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Web Aesthetics and Usability: An Empirical Study of the Effects of White Space.
Abstract
Usability has been an essential component of the Web User Experience (UX) and a focal research topic. In recent years, the penetration of interactive technologies in all aspects of everyday life challenges the way UX is understood and designed. The past decade, Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) scholars have been continuously attempting to introduce and explore new and non-traditional factors in the UX arena, such as aesthetics, emotions, affect, and trust. This study contributes to the field by exploring the relationship between aesthetics and UX; specifically the impact of the classical design element of white space on the perceived attractiveness and perceived usability of an e-commerce website. A between-subject research design involves the manipulation a website’s white space. Three different versions were constructed using 25, 50 and 75% of the white space, respectively. Findings offer support for the relationship between aesthetics and the perceived usability of a website. The study results suggest that the usability of a website is impacted negatively when white space increases over 50%. Practitioners should consider that in the context of eCommerce Web design, reduction of content and shrinking of visual elements, in favor of white space, is likely to negatively impact the usability of a website.
... For example, a study on readability shows that the amount of text and white space influence reading performance [7]. White space is associated with aesthetics [8], and the aesthetics of a web page can enhance website readability by up to 90% [6]. ...
... There is a correlation between visual aesthetics, usability, satisfaction, pleasure, and accessibility [8,29]. However, the influence of aesthetics on the user interface has long been neglected because of the emphasis on performance and efficiency [30]. ...
... Most studies on usability and performance of web design have focused on design elements, such as the position of key visual features, the percentage of images and texts, overall composition and layout, frames, hyperlink styles, color volume, and background colors. However, there is also a close relationship between the number of design elements and white space [8,39,[48][49][50][51][52]. Furthermore, the design of web pages with different amounts of white space could influence usability and aesthetics [50]. ...
In the future, the importance and usage rate of the Internet will increase gradually year by year. However, in the case of frequently browsed news web pages, mass news information derived from visual design elements or different layout designs may affect the preferences of users from different demographics and socio-economic backgrounds. This is due to the dissimilarities between their physical and psychological limitations. The purpose of this study is to investigate users’white-space ratio preferences for news web pages. We tested the top ten online Chinese and English websites, 20 news web pages in total. Two statements were picked from the system usability scale (SUS) and visual aesthetics of website inventory (VisAWI) to evaluate these samples. We took these two statements as questionnaire questions. They are the following: Q1 “I think that I would like to use this system frequently”; and Q2 “Everything goes together on these web pages.” The design of the questionnaire was based on a five-point Likert scale. The research variables include age, gender, education, occupation, white-space ratio, along with other demographic properties. Our results indicated that there are significant differences between age, white-space ratio, education, occupation, news sources, computer usage time, and computer usage history. The group aged between 31-45 years old scored all samples higher than other groups. None prefer too high (90groups prior to the coming age of AI and machine learning.
... The relationship between cognition-efficiency and effectiveness-and satisfaction has been studied repeatedly, in particular in the context of usability studies [48,52] and studies drawing on Expectancy-Disconfirmation theory [47,53]. These studies have shown that there is a strong relationship between efficiency (i.e. ...
... First, both cognitive and affective dimensions of website design are confirmed as significant determinants of user satisfaction. While these relationships have been validated by others [37,38,[47][48][49][50]53,56], this study is among the pioneering attempts to validate these relationships in the context of website color treatment manipulations. This study therefore contributes to a discussion in the IS field in general and the e-commerce domain in specific as to how one specific element of website design-color temperature-impacts perceived satisfaction in intricate ways. ...
... This is a reasonable observation and outcome, considering that color is a single design element in an interface that consists of multiple design elements. Hence, future research should analyze the effects of other design elements, such as white space [53], human images [63,127] (e.g., faces or hands), and layout structure [128] potentially look at interaction effects among these elements. ...
Affective dimensions of human–computer interaction design have the potential to elicit emotions and behaviours. However, there is little research into which affective treatments are systematically tested, let alone assessed in light of additional cognitive dimensions. In this study, we formulate and empirically test a Cognitive-Affective Model of Perceived User Satisfaction (CAMPUS) that displays high explanatory power (R2 = .69). CAMPUS offers a comprehensive framework for assessing both direct effects of perceptions of cognitive and affective dimensions on satisfaction and the complex interplay between these two in terms of system design and use. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.
... Hence, it is reasonable to expect that perceived interactivity would affect other related cognitive constructs in addition to ease of use and usefulness. Also, affective elements have more recently received attention as important predictors of desired outcomes; for example, enjoyment impacting attention (Kim et al., 2007; Sun and Zhang, 2006; Tractinsky, 2004), white space impacting perceptions of attractiveness and subsequently usability (Coursaris and Kripintiris, 2012), and color combinations influencing perceptions of aesthetics and in turn usability (Coursaris et al., 2008). What emerges from this aggregate body of knowledge is that when either or both ...
... Most past studies on factors influencing a user's behavioral intention to visit a website have been conducted in the context of e-commerce (Cyr et al., 2007, 2009) or m-commerce (Yang, 2008). Such past studies had investigated the effects of perceived interactivity solely on cognitive components (Coursaris et al., 2007, 2012; Teo et al., 2003), on both cognitive and affective components but excluding perceptions of interactivity (Cyr, 2006), or on satisfaction and the behavioral intention to use the technology (Chou, 2003; Yang, 2008). More recently, Cyr et al. (2009) did investigate both cognitive and affective components inclusive of perceived interactivity; however, due to the research design employed, it was unclear which features contributed to either the increasing or decreasing levels of website interactivity. ...
The value proposition of mobile technology for education is expected to grow as forecasts speak of mobile internet users exceeding desktop internet users by 2014. A key concern for higher education administrators will be how to implement a mobile website that attracts and retains students in its use. To answer this question, a scenario- based study of 288 USA college students was conducted involving two wireframes of a mobile website design varying only in its degree of interactivity. A PLS-based data analysis offered support for the positive effects of interactivity on the perceived usefulness, ease of use, and enjoyment of the university’s mobile website, which in turn positively influenced their intention to use it. The measurement model offered high explanatory power (47% of the variance in the behavioral intention to use the university’s mobile website was explained by its three antecedents). Implications for both theory and practice are also discussed.
