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Gerhard Fischer 1 EUD Journal
End-User Development and Meta-Design:
Foundations for Cultures of Participation
Gerhard Fischer
Center for LifeLong Learning and Design (L3D)
University of Colorado
Boulder, CO 80309-0430 USA
gerhard@colorado.edu
Abstract
The first decade of the World Wide Web predominantly enforced a clear separation between designers
and consumers. New technological developments, such as the cyberinfrastructure and Web 2.0
architectures, have emerged to support a participatory Web and social computing. These developments are
the foundations for a fundamental shift from consumer cultures (specialized in producing finished goods to
be consumed passively) to cultures of participation (in which all people are provided with the means to
participate actively in personally meaningful activities). End-user development and meta-design provide
foundations for this fundamental transformation. They explore and support new approaches for the design,
adoption, appropriation, adaptation, evolution, and sharing of artifacts by all participating stakeholders.
They take into account that cultures of participation are not dictated by technology alone: they are the result
of incremental shifts in human behavior and social organizations.
The design, development, and assessment of five particular applications that contributed to the
development of our theoretical framework are described and discussed.
Keywords:
End-User Development, Meta-Design, Underdesign, Cultures of Participation, Ecologies of
Participation, Envisionment and Discovery Collaboratory (EDC), Memory Aiding Prompting System
(MAPS), SketchUp, 3D Warehouse, Google Earth, SAP Community Network (SCN), CreativeIT Wiki
To appear in:
Journal of Organizational and End User Computing (JOEUC) — An Official Publication of the
Information Resources Management Association Since 1989
http://www.igi-global.com/journals/details.asp?id=130
Gerhard Fischer 2 EUD Journal
Table of Contents
1 Introduction ______________________________________________________ 3
2 End-User Development (EUD) _______________________________________ 3
3 A “New World” Based on Cultures of Participation ______________________ 4
4 Meta-Design ______________________________________________________ 5
4.1 Richer Ecologies of Participation ________________________________________ 6
4.2 Motivation, Control, Ownership, Creativity, and Quality ______________________ 7
5 The Ubiquity of Meta-Design: Exploring Different Application Domains _____ 8
5.1 The Envisionment and Discovery Collaboratory (EDC) _______________________ 9
5.2 Memory Aiding Prompting System (MAPS) _______________________________ 11
5.3 Modeling the World in 3D: SketchUp, 3D Warehouse, and Google Earth _______ 13
5.4 SAP Community Network (SCN) ________________________________________ 15
5.5 CreativeIT Community ________________________________________________ 16
6 Drawbacks of Cultures of Participation _______________________________ 16
7 Conclusions _____________________________________________________ 17
8 Acknowledgements ________________________________________________ 17
9 References_______________________________________________________ 18
Figure 1: Different Levels of Participation and Engagement.............................................................................7
Figure 2: A Participatory Problem Solving and Decision Making Environment..............................................9
Figure 3: The Integration among the Three Applications .................................................................................11
Figure 4: Meta-Design: Empowering Caregivers to Act as Designers...........................................................12
Figure 5: The MAPS Design Environment for Creating Scripts ....................................................................13
Figure 6: A 3D Model Developed in SketchUp..................................................................................................14
Figure 7: Collections of Models in the 3D Warehouse .....................................................................................14
Figure 8: Downtown Denver in 3D ....................................................................................................................15
Table 1: A Differentiation between Related Frameworks _______________________________________4
Table 2: Statistical Features for First Response Time of the Three Distributed Online Communities ____16
Gerhard Fischer 3 EUD Journal
1 Introduction
Cultures are defined in part by their media and their tools for thinking, working, learning, and collaborating
[McLuhan, 1964]. In the past, the design of most media emphasized a clear distinction between producers
and consumers [Benkler, 2006]. Television is the medium that most obviously exhibits this orientation
[Postman, 1985] and in the worst case contributes to the degeneration of humans into “couch potatoes”
[Fischer, 2002] for whom remote controls are the most important instruments of their cognitive activities.
