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An Empirical Investigation of Stress Factors in Information Technology Professionals
Information Resources Management Journal
Abstract
This study explores whether organizations can employ job design strategies to relieve organizational stress for information technology IT professionals. The effect of flexible work schedule, employee support and training, and telecommuting as potential coping resources to relieve stress were studied. Perceived workload, role ambiguity, work facilitation, and decision latitude were drawn from previous studies as potential stressors of IT professionals. Perceived stress was measured by two commonly used measures: work exhaustion and depressed mood. The results suggest that removing role ambiguity and improving work-facilitation ease work-related stress. Allowing employees to have flexible work schedules was also found to ease their perceptions of workload. Employee support and training strategies were found to influence decision latitude and role ambiguity. Telecommuting did not have any effect on the stressors. Results also indicate that the association between work exhaustion and depressed mood was stronger for males than females.
... One possible explanation may be because the nature of certain workers especially the IT skilled workers has created greater challenges to balance between family and career. As argued by Raghawan et al. (2008) and Rethinam and Maimunah (2008), job functions and irregular working hours among IT skilled workers have directly affect the quality of their work/life. In fact, according to several authors, the inability to balance work and family demands has been identified in connection with work stress among information technology workers (Raghawan et al., 2008;Scholarios & Marks, 2004). ...
... As argued by Raghawan et al. (2008) and Rethinam and Maimunah (2008), job functions and irregular working hours among IT skilled workers have directly affect the quality of their work/life. In fact, according to several authors, the inability to balance work and family demands has been identified in connection with work stress among information technology workers (Raghawan et al., 2008;Scholarios & Marks, 2004). ...
Retaining existing employees, especially the skilled information technology (IT) employees is becoming more important due to business growth, imbalance between demand and supply, and high turnover rate. The paper seeks to investigate the relationship between rewards and flexible work schedule on intention to stay among professional IT employees. The two factors investigated in this study are monetary rewards (salary and bonus) and flexible work schedule. Results from 178 participants indicate that both monetary rewards (salary and bonus) and flexible work schedule were significantly positively related to intention to stay. Though salary, bonus and flexible work schedule indicate significant positive relationship with intention to stay, salary makes the strongest contribution to intention to stay. Implications of the findings, potential limitations of the study, and directions for future research are suggested.
... Secara kesuluruhannya, persepsi sokongan organisasi diyakini akan dapat menggalakkan pekerja untuk terus kekal di organisasi sekiranya pekerja berasa bahawa segala tindakan dan amalan organisasi berupaya memenuhi keperluan kerjaya dan kebajikan mereka. TEKANAN KERJA SEBAGAI PENYEDERHANA Tekanan kerja merupakan reaksi individu sama ada secara emosi atau fizikal terhadap kekangan atau halangan berkaitan dengan pekerjaan (Moore 2000;Raghawan, Sakaguchi & Mahaney 2008;Seers et al. 1983). Reaksi secara emosi umumnya dijelaskan dalam bentuk kelesuan kerja, kemurungan dan menyendiri (Jawahar, Stone & Kisamore 2007;Maslach & Jakcson 1981). ...
... Tekanan kerja dioperalisasikan sebagai persepsi pekerja terhadap kelesuan kerja yang disebabkan tugas di organisasi (Maslach & Jackson 1981;Raghawan et al. 2008). Tekanan kerja diukur dengan menggunakan instrumen Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) yang dibangunkan oleh Maslach dan Jackson (1981). ...
This study investigates the moderating role of job stress in the relationship between organization support and intention to stay among information technology professional workers. To achieve this objective, a total of 832 questionnaires are mailed to the representatives of organizations that have agreed to participate in this study. From 220 questionnaires that are returned, only 178 are usable for further analysis to produce a response rate of 21.39 percent. The hypothesis on the moderating or interaction effect is tested using hierarchical multiple regressions. The results show that job stress moderates the relationship between perceived organization support and intention to stay. Implications of the findings, potential limitations, and directions for future research are discussed at the end the paper.
... Drawing on this, it is proposed that: H1: Pay fulfillment has a important and optimistic effect on intention to remain. Stress and Intention to Remain Past studies specified that individuals who are stressed tend to experience exhaustion, burnout, depression, and alienation (Raghawan, Sakaguchi & Mahaney, 2008). Employees who experience such circumstances are more likely to leave the organization. ...
In the case of work-related injury/illness, rehabilitation that commences at the earliest may help the injured or disabled workers to return to work as fit, safe and quick as possible. While the effectiveness of the Return-to-Work (RTW) program relies on the number of injured participants who had returned to work, there were a number of participants reluctant to return to work, or unable to retain at work. It is therefore, pertinent to understand the reasons that make them sustain at work due to the issue of turnover to some of them. The objective of this study is to examine the factors affecting return-to-work experienced by the participants, by looking at the influence of pay satisfaction, stress, and self-efficacy on their turnover intention. A total of 187 RTW participants in various industries in the Klang Valley, Malaysia, participated in the study. Statistical analyses were conducted using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) and the Partial Least Square (PLS). The findings showed a significant impact of stress and self-efficacy on intention to stay among the participants of RTW. The result indicated that 24.1 percent of the total variance of intention to stay was explained by the factors examined in this study.
... In this context, Gerlmaier and Latniak [10] highlight the importance of factors, such as creating individual leeway, providing opportunities for recreation at the workplace, or the quality of management of IT specialists. In addition, Raghavan et al. [32] report that, among other things, flexible working hours, adequate support of employees, or subject-related training can alleviate stressors, such as role ambiguity and the absence of leeway for decision-making and improve the overall perception of work stress. Bolhari et al. [5] emphasized time and again that IT specialists, notwithstanding their (very) stressful jobs that put a great strain on them, have so far been unable to gain significant experience with stress management programs. ...
As a result of their institutional assignments, highly specialized information technology (IT) personnel often find themselves in unpredictable and complex situations with a high level of difficulty. The complexity of the tasks to be carried out and the management of these tasks have set new challenges for this category of personnel. It is all the more important, therefore, that the personnel employed should acquire differentiated stress control techniques during qualifying training to develop a long-term performance capability. Following up on the earlier mentioned challenges, an assignment-specific stress inoculation training for highly specialized IT personnel is being introduced against the background of relevant stressors in the context of IT.