... Choosing the right distance between website elements such as photographs, color schemes, fonts, and others is also important. There is a close relationship between the number of design elements and the space they occupy, so it's crucial to maintain a balance [23], [24]. Designing a website with appropriate white space can enhance both its usability and aesthetics [24]. ...
... Another recent design practice of relevance is the use of negative space, with some advocating a substantial 50% dedication being needed to reduce eye strain (Coursaris & Kripintris, 2012), while others advocate a minimum of a modest 5% (Lynch & Horton, 2008). ...
Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) focuses on user-centered design, which leads towards innovative yet user-friendly technologies. This field overlaps with User Experience (UX) Designer and Research. The main difference is the theoretical foundation of HCI, which heavily weighs on psychology, principles, and theories. Color is an essential aspect of art and design; often designers overlook the connotations associated with color. This paper intends to connect the fields of color psychology and HCI, thus explaining how professionals in the field can utilize the advantages of this framework. To study the effects of color within the realm of digital interface design, an experiment was under-taken with the goal of increasing user session time. A hypothesis was derived by assessing demographics, preferences, and trends despite color being traditionally perceived as innately subjective. The data collected from the experiment demonstrated that yellow shades of blue, in combination with a nonin-vasive color scheme (such as dark mode), can increase the time users spend browsing a webpage.
... Choosing the right distance between website elements such as photographs, color schemes, fonts, and others is also important. There is a close relationship between the number of design elements and the space they occupy, so it's crucial to maintain a balance [23], [24]. Designing a website with appropriate white space can enhance both its usability and aesthetics [24]. ...
Websites form the foundation of the Internet, serving as platforms for disseminating information and accessing digital resources. They allow users to engage with a wide range of content and services, enhancing the Internet's utility for all. The aesthetics of a website play a crucial role in its overall effectiveness and can significantly impact user experience, engagement, and satisfaction. This paper examines the importance of website design aesthetics in enhancing user experience, given the increasing number of internet users worldwide. It emphasizes the significant impact of first impressions, often formed within 50 milliseconds, on users' perceptions of a website's appeal and usability. We introduce a novel method for measuring website aesthetics based on color harmony and font popularity, using fuzzy logic to predict aesthetic preferences. We collected our own dataset, consisting of nearly 200 popular and frequently used website designs, to ensure relevance and adaptability to the dynamic nature of web design trends. Dominant colors from website screenshots were extracted using k-means clustering. The findings aim to improve understanding of the relationship between aesthetics and usability in website design.
... Consequently, based on a quantitative content analysis of fashion brands' websites (homepages) and an in-depth examination of previous studies (Coursaris & Kripintris, 2012;Cyr, 2013;Margariti et al., 2017;Soderstrom, Carlsson, & Mejtoft, 2019), this research seeks to develop a consolidated definition and a typology of minimal characteristics in fashion brands' websites. The websites of the brands to be analyzed are selected from a list ofthe most valuable fashion brands in 2020 (Fashion United, 2020) and Deloitte's report on the top 100 luxury fashion brands (Deloitte, 2021). ...
... While in the design of analog instruments there is an inherent connection between the gestural movements and the resulting musical gestures, such mappings must be designed for digital instruments [15] [16]. In this context, analog instruments are understood primarily as tools that take human input and convert it into music in real time; this excludes other types of analog music machines such as the "player piano" [17], music boxes, or music automatons, which create sound analogously. ...
... In order to provide a holistic and contextual framework of the messaging behavior of brands on Social Media, we draw on the concept of context of use as it relates to usability-the effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction associated with the use of a specific technology for a particular task. For usability, context considers many dimensions beyond the immediate interface of a technology that impact usability (e.g., Coursaris & Kripintiris, 2012;Lee & Benbasat, 2003), including the User (e.g., prior relevant experience, age, education), the Environment (e.g., lighting, noise), the Task (e.g., complexity, interactivity), and the Technology (e.g., interface design, device) (Coursaris et al., 2012) which jointly constitute the contextual usability framework as presented in Coursaris and Kim (2011). ...
Despite the growing scholarship on social media (SM) marketing, a holistic consideration of what constitutes an informed messaging strategy has yet to emerge. Drawing on the contextual usability literature, this study proposes a Contextual Messaging Framework, encompassing four dimensions-Brand, Industry, Medium, and Action-that jointly drive the strategy, media type, and content as employed in a particular brand social media post and its subsequent effect on consumer engagement. Employing a longitudinal multiple case study of three Fortune 110 companies-Delta Airlines, Wal-Mart, and McDonald's-we analyzed 369 Facebook posts across two six-week data collection periods. Support was obtained for all hypotheses revealing that our framework not only offers a reliable set of conceptualizations and operationalizations that can be employed by SM researchers in future SM studies, but further offers a comprehensive lens that can guide SM practitioners in the design of effective messages that result in greater consumer engagement.
... Similarly, in separate empirical studies, Coursaris and Kripintris [5] and Oyibo and Vassileva [17] found that perceived aesthetics strongly impacted perceived usability. Finally, in their study of the impact of color temperature on web aesthetics, Coursaris et al. [3] found that classical aesthetics strongly influenced expressive aesthetics. ...
... Similarly, in separate empirical studies, Coursaris and Kripintris [5] and Oyibo and Vassileva [17] found that perceived aesthetics strongly impacted perceived usability. Finally, in their study of the impact of color temperature on web aesthetics, Coursaris et al. [3] found that classical aesthetics strongly influenced expressive aesthetics. ...
Research has shown that the perceived usability of a web artifact is influenced by its perceived aesthetics: a high-order construct composed of two lower-order dimensions (classical aesthetics and expressive aesthetics). However, in the mobile domain, where usability is very important in human-computer interaction (HCI) given the relatively small screen size of the mobile device, limited research has investigated: (1) which of the two dimensions of visual aesthetics is the stronger predictor of the perceived usability of a website; (2) how the classical dimension impacts the expressive dimension; and (3) how culture moderates the relationships among the three HCI design constructs. To address these questions, we conducted a study of the perceptions of four systematically manipulated mobile websites and modeled the relationships between perceived usability and the two dimensions of perceived aesthetics. Based on a sample of 233 participants (87 Canadians and 146 Nigerians), our models account for 30% to 80% of the variance of perceived usability. They show that classical aesthetics is stronger than expressive aesthetics in predicting the perceived usability of a mobile website, irrespective of the level of aesthetic treatment of the user interface and culture, with the effect size being larger for the Nigerian group than for the Canadian group. Moreover, the models reveal that classical aesthetics strongly influences expressive aesthetics. Our results suggest that what is classical is expressively beautiful and usable. The significance of our findings is that in mobile web, there is need for designers to pay closer attention to classical aesthetics given the strong influence it has on perceived usability.