In a similar manner, our current educational institutions often treat learners as consumers, fostering a
mindset in students of “consumerism” [Illich, 1971] rather than “ownership of problems” for the rest of
their lives [Bruner, 1996]. As a result, learners, workers, and citizens often feel left out of decisions by
teachers, managers, and policymakers, denying them opportunities to take active roles in personally
meaningful and important problems.
The personal computer can produce, in principle, an incredible increase in the creative autonomy of the
individual. But historically these possibilities were often of interest and accessible only to a small number
of “high-tech scribes.” End-user development (EUD) [Lieberman et al., 2006] is focused on the challenge
of allowing users of software systems who are not primarily interested in software per se to modify, extend,
evolve, and create systems that fit their needs.
What the personal computer has done for the individual, the Internet has done for groups and
communities. The first decade of Internet use was dominated by broadcast models and thereby extended the
existing strong separation of “designers” and “users” imposed by existing media. Meta-design [Fischer &
Giaccardi, 2006] is an evolving framework to exploit computational media in support of collaboration and
communication to foster cultures of participation.
2 End-User Development (EUD)
Familiarity with software applications has become an essential requirement for professionals in a variety of
complex domains: architects, doctors, engineers, biochemists, statisticians, and film directors (among many
others) all depend for their livelihood on the mastery of various collections of applications [Eisenberg &
Fischer, 1994]. These applications, to be at all useful, must provide domain professionals with complex,
powerful functionality. In doing so, however, these systems likewise increase the cognitive cost of
mastering the new capabilities and resources that they offer. Moreover, the users of these applications will
notice that "software is not soft"—that is, that the behavior of a given application cannot be changed or
meaningfully extended without substantial reprogramming.
The need for end-user development is not a luxury but a necessity: computational systems modeling
some particular “world” are never complete; they must evolve over time because (1) the world changes and
new requirements emerge; and (2) skilled domain professionals change their work practices over time—
their understanding and use of a system will be very different after a month and certainly after several
years. If systems cannot be modified to support new practices, users will be locked into existing patterns of
use.
These problems were recognized early in the context of expert systems and domain-oriented
environments as illustrated by the following two examples:
Expert systems: The TEIRESIAS system [Davis, 1984] was a module to support domain professionals to
augment the existing knowledge base of a medical expert system; the objective of this component was
to establish and support interaction at a discourse level that would allow domain professionals to
articulate their knowledge without having to program in Lisp.
Domain-oriented environments: The JANUS-MODIFIER system [Fischer & Girgensohn, 1990;
Girgensohn, 1992] supported not just human-computer interaction but human problem-domain
interaction to allow kitchen designers to introduce new components and new critiquing rules into
design environments in support of kitchen design.
From a more theoretical perspective, EUD can address the following problems and challenges:
Ill-defined or wicked problems [Rittel & Webber, 1984] cannot be delegated from domain
professionals to software professionals, but require the creation of externalizations that talk back to the
owner of the problem [Schön, 1983].
Breakdowns [Fischer, 1994] are experienced by domain professionals and not by the system
developers; if domain professionals can respond to these breakdowns without relying on “high-tech
scribes,” systems will evolve in response to real needs.
Gerhard Fischer 4 EUD Journal
Professional programmers and domain professionals define the endpoints of a continuum of computer
users. The former like computers because they can program, and the latter because they get their work
done. The goal of supporting domain professionals to develop and modify systems does not imply
transferring the responsibility of good system design to the end-user [Burnett et al., 2004]. Normal users
will in general not build tools of the quality a professional designer would (which was recognized as one of
the basic limitations of second-generation design methods [Rittel, 1984]). However, if a tool does not
satisfy the needs or the tastes of the end-users (who know best what these requirements are), then end-users
should be able to adapt and evolve the system [Wulf et al., 2008].
The concepts of end-user programming (EUP), end-user software engineering (EUSE), end-user
development (EUD), meta-design, and cultures of participation are related with each other but emphasize
different research directions and challenges. Table 1 provides a brief description of these frameworks.