... In addition, the type of work and the skill level of employees often determine whether a position or employee is eligible for telework (Buscaglia, 2020). It is also revealed that employment flexibility is essential for successful telework (Bloom et al., 2015;Raghavan et al., 2008;Wang, Liu, et al., 2020;Wapshott & Mallett, 2012). Finally, effective telework also requires that the arrangements be designed following national labour legislation (Pyoria, 2011) and the safety and security of telework must be guaranteed (Koslowski et al., 2019;Robertson et al., 2012). ...
Advances in information and communications technology have contributed to the spread of telework, which has been underway since the early 2000s. During the COVID-19 pandemic, telework became more than just an alternative to the traditional office: it became a strategic means of survival for many companies. Given its importance, in the last two decades, the scientific community has shown increased interest in the factors that affect successful telework. However, knowledge on this subject remains fragmented and disparate. This study aims to synthesise the literature on successful telework and consolidate its success factors into a framework that provides conceptual and holistic knowledge on the topic. Our findings demonstrate that telework is affected by factors categorised into five groups: technological materials, non-technological materials, teleworkers, teleworker work environment and teleworker family environment. A number of these factors has causal links, while some have become irrelevant and given way to new factors over time. Some have been confirmed to have an overall positive effect on telework. In addition to proposing a theoretical perspective and future research avenues, this study presents some HRM implications to help managers and policymakers make telework more effective.
... Perceived workload, role ambiguity, work facilitation and decision latitude are potential stressors of IT professionals. Removing role ambiguity and improving work facilitation reduces work-related stress and allowing employees to have flexible work schedules eases their perception of workload (Raghavan, Sakaguchi & Mahaney, 2010). ...
... Existance of stress depends on the existence of stressors.Raghavan, et al., (2010) opined that perceived work load, role ambiguity, work facilitation and decision latitude are potential stressors of work place. He further added that flexible working ease their perception about workload, removal of role ambiguity and improved work facilitation reduces work related stess. Oladinrin, et al., (2014) observed that high lev ...
The telecom sector is facing challenges in terms of technological revolution, services diversification and cut throat competition. In such situation stress is unavoidable and as stress handing capacity differs from person to person, it is reflected in the physical, emotional and mental health of the employees. The present study sought to identify the factors leading to stress and the level of stress perceived by the marketing executives of telecom sector. The study was conducted with 197 respondents in Guwahati. Exploratory factor analysis was carried out for factor extraction and Cronbach’s alpha is used to examine the scale reliability while descriptive statistics represented the level of stress. This study provides empirical support to the existence of stress among the employees of telecom sector.
... The focus of this section is on the aspects of organizations that can be altered to reduce the experience of stress or to at least moderate its impact. Such areas include job redesign (Beehr, Jex, Ghosh, Johnson, Redmon, & Mawhinney, 2001), participative management (Kalleberg, Nesheim, & Olsen, 2009), flexible work schedules (Raghavan, Sakaguchi, & Mahaney, 2008), career development (Sethi, King, & Quick, 2004), and the design of physical settings (De Croon, Sluiter, Kuijer, & Frings-Dresen, 2005). For example, flexible work schedules are discussed in depth, along with daily transitions and boundary management and some specific approaches such as telecommuting. ...
Given the growing literature on and documented importance of workplace stress, it is suggested that this topic deserves more than a casual mention in introductory management classes. The current article reviews a comprehensive course dedicated to the phenomenon of stress in the work setting, which addresses issues such as theories, demands and stressors, and individual and organizational consequences and coping methods. The structure and learning objectives of the course are also detailed, along with some future directions for incorporating work stress into other aspects of management education.
Professionals in the realm of information technology (IT) face a persistent strain stemming from various sources. They're compelled to deliver results that meet targets and budget constraints, which often translates into tight deadlines and lengthy work hours. This pressure, coupled with concerns about job security and the struggle to maintain a work-life balance, contributes to mounting stress levels among them. Unfulfilled career aspirations add another layer to this burden, fostering psychological and health issues. Consequently, this stress dampens their initiative, diminishes their commitment, and saps their motivation, thereby negatively impacting their performance. The prevalence of stress among IT professionals is a topic of significant attention and concern.
Having approximately a year and a half of work experience in corporate field, stress is something that we easily see around in the environment. Stress is a day to day substance that every employee undergoes. Stress, in corporate can be due to work pressure, mental stress, competition between co-workers and individuals' personal commitments. Stress begins for an individual after the training period, once the real side of the work is seen. The management plays a vital role as being a reason for inducement of stress as well as reduce the stress of an employee. The management being as a reason is because in general all the companies work for profit motives and are not employee centric, As a result companies takes in lot of projects and get deadlines from the clients of which all this is enforced on the low-level employees. Statistically speaking middle level and lower level employees face lot of stress compared to the top management. Employees are given heavy loads of work and close dead lines giving them both physical and mental trouble. Many companies force employees with over times i.e., work extra hours after day to day shift and work on weekends and day offs. Though there are many programmes conducted by Human Resource team like fun Fridays, DJ nights and other events for the employees, unfortunately none of these helps in reducing the stress. The stress can also affect the individual's family life as they exert the stress faced in office at home leading to problems in relationships.
Purpose of this study is examining the cause of stress among selected private banking employees. Stratified sampling method was used to carry out the data collection. For this employee of various private banks were chosen. A questionnaire with 12 items with dichotomous (Yes-1, NO-2) were developed and tested for reliability and prior to the distribution of questionnaire. 253 respondents were selected from various private banks in Mysore district, Karnataka state India. The survey questionnaire was sent via email, requesting to complete it. The questionnaire includes 11 demographic information’s and statements to measure. Chi-Square analysis was carried out to examine the cause of stress among employee using SPSS21. We found that designations have significant influence on employee and The other factors of do not have any significant influence on employee. Therefore we concluded that in private banks demographic variable such as designation creates stress in all aspects. Future research should consider a larger sample from leading sectors where job natures are similar. Analysis should be more rigorous, where Amos could be used for analysis.