... Contrasting different elements such as colours and white space in a layout is commonly used to create a focus to draw viewer's eye onto a webpage, arrange information and build an organisational hierarchy (Beaird and George, 2014;Williams and Tollett, 2006;Williams, 2014). White space is reckoned the space around the text in a layout (Kripintris and Coursaris, 2012;Williams, 2014). McNeil (2014) specified that a clean design is accomplished when a webpage layout has ample space to allow the visitors' eyes to be gravitated to the content easily. ...
... The content structure and positions of the key functions studied in Phase 1 were almost identical across these three prototypes. Apart from being usable, the home page, a gateway to the website, should be appealing (Coursaris & Kripintris, 2012). That was the main goal of Phase 2. ...
In this study, a usability evaluation laboratory at a mid-western U.S. university was contracted by an insurance company to conduct a usability evaluation of their home page redesigns. A two-phase prototype testing was implemented:
• First, think-aloud user testing was conducted to compare three prototypes, focusing on the layout and key functionalities of the home page.
• Next, an online survey was administered to compare three possible aesthetic designs of the home page.
This article focuses on the methodology details, including the selection of prototypes and usability evaluation methods and the considerations for practical trade-offs. Findings from each phase were also shared. Insights from this study could inform developers of other e-commerce applications.
... Hence, it is reasonable to expect that perceived interactivity would affect other related cognitive constructs in addition to ease of use and usefulness. Also, affective elements have more recently received attention as important predictors of desired outcomes; for example, enjoyment impacting attention Sun and Zhang, 2006;Tractinsky, 2004), white space impacting perceptions of attractiveness and subsequently usability (Coursaris and Kripintiris, 2012), and color combinations influencing perceptions of aesthetics and in turn usability (Coursaris et al., 2008). What emerges from this aggregate body of knowledge is that when either or both 1130 new media & society 14 (7) cognitive and affective elements are considered in design implementations, users are more likely to visit a website (Cyr et al., 2006). ...
The value proposition of mobile technology for education is expected to grow as forecasts speak of mobile internet users exceeding desktop internet users by 2014. A key concern for higher education administrators will be how to implement a mobile website that attracts and retains students in its use. To answer this question, a scenario-based study of 288 USA college students was conducted involving two wireframes of a mobile website design varying only in its degree of interactivity. A PLS-based data analysis offered support for the positive effects of interactivity on the perceived usefulness, ease of use, and enjoyment of the university's mobile website, which in turn positively influenced their intention to use it. The measurement model offered high explanatory power (47% of the variance in the behavioral intention to use the university's mobile website was explained by its three antecedents). Implications for both theory and practice are also discussed.
... The content structure and positions of the key functions studied in Phase 1 were almost identical across these three prototypes. Apart from being usable, the home page, a gateway to the website, should be appealing (Coursaris & Kripintris, 2012;Coursaris, Swierenga, & Pierce, 2010;Wang, Minor, & Wei, 2011). That was the main goal of Phase 2. ...
This paper discusses the various challenges encountered during iterative testing of an insurance company's home page prototypes. The study focuses on the methodology details, including the selection of prototypes and usability evaluation methods and the considerations for practical trade-offs. During Phase 1, six individual think-aloud interviews were conducted to compare three prototypes. Participants were asked to complete tasks on the prototypes. Based on the findings from Phase 1, three prototypes were developed. In Phase 2, an online survey was administered with existing customers to compare these three prototypes. Survey responses indicated that content, layout, and visual appearance were most influential on users' preferences of the designs. At the end of our paper, we compare the implementation and the results of usability evaluation and the prototypes in the two phases and discuss the limitations of the study.
... The concept of context of use as it relates to usability emerged out of the work of several researchers (e.g., Baker & Holding, 1993;Bevan & Macleod, 1994;Coursaris & Kripintiris, 2012;Coursaris, Swierenga, & Watrall, 2008;Lee & Benbasat, 2003;Tarasewich, 2003), who suggested that many variables beyond the immediate interface might impact usability. Although the definition of context may be slightly varied, the takeaway is that usability experiments need to consider various contextual factors (Liu & Li, 2011). ...
The key objective of the current study is to verify the impact of the customer's involvement in the innovation of the label (development, reverse feeding, defense (advocacy), and assistance) on the product quality (product aesthetic, durability, ease of use, product performance, and serviceability) through the interactive role of the realized brand authenticity (continuity, integrity, credibility, symbolism) of certain mobile brands. As the sample study was represented by 732 customers, Therefore, the study problem was formulated in relation to the relationship between study variables, following which the study's objectives were set, and the hypothetical outline of the study crystallized the formulation of special hypotheses tested in the statistical package to model structural equations in a small square manner (AMOS.V.25). To analyze what the study tool provided, a set of statistical methods, namely, confirmatory working analysis, Cronbach's alpha coefficient, identification coefficient (R2), natural distribution of data, and descriptive statistics of computational medium and standard deviation, The correlation coefficient and the results of the study showed a clear and important perception of the relationship between the customer and label innovation. The continuity of the realized brand and the quality of the product, perhaps the most important findings of the study, are reflected in the high level of awareness by the sample of the importance of the perceived brand authenticity in order to encourage customers to participate in the innovation of the brand to enhance the quality of the products. This enables the organization to improve its ability to effect change in a manner commensurate with the skills and expertise of its service providers during the service meeting. In light of these findings, the study presented a set of recommendations Keywords-Customer In Brand Co-Creation, perceived brand authenticity, product quality.
The key objective of the current study is to examine the impact of Customer Brand Co-Creation (development, feedback, advocacy, and assistance) on product quality (esthetic, durability, ease of use, product performance, and serviceability) of certain brands of mobile phones. The problem of study was therefore formulated with regard to the relationship between the variables of study, which established the objectives of study. Study hypothesis chart crystallized the formulation of the special hypotheses tested in the statistical package to model structural equations in the least squares method (AMOS.V.25) and to analyze what study tool provided, a set of statistical methods were used: The deterministic factor analysis, the alpha Kronbach coefficient, the determination coefficient (R2), and the normal distribution of data. The results of study showed a clear and important perception of the relationship between the customer's participation in the creation of the brand and the quality of the product. Perhaps the most important results of study are reflected in the fact that the sample is highly aware of the importance of the brand's authenticity in order to encourage customers to participate in creating the brand to enhance the quality of products. This allows the organization to improve its capacity to effect change in a way that is appropriate to the skills and experience of its service providers during the service interview, and in the light of these findings, study has submitted a series of recommendations.
