence–Psychotherapy
The use of embodied agents, defined as visual human-like representations accompanying a computer interface, is becoming prevalent in applications ranging from educational software to advertisements. In the current work, we assimilate previous empirical studies which compare interfaces with visually embodied agents to interfaces without agents, both using an informal, descriptive technique based on experimental results (46 studies) as well as a formal statistical meta-analysis (25 studies). Results revealed significantly larger effect sizes when analyzing subjective responses (i.e., questionnaire ratings, interviews) than when analyzing behavioral responses such as task performance and memory. Furthermore, the effects of adding an agent to an interface are larger than the effects of animating an agent to behave more realistically. However, the overall effect sizes were quite small (e.g., across studies, adding a face to an interface only explains approximately 2.5% of the variance in results). We discuss the implications for both designers building interfaces as well as social scientists designing experiments to evaluate those interfaces. Author Keywords
Place-Hampi is an embodied theatre of participation in the drama of Hindu mythology focused at the most significant archaeological, historical and sacred locations of the World Heritage site Vijayanagara (Hampi), South India. The research described in this paper examines a history of several scopic regimes observable in Indian aesthetic traditions (principally those associated with chromolithography) and their socio-cultural implications-to articulate the somatic engagement inherent to encounters with the mythological deities in image form. Information derived from the examination of diverse scopic regimes has been used to guide the decisions in symbolic logic and high level cognitive programming of computer graphic characters that help co-evolve the narrative engagement between intangible heritage of 'place' and participants. Place- Hampi investigates experiences of encounter-as tangible knowledge that has implications for immersive heritage visualizations for diverse cultural audiences.
This paper offers an explanation for cognitive immersion with telepresence by making use of the psychological literature and its empirical evidence about absorption and attention. The Theory of Distal Attribution is used to create a framework of understanding. An overview of literature and empirical research relevant for understanding cognitive immersion is provided. It is proposed that the questionnaires designed by the researchers of hypnotic susceptibility can be used to provide an independent measure of immersion, and a means of establishing the individual difference in susceptibility to experience immersion with telepresence.
This article presents a model of how social influence processes affect individuals' attitudes toward communication media and media use behavior. The model integrates two areas of research. One body of work posits that media use patterns are the outcome of objectively rational choices. These choices involve evaluating communication options and selecting an appropriate medium to match the communication requirements of the task. The second perspective is social information processing theory (Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978). This approach proposes that attitudes and behaviors are partially determined by information embedded in the social context. The synthesis of these perspectives asserts that media characteristics and attitudes are in part socially constructed. Furthermore, attitudes are influenced by attributions based on observations of one's own past behavior. This model is shown to explain a wider range of existing empirical findings. Also, new propositions are derived to guide future research. This social construction model of media use has significant implications for the design, conduct, and reporting of future research in organizations.
While computer-mediated communication use and research are proliferating rapidly, findings offer contrasting images regarding the interpersonal character of this technology. Research trends over the history of these media are reviewed with observations across trends suggested so as to provide integrative principles with which to apply media to different circumstances. First, the notion that the media reduce personal influences—their impersonal effects—is reviewed. Newer theories and research are noted explaining normative “interpersonal” uses of the media. From this vantage point, recognizing that impersonal communication is sometimes advantageous, strategies for the intentional depersonalization of media use are inferred, with implications for Group Decision Support Systems effects. Additionally, recognizing that media sometimes facilitate communication that surpasses normal interpersonal levels, a new perspective on “hyperpersonal” communication is introduced. Subprocesses are discussed pertaining to receivers, senders, channels, and feedback elements in computer-mediated communication that may enhance impressions and interpersonal relations.
The purpose of this paper is to examine media use in organizations as affected by situation requirements and media characteristics. This paper discusses the strength of four existing models describing communications media use in individuals and organizations. The paper also presents research which evaluated interactions of multiple situation variables affecting communications media appropriateness in a survey population. Participants rated die acceptability of each of twelve communications media in each of eight hypothetical organizational situations. Situations varied based on high or low levels of three factors: message urgency, amount of message content, and distance between communicators. Results indicated (1) situations have unique and significant contributions to media appropriateness; (2) appropriateness of media usage depends on the match between situation requirements and media characteristics, and (3) situation effects are more salient in some ‘situation-dependent’ media. Another survey of 1072 voice mail users confirmed die validity and reliability of these results.
Within an embodied cognition framework, it is argued that presence in a virtual environment (VE) develops from the construction of a spatial-functional mental model of the VE. Two cognitive processes lead to this model: the representation of bodily actions as possible actions in the VE, and the suppression of incompatible sensory input. It is hypothesized that the conscious sense of presence reflects these two components as spatial presence and involvement. This prediction was confirmed in two studies (N = 246 and N = 296) assessing self-reports of presence and immersion experiences. Additionally, judgments of “realness” were observed as a third presence component. A second-order factor analysis showed a distinction between presence, immersion, and interaction factors. Building on these results, a thirteen-item presence scale consisting of three independent components was developed and verified using confirmatory factor analyses across the two studies.
Transportation was proposed as a mechanism whereby narratives can affect beliefs. Defined as absorption into a story, transportation entails imagery, affect, and attentional focus. A transportation scale was developed and validated. Experiment 1 (N = 97) demonstrated that extent of transportation augmented story-consistent beliefs and favorable evaluations of protagonists. Experiment 2 (N = 69) showed that highly transported readers found fewer false notes in a story than less-transported readers. Experiments 3 (N = 274) and 4 (N = 258) again replicated the effects of transportation on beliefs and evaluations; in the latter study, transportation was directly manipulated by using processing instructions. Reduced transportation led to reduced story-consistent beliefs and evaluations. The studies also showed that transportation and corresponding beliefs were generally unaffected by labeling a story as fact or as fiction.