Having approximately a year and a half of work experience in corporate field, stress is something that we easily see around in the environment. Stress is a day to day substance that every employee undergoes. Stress, in corporate can be due to work pressure, mental stress, competition between co-workers and individuals' personal commitments. Stress begins for an individual after the training period, once the real side of the work is seen. The management plays a vital role as being a reason for inducement of stress as well as reduce the stress of an employee. The management being as a reason is because in general all the companies work for profit motives and are not employee centric, As a result companies takes in lot of projects and get deadlines from the clients of which all this is enforced on the low-level employees. Statistically speaking middle level and lower level employees face lot of stress compared to the top management. Employees are given heavy loads of work and close deadlines giving them both physical and mental trouble. Many companies force employees with over times i.e., work extra hours after day to day shift and work on weekends and day offs. Though there are many programmes conducted by Human Resource team like fun Fridays, DJ nights and other events for the employees, unfortunately none of these helps in reducing the stress. The stress can also affect the individual's family life as they exert the stress faced in office at home leading to problems in relationships.
Post-Project Reviews are highly rated as a process to evaluate project outcomes and to leverage learning. Nevertheless they have remained the least-developed area of project management although the incidence of failed projects remains persistently high. The purpose of this research was to determine factors which affect the slow uptake and often ineffectual application of Post-Project Reviews. A case study was undertaken in a large, multinational, mobile Services Provider with an ad-hoc approach to Post-Project Reviews. Storytelling was the approach employed to extract information from stakeholders and role-players, representing both project and business areas. Thematic analysis of the stories revealed that business personnel and project teams had widely opposing views. It was also determined that although there were sufficient frameworks available most of the stakeholders required executive direction to compel them into action, which was not forthcoming. Areas identified for further research are methods for effective transference of tacit data into organisational learning, and development of strategies to align project outputs to expected and successful business outcomes.
In this chapter, we consider ICT (information and communication technologies) as a tool that has significantly changed our work. We deal with the relationship between work and ICT, and changes in work due to the development of ICT, and their relationship with worker well-being and stress. Our aim is to consider major trends in research starting from studies about office work and computers and ending up to the use of ICT in knowledge work. We cover mainly a period from 1970's to the end of 2000's. Our main interest is on various types of information and knowledge processing work where implementation of new tools has clearly followed the general development of ICT solutions. The scope of the chapter is in the transition from traditional office work towards knowledge work from the viewpoint of worker well-being. Our research questions are 1) what connections and research trends can be identified between ICT supported work and stress and well-being at work and 2) what is the role and connection of ICT on knowledge work. Based on our literature study from electronic databases surprisingly few research articles focussing on ICT's role on knowledge worker wellbeing or knowledge work as such were found. Only a surprisingly small fraction of the research concerning ICT or tools seems to integrate relations between technology, work and worker well-being. However, we know much about the physiological or psychological reactions of the use of VDT (visual display units) applications. This relatively narrow, even if important focus is not enough for workplace and job designers' knowledge accumulation and exploitation. There is a risk that new researcher generations are maturing without being aware of the rich Northern European and German research tradition in developing the quality of work life. Thus, the existing body of knowledge is not fully exploited anymore. This also challenges our university teaching.
There is stress in the computer information systems industry that affects work performanceand employee wellness [1, 2, 3]. The nature of the business of creating information systems iscompetitive and frequently involves aggressive deadlines. The designers and developers ofthese systems are required to be highly innovative and efficient in the face of constant timepressures. The leading consequence of the stressors is reported as increased frustration which"negatively impacts a job that requires high levels of discipline, focus, and systematicthinking" [1, p. 73].In contrast, evidence from psychological literature suggests that mild positive moodscontribute to creative problem solving in task performance [4]. Increases in positive moodhelped explain the improved work performance of computer information systems developers(CISD) when working with preferred music [5]. In a recent study examining the prevalence ofpersonality type and music use [6] in two different CISD groups, there were twice as manyindividuals with introversion than with extraversion; a trend opposite to the general populationof nearly a two to one ratio of extraverts to introverts. Those with introversion also hadsignificantly greater negative mood than those with extraversion, with possible interference tooptimal work performance. Introverts, more so than extraverts, are reported to make use ofmusic for emotional regulation [7]. Thus, there is a need to account for the way in whichmusic influences these individual differences and consequential work performance.Greater evidence of the beneficial use of music in this high-stress occupation is neededand should be addressed by a) obtaining an objective productivity score, as compared topreviously self-reported productivity measures, and b) accounting for differential musiceffects on productivity for extraversion and introversion, and c) accounting for the effect of atimed music-condition for work performance.Research from organization science is currently emphasizing the role of daily moods injob behaviors, job satisfaction, and work outcomes [8], as well as the importance of enhancingself-adaptation, referred to as "thriving", in the workplace. [9]. Additionally, differences in personality type will determine differential mood and arousal needs and consequential workoutcomes [10]. This article contributes to the research on affect in the organizationalliterature, and, is pioneering in music-organizational literature for music psychology andmusic therapy. Lastly, the findings have practical implications for management of highcognitivedemand, high-stress occupations.
The study proposes to investigate whether Market Orientation (MO), Service Orientation (SO) and Information Technology Infrastructure Capability (ITIC) affect the Job Satisfaction (JS) as well as to identify factors and barriers that influence the implementation of MO, SO and ITI capability to improve JS in banking industry. About 20 participants from 4 departments from Mellat Bank of Iran have been involved in the qualitative research process which was blended with the case study design. Significant patterns and themes are identified and presented in this study. A conceptual research framework based on the qualitative analysis on how MO, SO and ITI capability improve JS is proposed. The model comprises of five major components: market orientation, service orientation, job satisfaction, IT infrastructure capability and factors and barriers that influence the implementation of MO, SO and ITI capability to improve JS. Extensive empirical analyses in the real world environment in other industries would be helpful to verify and generalize this approach. This study provides guidelines for bank industry to implement effective market orientation and service orientation initiatives and information technology infrastructure to improve job satisfaction.
The researchers at various points of time have debated over the determinants of coping style of employees to manage their work stress level. With the aim to provide more insight into phenomenon of stress coping style of employees, the present study has been designed. A sample of 515 employees working in various sub-sectors of service sector of Jammu & Kashmir state, India, has been taken for the study. With the help of qualitative binary response model, the composition has made an attempt to identify the determinants that have significant impact on the coping style embraced by the employees. The study explicates that all personal factors do not account for variation in employees' coping style. Rather composition spells out that some predictors, such as nature of occupation, work stress, frequency of rewards, number of promotions, etc., which are associated with the organisation, also influence the coping style of employees.