In response to climate change, food crisis and SciTech application, agricultural development has become a universal value. For the general public, with the rising issues such as food nutrition, dietary safety, rural leisure, and local renaissance, agriculture-related knowledge has also received increasing attention. Despite the availability of a diverse range of modern knowledge services, few nonprofit websites provide modern agricultural knowledge. Accordingly, this study analyzed the factors, including demographic characteristics, associated with the intention to use the nonprofit website to gain agricultural knowledge. Data from 420 users of a website, called MBAtalk, were analyzed. The results revealed that the concept of perceived value could be distinguished into conditional, epistemic, emotional, functional, and social value. The concept of trust could be distinguished into trust in terms of ability, benevolence, and integrity. The concept of use experience could be divided into informational utility and personal network–related utility. Both shared vision and intention of use are variables with a single dimension. The results revealed that factors positively influencing the intention to use MBAtalk, from most to least important, were epistemic value, trust in the other’s benevolence, shared vision, and social value. The results also demonstrated that the intention to use MBAtalk was higher if the user was involved in agriculture. For users involved in agriculture, trust in the other’s benevolence and functional value most strongly affected their use intention; for users not involved in agriculture, epistemic value, shared vision, social value, and trust in the other’s benevolence most substantially affected their use intention.
A circular economy emphasizes decreasing the use of new raw materials and the disposal of waste by reusing and recycling, which ensures that products and materials can remain in use, thereby extending their life cycle. Promoting recycling and environmentally friendly habits can help consumers engage in sustainability thinking, which is essential considering that effective resource recycling critically depends on environmentalists' behaviors. A helpful means to encourage such thinking and habits is gamification. Deepening and extending findings from the existing literature, this study applies gamification to conceptualize contributions to resource recycling and environmentally friendly habits. For this purpose, we integrate a cognitive–affective model with an expectation–confirmation model to examine causal relationships between the utilitarian (effectiveness and efficiency) and hedonic (playfulness) values of a website and users' cognition- and affect-based attitudes, satisfaction, confirmation, and behavioral intentions (word of mouth [WOM] and continued usage). We empirically test the research model by applying structural equation modeling to analyze the experiences of a sample of 457 participants that are members of Recyclebank, an American company set up to encourage recycling and environmentally friendly habits. The results reveal that effectiveness, efficiency, playfulness, and confirmation contribute to cognition- and affect-based attitudes and satisfaction, which in turn influence repetitive usage and WOM intentions. Attitudes, however, may differ depending on the cultural background of the user. Thus, we find that collectivistic versus individualistic user orientations moderate the effects of value on attitudes in a gamification context. The findings provide website managers with insights regarding determinants crucial in formulating intention policies and motivating users’ to continue using a service.
Some public transportation companies have begun to develop mobile applications that facilitate the accessibility to their services for people with visual impairments. Nevertheless, despite their importance, up until now, very few studies have analyzed the particular characteristics and needs of this segment of the population in order to adapt the design of and services provided by this type of application. The objective of this study is to understand how users interact with this technology. This research is based on an analysis of the application developed by the Malagueña Transportation Company (EMT). Given its exploratory nature, a qualitative methodology was used based on focus groups with the participation of experts and users. The results allow the authors to learn about users' opinions, perceptions, and attitudes towards these applications, and to help guide strategies to improve their design and performance.
This book focuses on emerging issues in usability, interface design, human computer interaction and user experience, with a special emphasis on the research aimed at understanding human-interaction and usability issues with products, services and systems for improved experience. It covers modeling as well as innovative design concepts, with a special emphasis to user-centered design, and design for special populations, particularly the elderly. Virtual reality, digital environments, heuristic evaluation and feedback of devices’ interfaces (visual and haptic) are also among the topics covered in this book. Based on the AHFE 2017 Conference on Usability & User Experience, held on July 17-21, 2017, in Los Angeles, California, USA, the book describes new findings, research methods and user-centered evaluation approaches.
The purpose of this study was to explore middle-aged users’ web browsing experience, including usability preference, aesthetics and perceived value. The experimental samples were a set of four web pages with 45% and 55% of white space and from narrow to wide spacing. Seventy-one participants aged between 30 and 60 years were recruited by purposeful sampling to conduct the operational evaluation. It was interesting to note that even though the samples were centered around 50% of white space as previous studies suggested, four questions revealed significant differences. They were: “I think that I would like to use this web page frequently,” “I find the web page unnecessarily complex,” “This web page is the one that I would feel relaxed upon reading,” “This web page would give its owner social approval.” The result also indicated that most participants preferred more white space, which could become a guideline for designers to follow.
The purpose of this study was to explore university students’ web browsing experience, including usability preference, aesthetics and perceived value. The experimental samples were a set of four web pages with 45% and 55% of white space and from narrow to wide spacing. Thirty-five participants aged between 18 and 24 years were recruited by purposeful sampling to conduct the operational evaluation. It was interesting to note that even though the samples were centered around 50% of white space as previous studies suggested, three questions revealed significant differences: “I found the web page unnecessarily complex,” “the layout appears too dense,” “this web page would help me to feel acceptable.” The result also indicated that most participants preferred more white space, which could help designers to design web pages more accurately in accordance with user preferences.
Background. Understanding the relations between user perception and aesthetics is crucial for web design. But it is frequent in today’s graphic and media design that rules, established by practitioners even before the advent of Internet and still untested empirically, are taught at design schools and widely used for online interface design. So far, there is no well-established linkage between the in-class recommendations and our empirical knowledge on usability, for which design plays a role just as crucial as web projecting. Will webpages that are better from the designers’ viewpoint perform better in terms of usability? And can one have a list of recommendations tested empirically?