'A dense, challenging and important book.' Philip French Observer 'At the very least, this blockbuster is probably the best single volume history of Hollywood we're likely to get for a very long time.' Paul Kerr City Limits 'Persuasively argued, the book is also packed with facts, figures and photographs.' Nigel Andrews Financial Times Acclaimed for their breakthrough approach, Bordwell, Staiger and Thompson analyze the basic conditions of American film-making as a historical institution and consider to what extent Hollywood film production constitutes a systematic enterprise, in both its style and its business operations. Despite differences of director, genre or studio, most Hollywood films operate within a set of shared assumptions about how a film should look and sound. Such assumptions are neither natural nor inevitable; but because classical-style films have been the type most widely seen, they have come to be accepted as the 'norm' of film-making and viewing. The authors show how these classical conventions were formulated and standardized, and how they responded to the arrival of sound, colour, widescreen ratios and stereophonic sound. They argue that each new technological development has served a function within an existing narrational system. The authors also examine how the Hollywood cinema standardized the film-making process itself. They describe how, over the course of its history, Hollywood developed distinct modes of production in a constant search for maximum efficiency, predictability and novelty. Set apart by its combination of theoretical analysis and empirical evidence, this book is the standard work on the classical Hollywood cinema style of film-making from the silent era to the 1960s. Now available in paperback, it is a 'must' for film students, lecturers and all those seriously interested in the development of the film industry. © David Bordwell, Janet Staiger and Kristin Thompson 1985. All rights reserved.
The Turing test has always been conceived of as a test of the content of a computer’s contribution to a conversation. That is, from typed output, we are supposed to try to tell whether text was generated by a human or a computer. Recent advances in speech technology have led us to conceive of a Turing test taken over the phone. What about a face-to-face Turing test? What kinds of behaviors would a computer have to exhibit to convince us that it was not a grey box but a living, breathing body? We are perhaps not ready today for such a competition, but7 we may be one day. This paper attempts to move the field of human-computer conversation in that direction—in the direction of embodied dialogue with computers. In other work (Cassell et al., 1994; Cassell and Thórisson, in press), we have concentrated on hand gestures, intonation, head movement, and gaze. The current work revisits the question of gaze and attempts to reconcile two competing approaches to the general question of generating nonverbal behaviors.
This chapter explores one aspect of interaction in virtual environments, namely the degree of "presence" experienced by participants in relation to the avatar style used to represent them. A prototype virtual art gallery was created as a vehicle for conducting a series of online experiments designed to measure and compare the effects of different forms of avatar on presence. The choice of experimental procedure, together with analysis and interpretation of the results, are presented.
Made naturalistic observations to collect a sample of distances at which the physical presence of a person could be detected through (a) sight, (b) hearing, and (c) smell by another person engaged in an activity in an outdoor public setting. The author collected these observations over 4½ yrs. Observations suggest that the special field within which people negotiate their interpersonal conduct is clearly limited and consists of 5 concentrically nested spaces. The circles coincide with the ranges of effectiveness of human senses, namely, vision, hearing, smell, touch (mediated by the use of tools), and direct tactile contact. The radii of these zones were found to be 100, 33, 10, 3, and 1 yds, respectively. These dimensions are in agreement with data on the dimensions of domestic spaces as well as with data on spatial dimensions of outdoor sports and games. (76 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
[Social psychology is] an attempt to understand and explain how the thought, feeling, and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual imagined, or implied presence of others. Gordon Allport, 1954 [1]
It is maintained that many of the conflicting viewpoints in theories of hypnosis parallel the descriptive complexity of the phenomena. A three-factor theory of hypnosis is surveyed in which hypnotic depth is conceived as a complex of 3 separate but complementary processes or dimensions. The theory is then used to illuminate the book-reading fantasy and the concept of suggestion.
This paper addresses the problem of designing conversational agents that exhibit appropriate gaze behavior during dialogues with human users. Previous research on gaze behavior has concentrated on its relationship to turn-taking phenomena [4,5,6]. Recent work has incorporated some of these findings into the design of autonomous human-like conversational agents and interactive communicative humanoids [1,14]. However, none of this research has examined the relationship between information structure and gaze behavior. In this paper we discuss why turntaking is not an adequate explanation for gaze behavior in conversation and why information structure should be integrated with turn-taking as an explanation for this behavior. We then examine the relationship of gaze behavior to information structure and turn-taking through an empirical analysis of discourse transcripts for several dyadic conversations. A simple algorithm for assigning gaze behavior is proposed on the basis of the findings o...
This paper describes the evaluation of the persona effect of a speech-driven anthropomorphic agent that has been embodied in the interface of an Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS). This agent is responsible for guiding the student in the environment and communicating the system's feedback messages. The agent was evaluated during an experiment in terms of the effect that it could have on students' learning, behaviour and experience. The participants in the experiment were divided into two groups: half of them worked with a version of the ITS which embodied the agent and the rest worked with an agent-less version. The results from this study confirm the hypothesis that a pedagogical agent incorporated in an ITS can enhance students' leaming experience. On the other hand, the hypothesis that the presence of the agent improves short-term leaming effects was rejected based on our data.
Media appropriateness: Using social presence theory to compare traditional and new organisational media
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Body Movement and Interpersonal Contact To The Distant Observer Live To Those Shadows
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The Influence of Anthropomorphism on Mental Models of Agents and Avatars in Social Virtual Environments Conceptualising and differentiating copresence and social presence
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