The potential for increased levels of stress in the contemporary work environment has made work stress a burgeoning area of concern for individuals and organisations. However, the organizational and work related factors do not lead to stress unless perceived as stressful by the individual employees. The literature has underlined the importance of individual differences in explaining the phenomenon of work stress and has strived for convergence of the diversity in the level of work stress on account of the presence of difference in individuals. It is with this background that present composition has been designed to comprehend those individual differences which account for variation in work stress among the employees. Taking the sample of 575 employees working in various sub-sectors of service sector of Jammu & Kashmir (India), the study has documented the existence of significant differences between the level of work stress and personal characteristics like age, gross monthly salary, work experience, marital status and educational qualification besides the personality traits, namely, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism and openness to experience. Thus, study recommends that in addition to the stressors in work environment, the organisations should devise and invest in strategies that recognise the individual differences.
This research examines the level of stress experienced by IT project managers and determines the types of coping strategies used to handle their stress. Sixty-four South African IT project managers completed an online questionnaire. The findings indicate that IT project managers are highly stressed and tend to utilize maladaptive coping strategies more as their stress levels increase. These strategies included self-distraction, venting, self-blame, positive reframing, behavioral disengagement, substance use and denial. This contradicts prior research where the coping strategy was emotional support. In addition, the more experienced the IT project managers were, the higher their levels of stress. These findings could assist project managers to better understand the effects of stress on their productivity and to consider more appropriate coping strategies to assist them to reduce their stress.
Although the stressful nature of high risk exposure software projects and the adverse repercussions of stress on project participants and performance have long been recognized, there is still little research on the subject. This paper builds upon two foundations - the cognitive-transactional theory of stress and the concept of software project risk exposure - to propose a model of software project risk drivers as software project manager stressors and coping resources. The model posits that some software project risk drivers - core project characteristics and project objectives - play the role of stressors and that other risk drivers - project environment characteristics - play the role of coping resources. The model further suggests that software project managers are faced with both chronic stress and acute stress, which have different antecedents. This paper broadens current understanding of the role of software project risk drivers; it also contributes to knowledge on software project management by focusing on the emotional components this activity.
Over the past few decades, the number of flexible workers has increased, a situation that has captured researchers’ attention. Traditionally, temporary workers were portrayed as being disadvantaged compared to permanent workers. But in the new era, temporary workers cannot be treated as a homogeneous group. This study distinguishes between four types of temporaries based on their contract preference and employability level. Furthermore, it compares them with a permanent group. Whether these groups differ on job insecurity and health-related outcomes in a sample of 383 Spanish employees was tested. Differences in well-being and life satisfaction were found, and the hypotheses were supported. The results point out that the temporary workforce is diverse. Therefore, in order to attain a better understanding of the experiences and situations of these workers, it is preferable not to consider them as one homogeneous group.
Discusses mediation relations in causal terms. Influences of an antecedent are transmitted to a consequence through an intervening mediator. Mediation relations may assume a number of functional forms, including nonadditive, nonlinear, and nonrecursive forms. Although mediation and moderation are distinguishable processes, with nonadditive forms (moderated mediation) a particular variable may be both a mediator and a moderator within a single set of functional relations. Current models for testing mediation relations in industrial and organizational psychology often involve an interplay between exploratory (correlational) statistical tests and causal inference. It is suggested that no middle ground exists between exploratory and confirmatory (causal) analysis and that attempts to explain how mediation processes occur require specified causal models. (57 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Male secondary school rugby players (
N=271) participated in a study examining role ambiguity, role efficacy, and role performance. A multidimensional measure was used to assess 4 manifestations of role ambiguity in offensive and defensive contexts. Multiple role ambiguity dimensions explained variance in efficacy and performance. Consistent with theorizing by A. Bandura (1997) and R. L. Kahn, D. M. Wolfe, R. P. Quinn, J. D. Snoek, and R. A. Rosenthal (1964), negative relationships observed between role ambiguity and role performance were mediated by competence (role efficacy) beliefs. Findings support the multidimensional operationalization of role ambiguity and role efficacy as a generative mechanism through which role ambiguity can affect role performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A primary objective of organizational virtual work programs (e.g., providing the option to employees to work from home) is the reduction of employees'work-nonwork conflict and job stress. In this study, we find some preliminary evidence suggesting that virtual work is negatively related to work-nonwork conflict and job stress. We identify the work factors (clarity of appraisal criteria, interpersonal trust, and organizational connectedness) and individual factors (self-efficacy and ability to structure the workday) associated with work-nonwork conflict and find that these associations are moderated by the extent of virtual work. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
We focus on everyday role transitions involving home, work, and other places. Transitions are boundary-crossing activities, where one exits and enters roles by surmounting role boundaries. Roles can be arrayed on a continuum, spanning high segmentation to high integration. Segmentation decreases role blurring but increases the magnitude of change, rendering boundary crossing more difficult; crossing often is facilitated by rites of passage. Integration decreases the magnitude of change but increases blurring, rendering boundary creation and maintenance more difficult; this challenge often is surmounted by boundary work.
This article reviews and summarizes two decades of empirical literature concerned with both direct and moderating variable-based analyses of the relationship of organizational stress with job satisfaction and job performance. Moderating influences of various constructs operationalized at the individual, group and organizational level of analysis are classified and then reviewed systematically. An evaluative summary of this research suggests that although there have been significant improvements in the analytical methods employed to investigate such phenomena, much of this research still does not consider the role of reciprocal relationships that evolve over time. We provide four guidelines for improving the quality of both theoretical rigor and methodological robustness in this important area of organizational inquiry.
Retaining information technology (IT) professionals is important for organizations, given the challenges in sourcing for IT talent. Prior research has largely focused on understanding employee turnover from an intra-individual perspective. In this study we examine employee turnover from a structural perspective. We investigate the impact on IT turnover of organizations' Internal Labor Market (ILM) strategies. ILM strategies include human resource rules, practices, and policies including hiring and promotion criteria, job ladders, wage systems and training procedures. We collect data on ILM strategies and turnover rates for eight major IT jobs across forty-one organizations and analyze the data using confirmatory agglomerative hierarchical clustering techniques. Our results show that organizations adopt distinct ILM strategies for different IT jobs, and that these strategies relate to differential turnover rates. Specifically, technically-oriented IT jobs cluster in craft ILM strategies that are associated with higher turnover, whereas managerially-oriented IT jobs cluster in industrial ILM strategies that are associated with lower turnover. Further, depending on their contingencies of goal orientation (not-for-profit versus for-profit), IT focus (IT producer versus user), and information intensity (IT critical versus support), organizations adopt an industrial ILM strategy for their technically-oriented IT jobs to dampen turnover. Not-for-profit and IT user organizations where IT is critical adopt industrial ILM strategies for their technically-oriented IT jobs to attenuate turnover and improve the predictability of their IT workforce. IT producers and IT users where IT plays a supporting role adopt craft ILM strategies that engender higher turnover to remain timely and flexible in IT skills acquisition.