The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between sense qualities and overall preference in interface design of E-commerce website based on users' perceptual demand. First, the semantic differential method was adopted to extract sentimental evaluation phrases of E-commerce website's interface. Then, an evaluation scale investigating users' sense qualities of E-commerce website interface was developed, which was also checked to be valid in this field. After that, multiple linear regression models of the relationship between sentimental evaluation phrases and users' emotional preference and also the relationship between evaluation factors and emotional preference of E-commerce website's interface were established respectively, which quantified the emotional dimensions of interface design of E-commerce website. Eventually, some random samples of E-commerce website's interface were taken to test the effectiveness of models above and implications of this study were discussed.
This chapter describes a multi-group research study of the usability evaluation and consequent results from participants' experiences with the MyPryamidTracker.gov Website application. The authors report on a study of a sample consisting of 25 low-income participants with varied levels of vision (i.e., sighted, low vision, and blind Internet users). Usability was assessed via both objective and subjective measures. Overall, participants had significant difficulty understanding how to use the MyPyramidTracker. gov Website. The chapter concludes with major recommendations pertaining to the implementation of Website design elements including pathway/navigation, search, links, text chunking, and frames layout. An extensive set of actionable Website design recommendations and a usability questionnaire are also provided that can be used by researchers in their future evaluations of Websites and Web services.
Bilingual college students in Ecuador were presented with a Spanish-language website (either a video website or an online newspaper website). Each website contained a banner ad. The ad was for either a high-involvement product (a smartphone) or a low-involvement product (a news magazine). The type of ad (display ad with photograph vs. text-only, Google-style search ad), shape of ad (horizontal vs. vertical ad), and language of the ad (English vs. Spanish) varied for each type of website. The high-involvement product was seen as significantly more appealing than the low-involvement product, regardless of the type of ad. An interaction suggested that the high-involvement product was seen as somewhat more appealing if advertised with display ads rather than text-only ads; the low-involvement product was slightly more appealing if advertised with text-only ads. Both products – but especially the high-involvement product – attracted higher ratings if advertised with Spanish-language ads rather than English ads. Finally, products were somewhat more appealing if advertised on ‘highly congruent’ websites, where the advertised product was similar to the theme of the website (e.g., a smartphone that plays videos advertised on a video website; a news magazine advertised on a newspaper website).
Provides a nontechnical introduction to the partial least squares (PLS) approach. As a logical base for comparison, the PLS approach for structural path estimation is contrasted to the covariance-based approach. In so doing, a set of considerations are then provided with the goal of helping the reader understand the conditions under which it might be reasonable or even more appropriate to employ this technique. This chapter builds up from various simple 2 latent variable models to a more complex one. The formal PLS model is provided along with a discussion of the properties of its estimates. An empirical example is provided as a basis for highlighting the various analytic considerations when using PLS and the set of tests that one can employ is assessing the validity of a PLS-based model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Usability comprises the aspects effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction. The correlations between these aspects are not well understood for complex tasks. We present data from an experiment where 87 subjects solved 20 information retrieval tasks concerning programming problems. The correlation between efficiency, as indicated by task completion time, and effectiveness, as indicated by quality of solution, was negligible. Generally, the correlations among the usability aspects depend in a complex way on the application domain, the user's experience, and the use context. Going through three years of CHI Proceedings, we find that 11 out of 19 experimental studies involving complex tasks account for only one or two aspects of usability. When these studies make claims concerning overall usability, they rely on risky assumptions about correlations between usability aspects. Unless domain specific studies suggest otherwise, effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction should be considered independent aspect of usability and all be included in usability testing.
Instead of offering products or services alone, increasingly, firms and their partners are offering consumption systems. Consumption systems are offerings characterized by a significant product and service subsystem, as well as a pattern of consumption in which consumption occurs in multiple episodes over time. The authors develop a theoretical model for conceptualizing satisfaction with consumption systems and empirically test it using longitudinal data from 5206 automobile owners. Results show that an intertemporal examination of attribute-level performance, satisfaction, and behavioral intentions can improve an understanding of their relationships because these relationships change as the consumption of the product unfolds. For example, on the basis of their salience, attribute weights in determining satisfaction shift over time. Furthermore, the crossover effect of product and service satisfaction in determining intentions toward the manufacturer and the service provider is asymmetric, and this asymmetry reverses over time. Service satisfaction initially has a much larger impact in determining intentions toward the manufacturer, but later, product satisfaction is more influential in generating intentions toward the service provider and manufacturer. The results show that there is no direct link between satisfaction and behavioral intentions. Rather, satisfaction affects behavioral intentions in the future through a dual-mediation route.
This study develops a longitudinal model of the effect of a service change on customer attitudes about service quality. The model is estimated with data from a field experiment with three survey waves. Service changes are found to strongly influence customer evaluations of service quality through their effect on customer perceptions of current performance and disconfirmation. The effect of disconfirmation is larger, and the effect of prior attitudes is smaller, directly after the service change compared with a subsequent time period.
Despite being an informal, collaborative way to communicate, Instant Messag- ing (IM) remains a pervasive tool. Repeated discrete messages can be unwelcome, and the current technology does not allow for situation awareness,information about the re- cipient of the messages. Therefore, concerns are that IM might be disruptive enough to impair performance on concurrent tasks. In this experiment, subjects were exposed to six different scenarii of an Air Traffic Control simulation game while answering instant me s- sages. Each scenario combined two levels of workload (low and high) and three levels of flow of IM (none, low, high). Performance and time to respond were recorded, as well as skin conductivity, physiological parameter linked with level of arousal. Workload and flow of IM where shown,to reduceperformance. Whereas gender does not have a global influence on score, women are less robust to IM interruptions, especially under high pres- sure. As expected, time delay was inversely correlated to score. It also turned out that IM modified the skin conductivity response component associated with mood,and overall emotional state. IM and workload have a significant impact on subjects' anxiety, which is also correlated positively with time delay and inversely to score.These results call for a better design of chat interface and a better management,of instant messaging.
Conflicting models exist in the literature of the process through which perceived quality and/or satisfaction affect behavioral intentions. Further, virtually no theoretical framework has been explicitly developed to help combine perceived-quality models with satisfaction models. This article applies a theoretical framework to help build a model that attempts to explain the relationships among disconfirmation of expectations, perceived quality, satisfaction, perceived situational control, and behavioral intentions. The study compares the ability of two models to help explain the relationship among these variables. The results of the study suggest that the focal and contextual dimensions of disconfirmation of expectations affect perceived quality enroute to their influence on behavioral intentions. Additionally, the results indicate that perceived quality affects satisfaction and behavioral intentions is affected by satisfaction.