Job stress can lead to burnout and turnover, costing IT organizations countless dollars in replacement costs, and making methods for measuring and minimizing stress a business benefit.
The article focuses on issues concerning telecommuting The article focuses on issues concerning telecommuting. According to a recent survey conducted by the International Telework Association and Council, 19.6 million U.S.-based employees telecommuted in 1999. Although some 62% of companies are reportedly encouraging telecommuting, a mere 7% of employees actually telecommute. The potential benefits of telecommuting are manifold and make it appealing to both employers and employees. Organizations can expect to see reduced overhead costs in maintaining a central work fadity , improved work productivity, greater staffing flexibility and better employee retentions. Telecommuters in turn can expect a better quality of life, more flexible work schedules and reduced transportation costs and travel durations. Possible drawbacks for the employer include the cost of implementing telecommuting programs, the difficulty management may experience in supervising employees and the negative effects telecommuting may exert on employees' career developments.
Information systems IS technology has become a strategic resource for most organizations to compete successfully in today's highly uncertain marketplace. One critical component of this strategic resource is the IS human resource. Unlike many other professions, the IS professionals historically displayed a much higher rate of turnover due to rapid technological changes, job stress and emerging employment opportunities. Such excessive turnover can be very costly to the organization in terms of costs of recruiting and re-training, and the loss of systems development productivity. Therefore, maintaining a qualified and stable body of IS staff has been continually ranked among the most important issues for the successful functioning of IS departments. However, these important IS human resource management issues have not received enough empirical research attention within the IS management literature. The current study attempts to fill this gap by empirically examining the relationships among a set of organizational and psychological factors i.e., management support, degree of IS control, IS strategic significance, role stressors and the organizational commitment of IS managers. Empirical data was collected through large-scale questionnaire survey. The rigorous statistical method of LISREL path analysis was used. Results show that these variables are closely related to each other, which provides valuable insights for organizations to more effectively manage their IS human resource.
To investigate the associations of various types of employment with six self reported health indicators, taking into account the part played by demographic variables, individual working conditions and four ecological indicators at the country level.
Cross sectional survey (structured interview) of a sample of the active population of 15 European countries aged 15 years or over. Main independent variables were nine types of employment categorised as follows: small employers, full and part time permanent employees, full and part time fixed term employees, full and part time sole traders and full and part time temporary contracts. Main outcome measures were three self reported health related outcomes (job satisfaction, health related absenteeism, and stress) and three self reported health problems (overall fatigue, backache, and muscular pains). Logistic regression and multilevel models were used in the analyses.
15 countries of the European Union.
15 146 employed persons aged 15 or over.
Precarious employment was consistently and positively associated with job dissatisfaction but negatively associated with absenteeism and stress (as compared with full time permanent workers). Fatigue, backache and muscular pains also tended to be positively associated with precarious employment, particularly with full time precarious employment. Small employers reported high percentages of stress and fatigue, but absenteeism was relatively low. Sole traders generally reported high percentages of all outcomes, except for absenteeism, which was low. For each type of employment (except temporary contracts), full time workers tended to report worse health outcomes than part time workers. Patterns were generally consistent across countries. Associations persisted after adjustment for individual level working conditions and were not modified by country level variables.
This study is the first to examine the relations between various types of employment and six health related indicators for all 15 member states of the European Union. Suggestive patterns worthy of further exploration have been found. Standardised definitions of types of underemployment and health related outcomes, more potent epidemiological designs and the inclusion of socioeconomic information (for example, social security systems, incapacity benefit schemes) at the regional level are proposed for inclusion in further research.
This research extends the theory of planned behavior by incorporating gender and age as moderators of user perceptions and individual adoption and sustained use of technology in the workplace. Individual reactions and technology use behavior were studied over a six-month period among 342 workers being introduced to a new software technology application. While previous studies in the literature have reported gender or age differences separately, the pattern of results from the study reported here indicated that gender effects in individual adoption and use of technology differed based on age. Specifically, gender differences in technology perceptions became more pronounced among older workers, but a unisex pattern of results emerged among younger workers. The theory and empirical results are also discussed in relation to the widely employed technology acceptance model. The results from this study suggest that old stereotypes that portray "technology" as a male-oriented domain may be disappearing; particularly among younger workers. In light of these findings, theoretical implications for researchers and practical suggestions for managers are discussed.
The statistical tests used in the analysis of structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error are examined. A drawback of the commonly applied chi square test, in addition to the known problems related to sample size and power, is that it may indicate an increasing correspondence between the hypothesized model and the observed data as both the measurement properties and the relationship between constructs decline. Further, and contrary to common assertion, the risk of making a Type II error can be substantial even when the sample size is large. Moreover, the present testing methods are unable to assess a model's explanatory power. To overcome these problems, the authors develop and apply a testing system based on measures of shared variance within the structural model, measurement model, and overall model.
A critical element in the evolution of a fundamental body of knowledge in marketing, as well as for improved marketing practice, is the development of better measures of the variables with which marketers work. In this article an approach is outlined by which this goal can be achieved and portions of the approach are illustrated in terms of a job satisfaction measure.
This study examines the impact of perceived organizational support (POS) oil the relationship between boundary spanner role stressors (i.e., role conflict and role ambiguity) and both work attitudes (i.e., job satisfaction and intent to remain) and behavior (i.e., task performance). Results indicate that POS has strong effects on role ambiguity and role conflict, as well as job satisfaction and intent to remain. However POS is not related to task performance in our sample. POS also has moderating effects on several role stress-outcome relations. The paper discusses the implication of these findings for managers, along with recommendations for future research.
Model Notation, Covariances, and Path Analysis. Causality and Causal Models. Structural Equation Models with Observed Variables. The Consequences of Measurement Error. Measurement Models: The Relation Between Latent and Observed Variables. Confirmatory Factor Analysis. The General Model, Part I: Latent Variable and Measurement Models Combined. The General Model, Part II: Extensions. Appendices. Distribution Theory. References. Index.