Although the ''disconfirmation of expectations'' model continues to dominate research and managerial practice, several limitations indicate that it is not a complete picture of satisfaction formation. The authors propose a new model of the satisfaction formation process that builds on the disconfirmation paradigm by specifying a more comprehensive model that includes two standards in a single model and specifically incorporates the impact of marketing communication. An empirical test of the model provides support for the hypothesized relationships and a better understanding of the mechanisms that produce satisfaction.
Relying on a Bayesian-like framework, the authors develop a behavioral process model of perceived service quality. Perceptions of the dimensions of service quality are viewed to be a function of a customer's prior expectations of what will and what should transpire during a service encounter, as well as the customer's most recent contact with the service delivery system. These perceptions of quality dimensions form the basis for a person's overall quality perception, which in turn predicts the person's intended behaviors. The authors first test this model with data from a longitudinal laboratory experiment. Then they develop a method for estimating the model with one-time survey data, and reestimate the model using such data collected in a field study. Empirical findings from the two tests of the model indicate, among other things, that the two different types of expectations have opposing effects on perceptions of service quality and that service quality perceptions positively affect intended behaviors.
"A Primer for Soft Modeling" is a guide to the 'soft modeling' approach to structural equation modeling that relies on a computer application strategy. The theoretical as well as practical requirements for soft modeling (partial least squares estimation procedures) are different from those of other modeling procedures because the basic assumptions about data are less stringent. . . . Because soft modeling procedures facilitate analysis of data with less stringent measurement requirements, it represents a modeling system that can be used by most social and behavioral scientists.
As a practical guide to latent variable path analysis, the basic 'how-to's' of modeling are explained—how to configure research questions, how to prepare data, how to construct an LVPLS computer run, how to interpret the results, and how to present the findings. Basic modeling concepts are presented in an accurate yet non-technical manner throughout the text, and the non-mathematical reader has been kept in mind. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The present research develops and tests a theoretical extension of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) that explains perceived usefulness and usage intentions in terms of social influence and cognitive instrumental processes. The extended model, referred to as TAM2, was tested using longitudinal data collected regarding four different systems at four organizations (N = 156), two involving voluntary usage and two involving mandatory usage. Model constructs were measured at three points in time at each organization: preimplementation, one month postimplementation, and three months postimplementation. The extended model was strongly supported for all four organizations at all three points of measurement, accounting for 40%--60% of the variance in usefulness perceptions and 34%--52% of the variance in usage intentions. Both social influence processes (subjective norm, voluntariness, and image) and cognitive instrumental processes (job relevance, output quality, result demonstrability, and perceived ease of use) significantly influenced user acceptance. These findings advance theory and contribute to the foundation for future research aimed at improving our understanding of user adoption behavior.
This study experimentally investigated the effects on product ratings of both overstatement and understatement of product quality. Results support common marketing practice in that overstatement resulted in more favorable ratings and understatement resulted in less favorable ratings.
The authors extend consumer satisfaction literature by theoretically and empirically (1) examining the effect of perceived performance using a model first proposed by Churchill and Surprenant, (2) investigating how alternative conceptualizations of comparison standards and disconfirmation capture the satisfaction formation process, and (3) exploring possible multiple comparison processes in satisfaction formation. Results of a laboratory experiment suggest that perceived performance exerts direct significant influence on satisfaction in addition to those influences from expected performance and subjective disconfirmation. Expectation and subjective disconfirmation seem to be the best conceptualizations in capturing satisfaction formation. The results suggest multiple comparison processes in satisfaction formation.
Instead of offering products or services alone, increasingly, firms and their partners are offering consumption systems. Consumption systems are offerings characterized by a significant product and service subsystem, as well as a pattern of consumption in which consumption occurs in multiple episodes over time. The authors develop a theoretical model for conceptualizing satisfaction with consumption systems and empirically test it using longitudinal data from 5206 automobile owners. Results show that an intertemporal examination of attribute-level performance, satisfaction, and behavioral intentions can improve an understanding of their relationships because these relationships change as the consumption of the product unfolds. For example, on the basis of their salience, attribute weights in determining satisfaction shift over time. Furthermore, the crossover effect of product and service satisfaction in determining intentions toward the manufacturer and the service provider is asymmetric, and this asymmetry reverses over time. Service satisfaction initially has a much larger impact in determining intentions toward the manufacturer, but later, product satisfaction is more influential in generating intentions toward the service provider and manufacturer. The results show that there is no direct link between satisfaction and behavioral intentions. Rather, satisfaction affects behavioral intentions in the future through a dual-mediation route.
The authors develop a longitudinal model of the effect of a service change on customer attitudes about service quality. The model is estimated with data from a field experiment with three survey waves. Service changes are found to have a strong influence on customer evaluations of service quality through their effect on customer perceptions of current performance and disconfirmation. The effect of disconfirmation is larger and the effect of prior attitudes is smaller directly after the service change than in a subsequent time period.
The statistical tests used in the analysis of structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error are examined. A drawback of the commonly applied chi square test, in addition to the known problems related to sample size and power, is that it may indicate an increasing correspondence between the hypothesized model and the observed data as both the measurement properties and the relationship between constructs decline. Further, and contrary to common assertion, the risk of making a Type II error can be substantial even when the sample size is large. Moreover, the present testing methods are unable to assess a model's explanatory power. To overcome these problems, the authors develop and apply a testing system based on measures of shared variance within the structural model, measurement model, and overall model.
This chapter is divided into two parts. The first describes the effect of Pat Rabbitt's influence in encouraging the first author to use the increasingly sophisticated methods of ageing research to answer questions about the fundamental characteristics of working memory, together with reflections on why so little of this work reached publication. The second part presents a brief review of the literature on working memory and ageing, followed by an account of more recent work attempting to apply the traditional method of experimental dissociation to research on normal ageing and Alzheimer's disease. The discussion suggests that even such simple methods can throw light on both the processes of ageing and the understanding of working memory.
This study experimentally investigated the effects on product ratings of both overstatement and understatement of product quality. Results support common marketing practice in that overstatement resulted in more favorable ratings and understatement resulted in less favorable ratings.
The authors investigate whether it is necessary to include disconfirmation as an intervening variable affecting satisfaction as is commonly argued, or whether the effect of disconfirmation is adequately captured by expectation and perceived performance. Further, they model the process for two types of products, a durable and a nondurable good, using experimental procedures in which three levels of expectations and three levels of performance are manipulated for each product in a factorial design. Each subject's perceived expectations, performance evaluations, disconfirmation, and satisfaction are subsequently measured by using multiple measures for each construct. The results suggest the effects are different for the two products. For the nondurable good, the relationships are as typically hypothesized. The results for the durable good are different in important respects. First, neither the disconfirmation experience nor subjects' initial expectations affected subjects' satisfaction with it. Rather, their satisfaction was determined solely by the performance of the durable good. Expectations did combine with performance to affect disconfirmation, though the magnitude of the disconfirmation experience did not translate into an impact on satisfaction. Finally, the direct performance-satisfaction link accounts for most of the variation in satisfaction.
The concept of customer orientation in salespeople is defined, a scale is developed to measure the degree to which salespeople engage in customer-oriented selling, and the properties of the scale are reported. A test of the nomological validity indicates the use of customer-oriented selling is related to the ability of the salespeople to help their customers and the quality of the customer-salesperson relationship.
In this paper we present an adapted usability evaluation framework to the context of a mobile computing environment. Using this framework, we conducted a qualitative meta-analytical review of more than 100 empirical mobile usability studies. The results of the qualitative review include (a) the contextual factors studied; (b) the core and peripheral usability dimensions measured; and (c) key findings in the form of a research agenda for future mobile usability research, including open and unstructured tasks are underutilized, interaction effects between interactivity and complexity warrant further investigation, increasing research on accessibility may improve the usability of products and services for often overlooked audiences, studying novel technology and environmental factors will deepen contextual mobile usability knowledge, understanding which hedonic factors impact the aesthetic appeal of a mobile device or service and in turn usability, and a high potential for neuroscience research in mobile usability. Numerous additional findings and takeaways for practitioners are also discussed.
The rapid growth of mobile telephony has fueled the expansion of the mo- bile Internet as a foundation for mobile commerce. Proponents claim that mobile com- merce will surpass electronic commerce in growth and scope, but there is as yet no commonly accepted framework for the study of interface design for mobile commerce. Using Rayport and Jaworski's 7C's—the seven design elements of a customer interface (context, content, community, customization, communication, connection, and commerce) —as a reference framework, interfaces for mobile commerce and electronic commerce are compared. Two new elements (2M's) are identified: mobile setting and mobile device constraints. These 2M's substantially affect the design of each of the 7C's. Therefore, the 2M's and 7C's are proposed as a new framework for mobile commerce interfaces. Based on this, previous research is analyzed and suggestions for future research are generated.
The extent to which people can focus attention in the face of irrelevant distractions has been shown to critically depend on the level and type of information load involved in their current task. The ability to focus attention improves under task conditions of high perceptual load but deteriorates under conditions of high load on cognitive control processes such as working memory. I review recent research on the effects of load on visual awareness and brain activity, including changing effects over the life span, and I outline the consequences for distraction and inattention in daily life and in clinical populations.
This chapter discusses the progress and problems of distraction–conflict theory. Distraction–conflict theory suggests that attentional conflict might be the key mediator of drive in research settings. This chapter reviews the research and argues that—despite a good deal of corroborating data for some of the major contentions of distraction–conflict theory—attentional mechanisms may offer a more parsimonious account of social facilitation phenomena than does a drive perspective. Distraction–conflict theory can account post hoc for the findings that indicate that evaluative or competitive pressure heightens social facilitation or impairment; mere presence occasionally produces social facilitation in the absence of evaluative or competitive pressure; social loafing can occur on simple well-learned tasks; and hidden audiences produce social facilitation. The attentional emphasis suggests that distraction may have a variety of effects on cognition, attitude change, and social behavior.
procurement paradigm, as she described it in "The Software Customer/Supplier Relationship" (Feb. 2004). Whether organiza-tions are buying large amounts of commercial off-the-shelf, custom, or component software, all are concerned about productivity and total cost of ownership. But soft-ware product selection is multi-dimensional, including functionality, price, maintainability, reliability, architectural compli-ance, and usability. Though poor usability is a major factor in the total cost of ownership, it is typi-cally not even viewed as a cost. Consumer organizations have vir-tually no understanding of a pro-duct's usability before they buy it because software vendors don't make the information available. Usability problems manifest as uncontrolled overhead. Overhead costs increase significantly when end users find tools confusing, time-consuming, error-prone, inconsistent, require excessive training, or discourage exploration. Each of these factors undermines business benefits and the expected return on investment. Supplier and consumer organi-zations alike have much to gain
The statistical tests used in the analysis of structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error are examined. A drawback of the commonly applied chi square test, in addition to the known problems related to sample size and power, is that it may indicate an increasing correspondence between the hypothesized model and the observed data as both the measurement properties and the relationship between constructs decline. Further, and contrary to common assertion, the risk of making a Type II error can be substantial even when the sample size is large. Moreover, the present testing methods are unable to assess a model's explanatory power. To overcome these problems, the authors develop and apply a testing system based on measures of shared variance within the structural model, measurement model, and overall model.
Computer power that formerly only was available in offices and homes have now moved out on the roads, seas and beyond. Everything that can be mobile will be, and today only our fantasies are the limit as to what mobile devices can and will do. Mobile devices can be used for anything from taking notes in a business meeting to track down giraffes in a field study in Africa. When we do traditional usability tests on applications using stationary computers the context is controlled and not especially relevant. The computers in the labs are more or less in the same context as when they are used in offices and homes. But for mobile devices, testing might make the result irrelevant since it fails to take the context of its use into consideration. The purpose of this thesis is to evaluate the usability testing methods and theories from a mobile perspective. This is to find out if and where the conventional usability methods fail and what they fail to detect when applied to mobile devices. How can the usability methods of today be extended to facilitate the testing of mobile devices in its right context? We have done empirical tests of usability methods in usability laboratories and conducted expert interviews with researchers from the mobile as well as the usability field. Together with literature studies and informal interviews we analyze and discuss around rigour vs. relevance in laboratory and mobile settings. We used triangulation on the usability methods we tested and combined these results with the results from the expert interviews. First of all we found that there is indeed a need for a way to conduct mobile usability testing. The conventional usability tests take little or no consideration to the context of its use. All it measures is how good the gadget is in an office - like environment like in for example a usability lab. We propose a new tactic for usability test mobile gadgets. The tactic consists of conventional usability methods combined with an ethnographical study of the use of the gadget in the real world and a role -playing part where made up tasks are conducted in real life. This is to combine both rigour and relevance in the testing and introduce contextual aspects.