Results of this study suggest that the differential response of women to part-time work as opposed to a career may be a function of motivational and work-context differences between career and non-career women. Part-time work was associated with lower work-to-family interference, better time management ability, and greater life satisfaction for women in both career and earner-type positions. Role overload, family-to-work interference, and family time management, however, were dependent on job type with beneficial effects for earners but not for career women. Job type also played a role: Career women reported higher life satisfaction and lower depressed mood than did women in earner positions. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Anecdotal evidence suggests that the escalated workload of the public accounting “busy season” is a major contributor to employee “burnout.” Academic research on the psychological impact of the busy season workload, however, is virtually absent from the accounting literature. We partially address this void by employing a longitudinal design and structural equation modeling to examine the causal impact of the busy season workload on public accountants' job burnout—a dysfunctional stress syndrome. Prior to the start of the busy season and again at its end, we measured hours worked, role stressors, and job burnout for a sample of public accountants from a national firm. The results of our analyses indicate that public accountants' pre‐busy season burnout was not directly affected by hours worked, even though subjects reported an average workload of 49 hours per week. This result implies that public accountants may develop a relatively high workload threshold before it directly impacts their job burnout. Duri...
Role theory has been used to conceptualize the findings regarding job stress, suggesting that the source of job stress is one's co-workers. If this is so, individuals in stressful jobs are likely to be especially dissatisfied with their co-workers. In interviews with 651 employees of five Midwestern work organizations, it was shown that three role stresses (role ambiguity, role overload, and underutilization of skills) were related to five employee outcomes: overall job dissatisfaction, life dissatisfaction, low self-esteem, depressed mood, and fatigue. As hypothesized, each stress was most strongly correlated with dissatisfaction with the stress itself, second most strongly correlated with dissatisfaction with co-workers, and least strongly correlated with dissatisfaction with the nonsocial aspects of the work role. It was concluded that people who experience job stress blame the social system in the organization, resulting in their dissatisfaction with co-workers, who are the elements of that system.
This study investigates the sources or organizational stress among information systems (IS) managers, the resulting symptoms of strain, and whether social support can reduce symptoms of strain. A field study comprised of a survey questionnaire was chosen as the most appropriate design for this investigation. The respondents were IS managers, ranging in organizational hierarchy from vice president or director to project manager, in both governmental and private sector organizations of varying sizes. The study reveals that job stresses among IS managers are positively related to psychological and physiological strains. While all of the stressors included in this investigation are significantly related to strain symptoms, certain stressors emerge as having the greatest impact. Likewise, certain strains that result from these stressors are more prevalent than others. Concerning social support, the study reveals that the level of social support among IS managers is lower than among other managers. When social support exists, strain among these managers is significantly lower. The implications of the study's findings are considerable both for the health prognosis of IS managers and their job performance.
This study examines the antecedents of job satisfaction, commitment, and turnover intentions for 229 information systems (IS) personnel employed within several industries. The antecedents studied include boundary spanning, role ambiguity, and role conflict. A model of these variables was built and tested using path analysis. Role ambiguity was found to be the most dysfunctional variable for IS personnel, accounting for 10.3%, 20.2% and 22.2% of the variance in turnover intentions, commitment, and job satisfaction. This information is used to make recommendations to IS management. Finally, recommendations and directions are suggested regarding future research.
The majority of public accounting firms now offer flexible work arrangements to their professional employees. Presumably these arrangements help accommodate employee needs to manage work and family demands, while also improving job satisfaction and retention. The ability of flexible work arrangements to achieve these goals has received little attention. The current paper addresses this issue by reporting the results of a survey of CPAs working under a flexible work arrangement and a similar group of CPAs working under a standard arrangement but who appear to be plausible candidates for a flexible work arrangement. The survey elicited information about several key employment variables: job-related stressors (e.g., role conflict, role ambiguity, and role overload), burnout tendencies (e.g., emotional exhaustion, reduced personal accomplishment, and depersonalization) and behavioral job outcomes (e.g., job satisfaction and turnover intentions).
Results show that CPAs on flexible work arrangements report higher job satisfaction and lower turnover intentions than those on a standard work arrangement. CPAs on flexible work arrangements generally have lower levels of burnout and stressors, though the reduced personal accomplishment burnout dimension may be conditioned upon whether the CPA has a mentor. Finally, for professionals switching to a flexible work arrangement, respondents indicated a significant improvement in job satisfaction and turnover intentions as well as some decline in burnout and stressors.
Information system (IS) personnel have exhibit high incidence of technical and managerial anchors. It has been proposed that IS personnel with technical anchors have difficultly moving into a more advanced career stage that requires a greater emphasis on managerial skills (e.g., leadership) and activities. Using the data from a survey of IS professionals, we find that career satisfaction is positively and significantly correlated with career stage. Moreover, managerially anchored IS professionals are found to be more satisfied in the mentor stage than those who are technically anchored. However, no clear relationship between career anchors and career satisfaction was found in the sponsor stage. It appears that the combined effects of career anchor and stage is a more complex relation than previously thought in the literature. The results indicate that career programs discussed in the literature may need to be adjusted to accommodate advancement for those with a technical career anchor.
This study examines occupational stress among information systems personnel. A self-report stress and health behavior instrument was completed by 580 respondents in 18 large corporations in the midwestern and southwestern sections of the United States. The data indicate that various job factors are perceived as stressful by respondents. However, the stress levels reported by respondents are not as excessive as have been found in studies of other occupational groups.
An empirical study conducted in a major midwestern hospital found that organizational commitment and perceived organizational support were significantly correlated with satisfaction with career development. Results suggested that when organizations make efforts to develop their managers, the managers become more committed to the organization and also more likely to develop their employees.
The present study provided further evidence on the role of negative affectivity (NA) and gender as moderators of stressor-strain relations. Based on theoretical and empirical research, it was hypothesized that the moderating effects of NA would moderate the relationship between stressors (role ambiguity, workload, role conflict and interpersonal conflict) and work-related depression. Questionnaires were returned form 442 subjects of whom 74% were recruited from external degree courses and the rest were full-time employees. Results revealed significant three-way interactions for two of the four stressors (workload and role ambiguity) in predicting work-related depression. NA moderated the relationship between these stressors and work-related depression for females but not for males. These effects were modest, however. No significant interactions were found for role conflict and interpersonal conflict. The implications of these results are discssed.
This study examines the relationship between employee attitudes toward training and feelings of organizational commitment among a sample of 337 registered nurses from five hospitals. Using social exchange theory as a framework for investigating the relationship, the researcher found that perceived access to training, social support for training, motivation to learn, and perceived benefits of training are positively related to organizational commitment. Using a three-component model of organizational commitment, the strongest relationships appear with the affective form of commitment. The relationship between perceived access to training opportunities and the affective form of organizational commitment is moderated by job satisfaction but not job involvement. The findings are discussed for their theoretical and practical application to HRD, for the management of HRD in health care settings, and for researchers interested in outcomes of HRD.
Information technology is entrenched in everyday life; yet, scholars have not firmly established whether this use blesses or vexes individuals and their families. This study analyzes longitudinal data (N =1,367) from the Cornell Couples and Careers Study to assess whether increases in spillover explain changes in distress and family satisfaction associated with technology use. Structural equation models indicate that cell phone use over time (but not computer use) is associated with increases in negative forms of spillover (positive spillover is not significant) and is linked to increased distress and lower family satisfaction. Overall, the evidence suggests that technology use may be blurring work/family boundaries with negative consequences for working people.
Structural equation modeling is a technique that has been widely used for instrument validation and model testing in research in marketing and organizational behavior. The technique has also been introduced to MIS researchers and used in several studies recently reported in the literature. This article offers an example of how the technique can be used for instrument validation and model testing. The illustration is made through a reexamination of a model for evaluating information center (IC) success. With the growth of end-user computing, the success of an IC is more important than ever. Obtaining a valid model for measuring IC success is thus crucial to organizations with ICs. The results of this study highlight the importance of a strong theoretical base in developing such a valid model, and management should be cautious when using these models to assess the performance of their ICs.
This study links workplace flexibility policies-formal, informal, and perceived usable-to organizational commitment and self-reported productivity. Professional and technical employees of biotechnology firms were surveyed. Where employees could freely use policies, a positive association with outcomes is found. The article contributes a new measure to capture employees' organizational experience, relevant to work and family research. How do we keep people? Through flexibility, in part. We particularly need to retain people while the primary product is being developed, and sometimes the managers continue to want to [retain them] because they want to maintain a pipeline.... In small biotech firms, you know everyone well, you know thier personal situations, and you can make accommodations. I bend over backwards because individual people are our most important asset. I try to create an environment supportive of scientists, who are expressive and creative, like artists. Also, many managers are young, in their 40s but with young kids at home. When they are thinking of leaving, flexibility plays a big part. Also it helps me in hiring.
Recent advances in information technology and changes in social and economic relationships have led individual workers and organizations to explore various types of distributed work arrangements. This paper examines a specific type of distributed work arrangement, supplemental work at home. This arrangement refers to full-time employees doing job-related work at home in the evenings and on weekends. Based on a theoretical analysis of supplemental work, data gathered from a 346 computer-owners and 104 nonowners are empirically examined. The results suggest that the amount of time spent on supplemental work is positively related to work self-determination variables (flexibility and control), portability of work tasks, the availability of a telecommunications link between the firm and the home, and household income, and negatively related to commuting time and the presence of children at home. The paper discusses the implications of supplemental work for organizational design and the employer-employee relationship, It concludes that compared to other types of work at home, supplemental work is one remote work arrangement that is likely to persist, especially for professionals and managers.
The current study examined the occupational stress-strain relationship among a sample of 109 white-collar employees in Singapore. Participants completed a survey that assessed the presence of 8 human resource practices (job training, communication, job redesign, promotional opportunities, employee involvement, family-friendly policies, pay systems, and individual-focused stress interventions [SMIs]), 2 major stressors (role overload and responsibility), 2 types of strain (vocational and interpersonal), and organizational commitment. Results indicate that human resource (HR) practices did not reduce the sources of stress (role overload and responsibility) within the workplace. However, there was a direct negative relationship between HR practices and interpersonal strain. In particular, family-friendly practices, job training, and SMIs reduced interpersonal strain. An examination of vocational strain showed that it was negatively associated with SMIs and job training. In addition, organizational commitment mediated the relationship between HR practices and vocational strain. It was concluded that HR practices may be effective as part of a symptom-directed approach to stress intervention and that further replication of these results in both Asian and Western samples is required.
The study examined the determinants of computer anxiety and attitudes toward microcomputers among 166 managers employed in a variety of organizations. Results indicated that men and women in managerial positions do not differ in the level of computer anxiety reported, and are very similar in their attitudes toward microcomputers. However, gender differences were found in the pattern of relationships of demographic and personality variables with computer anxiety and microcomputer attitudes. For men, education and intuition-sensing were negatively related to computer anxiety, while age, external locus of control, and math anxiety were associated with heightened computer anxiety. In contrast, demographic and personality variables were unrelated to computer anxiety among women. Computer anxiety was the strongest predictor of attitudes toward microcomputers among both men and women. Among women, however, the feeling-thinking dimension of cognitive style, and math anxiety were additional determinants of microcomputer attitudes.
Attracting and retaining highly skilled information technology (IT) professionals has been a difficult task for IT managers since the early 1980s. With over 400,000 unfilled IT positions in the USA today, many IT professionals are moving from job to job looking for higher salaries and more satisfying working arrangements. Since men and women often perceive their professional and domestic roles and responsibilities differently, more flexible working arrangements, which permit them to accomplish these roles and responsibilities in a more satisfactory manner, can be an important motivation for accepting and remaining in a given IT position. The purpose of this study was to investigate the similarities and differences between men and women in the IT industry in terms of their motivations to telecommute, and to discuss the implications for managing IT professionals.
This paper examines the challenge of adapting to technological changes in IS departments. It develops a set of hypotheses about how two personal attributes (tolerance of ambiguity and openness to experience) will be associated with IT professionals' ability to adapt to a technological innovation. It also examines the literature on gender in the IT profession, positing that women IT employees will exhibit some differences in job performance (relative to men), but no differences in terms of job satisfaction or turnover intentions. Based on a mixed-method study of two firms that were adopting client/server development, the paper first describes the different implementation strategies employed by each firm, and then analyzes employees' responses to the change. In combining the insights from both case studies and surveys, the results showed that four out of eight hypotheses were fully supported and two received partial support. Women reported lower job satisfaction on a dimension that captures job stress, and this effect was exacerbated in the firm that expected its IT employees to demonstrate considerable initiative to master the innovation. In contrast, the women at the second firm, while showing no differences in job stress (relative to their male peers), nevertheless exhibited a very different pattern of job skills and performance than the men. Finally, the personal attribute that was strongly associated with employees' job satisfaction (openness to experience) was negatively correlated with one aspect of job performance - directly opposite to what was hypothesized. The paper concludes with insights for IS researchers and managers interested in IS personnel and technology implementation.