Different approaches to the measurement of usability are reviewed and related to definitions of usability in international standards. It is concluded that reliable measures of overall usability can only be obtained by assessing the effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction with which representative users carry out representative tasks in representative environments.This requires a detailed understanding of the context of use of a product. The ESPRIT MUSiC project has developed tools which can be used to measure usability in the laboratory and the field. An overview is given of the methods and tools for measuring user performance, cognitive workload, and user perceived quality.
The authors extend consumer satisfaction literature by theoretically and empirically (1) examining the effect of perceived performance using a model first proposed by Churchill and Surprenant, (2) investigating how alternative conceptualizations of comparison standards and disconfirmation capture the satisfaction formation process, and (3) exploring possible multiple comparison processes in satisfaction formation. Results of a laboratory experiment suggest that perceived performance exerts direct significant influence on satisfaction in addition to those influences from expected performance and subjective disconfirmation. Expectation and subjective disconfirmation seem to be the best conceptualizations in capturing satisfaction formation. The results suggest multiple comparison processes in satisfaction formation.
A model is proposed which expresses consumer satisfaction as a function of expectation and expectancy disconfirmation. Satisfaction, in turn, is believed to influence attitude change and purchase intention. Results from a two-stage field study support the scheme for consumers and nonconsumers of a flu inoculation.
Purpose
The paper seeks to provide a theoretical and empirical investigation of the relationship between consumer expectations and consumer perceptions of service quality.
Design/methodology/approach
The theory of cognitive reference points, adaptation‐level theory, and assimilation‐contrast theory are used to formulate hypotheses concerning the relationships between perceived service quality, consumer expectations, and perceptions. These hypotheses were empirically investigated through an experiment that manipulated expectations and perceptions while measuring perceived service quality.
Findings
The principal finding is that consumer expectations are positive predictors of perceived service quality (i.e. higher expectations lead to higher perceptions of quality). Another finding is that the relationship between expectations and perceived service quality is much stronger than prior literature suggests.
Practical implications
The practical implication of this study is that practitioners should seek to actively manage their customers' expectations to increase those expectations.
Originality/value
This paper is valuable to practitioners who are seeking to use expectations to achieve higher perceptions of quality among their customers. It is also valuable to researchers who are seeking to understand the relationship between expectations and quality perceptions.
Classic and contemporary methods for analyzing construct validity are compared and contrasted through reanalyses of data from the organizational research literature to establish a basis for assessing the validity of measures used in organizational research. Campbell and Fiske's (1959) criteria are found to be lacking, particularly in their assumptions, diagnostic information, and power. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is shown to overcome most limitations inherent in Campbell and Fiske's procedures. Nevertheless, two potential shortcomings are identified with the CFA method: the confounding of random error with measure-specific variance and the inability to test for interactions between traits and methods. Three alternative methods are presented for addressing the former issue, and the direct product model is described as a solution to the latter. The techniques considered herein go farther than currently used procedures for enhancing our ability to ascertain the validity of variables commonly studied in organizational research.
The phenomenal growth in the use of cellular phones and, more recently, also of wirelessly enabled Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), is giving rise to yet another revolution in the business world. This revolution is focused on conducting business on the move or mobile commerce (m-Commerce). This trend is fueled by a consumer interest in being able to access business services or to communicate with other consumers anytime and anywhere. It is also motivated by the interest of the business community to extend their reach to customers at all times and at all places. This paper starts by exploring the similarities and differences between m-Commerce and e-Commerce, followed by an overview of the technologies that support m-Commerce and in particular wireless networks, protocols and devices. A value network for m-Commerce is then presented, followed by an overview of different m-Commerce revenue models. A consumer-centric m-Commerce model for analyzing the types of interactions that a typical consumer might be engaged in within a wireless environment is then proposed, followed by an analysis of the various consumer needs and concerns for m-Commerce services/products. Several business applications are then explored in the context of the proposed interaction model. Finally, the necessary business and technological requirements for the ultimate success of these m-Commerce applications are discussed along with some managerial implications.
Limited research exists on the relevance of hedonic dimensions of human-computer interaction to usability, with only a small set of this research being empirical in nature. Furthermore, previous research has obtained mixed support for gender differences regarding perceptions of attractiveness and usability in Web site design. This empirical research addresses the above gap by studying the effects of color temperature and gender on perceptions of Web site aesthetics. A 2 x 2 between-subject research design manipulates the temperature of a Web site's primary and secondary colors. Each color pair consists of adjacent hues and is categorized as either warm or cool.
Web pages with complex layout do not display well on small screens, and require extensive amounts of scrolling, both horizontally and vertically. This quickly leads to disorientation within the page. In order to make optimum use of the small displays on mobile devices for Web browsing and searching, it is necessary to enforce both overview and detail concerns of page viewing. However, this typically requires two different visual renderings. SmartView provides an overview in the form of a zoomed out image of the page, with outlines segmenting it into detail regions; the user can select any of these regions in order to view it separately from the rest of the page. The content in the selected region is reformatted to fit the display, reducing any scrolling to a single direction. SearchMobil extends this approach with the aim of providing support for searching: pages retrieved by a search engine are displayed in an overview that is annotated to show the locations of search terms. We carried out a user study to compare SearchMobil's page representation to the one currently used in Pocket Internet Explorer, with a special emphasis on exploring the impact of page structure and query term selection on its effectiveness.
The expectancy disconfirmation model has dominated private-sector research on customer satisfaction for several decades, yet it has not been applied to citizen satisfaction with urban services. The model views satisfaction judgments as determined-not just by product or service performance-but by a process in which consumers compare performance with their prior expectations. Using data from a New York City citizen survey, this study finds that citizen expectations, and especially the disconfirmation of expectations-factors that previously have not been considered in empirical studies of the determinants of citizen satisfaction-play a fundamental role in the formation of satisfaction judgments regarding the quality of urban services. Interestingly, the modeling results suggest that urban managers should seek to promote not only high-quality services, but also high expectations among citizens. Additional implications for research and public management practice are discussed. © 2004 by the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management.