Three types of information systems personnel (programmers, systems analysts, and project managers) were compared to the general population based on responses to a standardized personality test. The IS professionals, in aggregate, exceeded population norms for nearly all of the relevant scales, confirming much prior research.However, the personality profiles of analysts and managers differed widely from that of programmers, but not from one another. Managers and analysts were found to be conservative, logical, analytical, diligent, and ambitious, with strong leadership tendencies and high self-confidence and self-esteem. They were also found to be more sociable and creative than in past research.The differences identified between traditional programmers and systems analysts and managers indicate the importance of studying, managing, and recruiting these groups differently. The findings offer insight into how to retain, promote, and manage IS personnel effectively.
Motivated by organizational concerns related to the recruitment and retention of IT professionals, the objective of this paper is to develop and investigate an explanatory model of IT professionals' joining and staying/leaving behaviors. The underlying conceptual base for the model draws upon recent work on psychological contracts. A key dimension in this work is the preferred duration of the employment relationship. We elaborate the theory of psychological contracts with additional constructs representing an IT professional's career motives. In particular, our version of the theory suggests that, in addition to preferred length of the employment relationship, important individual factors that help form the psychological contract are the career stage of an individual and the individual's personal career anchor or orientation. Specific hypotheses related to the effects of these variables on staying/leaving behavior are presented. Empirical data gathered from a field study of 130 IT professionals were used to test the research hypotheses. Results indicate that the hypothesized variables exhibit significant effects on IT professionals' intentions to stay with their current employer. In addition, results point to directions where fruitful future research is warranted.
This study assesses the job involvement of 464 professionals and managers in the information systems (IS) field and investigates the role of involvement in influencing the quality of work life. Results show significant variation in the level of job involvement displayed by IS employees and differential patterns of relationships among the work variables for IS personnel with low, moderate, and high levels of job involvement. The findings indicate that involvement serves as a complex moderator role in the pattern of relationships of work experiences, and job characteristics with career expectations and career outcomes. It has both linear and non-linear relationships with sevearl of the study variables. While in some cases, high levels of job involvement tend to enhance the beneficial effects of work experiences on the quality of work life, in others such involvement tends to heighten the negative effects of role stressors. Implications of the findings and directions for future research are discussed.
Applied research indicates strong connections between dimensions of the work place, stress and job satisfaction. Yet, there is an absence of theory to provide conceptual understanding of these relationships. In 1999, Sparks and Cooper advocated using job-specific models of stress as a way of developing a better understanding of the relationships. The current study adopted this recommendation and investigated a specific job context, specifically, naval officer trainees undergoing their sea training. The results indicate that a general model of stress is unhelpful in identifying the predictors of stress and job satisfaction in specific job contexts. Instead, the authors recommend identifying salient workplace dimensions rather than a broad-brush approach when seeking workplace associations with stress.
In addition to the person-environment fit model (J. R. French, R. D. Caplan, & R. V. Harrison, 1982) and the demand-control model (R. A. Karasek & T. Theorell, 1990), a third theoretical concept is proposed to assess adverse health effects of stressful experience at work: the effort-reward imbalance model. The focus of this model is on reciprocity of exchange in occupational life where high-cost/low-gain conditions are considered particularly stressful. Variables measuring low reward in terms of low status control (e.g., lack of promotion prospects, job insecurity) in association with high extrinsic (e.g., work pressure) or intrinsic (personal coping pattern, e.g., high need for control) effort independently predict new cardiovascular events in a prospective study on blue-collar men. Furthermore, these variables partly explain prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors (hypertension, atherogenic lipids) in 2 independent studies. Studying adverse health effects of high-effort/low-reward conditions seems well justified, especially in view of recent developments of the labor market.
Using the demand-control-support model of job strain, the authors examined gender differences in the relationship between psychosocial work exposures and psychological distress in a cross-sectional sample of 7,484 employed Canadians. Compared with low-strain work, high-strain and active work were associated with a significantly higher level of distress in both men and women. Differences in psychological distress in relation to psychosocial work exposures were greater for men than for women. Low social support was associated with higher distress across all categories of job strain, and the combined effect of low social support and high job strain was associated with the greatest increase in distress. This pattern was similar in men and women. This study suggests that psychosocial work exposures may be a more significant determinant of psychological well-being in male workers compared with female workers.
There is a pervasive belief in the Management Information Systems (MIS) field that Partial Least Squares (PLS) has special abilities that make it more appropriate than other techniques, such as multiple regression and LISREL, when analyzing small sample sizes. We conducted a study using Monte Carlo simulation to compare these three relatively popular techniques for modeling relationships among variables under varying sample sizes (N = 40, 90, 150, and 200) and varying effect sizes (large, medium, small and no effect). The focus of the analysis was on comparing the path estimates and the statistical power for each combination of technique, sample size, and effect size. The results suggest that PLS with bootstrapping does not have special abilities with respect to statistical power at small sample sizes. In fact, for simple models with normally distributed data and relatively reliable measures, none of the three techniques have adequate power to detect small or medium effects at small sample sizes. These findings run counter to extant suggestions in MIS literature.
The ability to detect and accurately estimate the strength of interaction effects are critical issues that are fundamental to social science research in general and IS research in particular. Within the IS discipline, a large percentage of research has been devoted to examining the conditions and contexts under which relationships may vary, often under the general umbrella of contingency theory ( McKeen, Guimaraes, and Wetherbe 1994; Weill and Olson 1989). In our survey of such studies where such moderating variables are explored, a majority fail to either detect and/or provide an estimate of the effect size. In cases where effects sizes are estimated, the numbers are generally small. These results have, in turn, led some to question the usefulness of contingency theory and the need to detect interaction effects (e.g., Weill and Olson 1989). This paper addresses this issue by providing a new latent variable modeling approach that can give more accurate estimates of such intera...