Table 1: A Differentiation between Related Frameworks
Framework
Major Objectives
End-User Programming (EUP)
Empower and support end-users to program (with techniques such
as: programming by demonstration, visual programming, scripting
languages, and domain-specific languages)
End-User Software Engineering
(EUSE)
Add to EUP support for systematic and disciplined activities for the
whole software lifecycle (including: reliability, efficiency, usability,
version control)
End-User Development (EUD)
Focus on a broader set of developments (e.g., creating 3D models
with SketchUp, modifying games); it puts end-users as owners of
problems in charge and makes them independent of high-tech scribes
Meta-Design
Define a framework and a design methodology to explicitly “design
for designers” by defining contexts that allow end-users to create
content; applicable to different contexts and encompasses principles
that may apply to programming, software engineering, architecture,
urban planning, education, interactive arts, and other design fields
Cultures of Participation
Foster a culture (supported by meta-design) in which people have the
opportunity to actively participate in personally meaningful problems
in ways and at levels that they are motivated to do so.
3 A “New World” Based on Cultures of Participation
As the research community interested in EUD gathered in 2009 for the Second International Symposium on
End-User Development [Pipek et al., 2009], an interesting question was: What has changed since the first
symposium that took place in 2003 (as documented in the book End-User Development [Lieberman et al.,
2006], which includes a chapter about the future of EUD [Klann et al., 2006])? The major innovation and
transformation that emerged between 2003 and 2009 was the participatory web (or Web 2.0 [O'Reilly,
2006]) and social computing [Kellogg, 2007], complementing and transcending the broadcast web (or Web
1.0), which dominated the first decade of the web.
The Web 1.0 model primarily supports web page publishing and e-commerce, whereas the Web 2.0
model is focused on collaborative design environments, social media, and social networks creating
feasibility spaces for new cultures that allow people to participate rather than being confined to passive
consumer roles [Brown et al., 1994].
This transformation represents a fundamental shift from consumer cultures (focused on passive
consumption of finished goods produced by others) [Postman, 1985] to cultures of participation (in which
all people are provided with the means to participate actively in personally meaningful activities) [Fischer,
2002; von Hippel, 2005]. End-user development is an essential component of this transformation, but its
impact is much broader: this transformation represents a change and new opportunity for social production,
for mass collaboration, for civic and political life, and for education.
Gerhard Fischer 5 EUD Journal
The EUD research community has struggled to make its objectives and techniques known to the world
for the last 20 years. The Web 2.0 world has attracted a very large number of contributors and created a
number of success models (including open source software, Wikipedia, Second Life, YouTube, and 3D
Warehouse, to name just a few) by breaking down the boundaries between producers and consumers. The
research community interested in EUD now has an opportunity to apply its research findings to create an
theoretical framework to deeply understand these new developments and evolve them further.
This “new world” has established new discourses, including the following:
Beyond the dichotomy between consumers and producers, new, middle-ground models have emerged
such as
- prosumers [Tapscott & Williams, 2006], who are techno-sophisticated and comfortable with the
technologies with which they grew up. They have little fear of hacking, modifying, and evolving
artifacts to their own requirements. They do not wait for someone else to anticipate their needs,
and they can decide what is important for them. They participate in learning and discovery and
engage in experimenting, exploring, building, tinkering, framing, solving, and reflecting.
- professional amateurs [Brown, 2005; Leadbeater & Miller, 2008], who are innovative, committed,
and networked amateurs working to professional standards. They are a new social hybrid, and
their activities are not adequately captured by the traditional dichotomous definitions of work and
leisure, professional and amateur, consumption and production.
- social production and mass collaboration [Benkler, 2006], which are based on the following facts:
(a) a tiny percentage of a very large base is still a substantial number of people; (b) beyond the
large quantitative numbers of contributors, there exists a great diversity of interests and passions
among users (which can be characterized by the Long Tail [Anderson, 2006]); and (c) while
human beings often act for material rewards, they can also be motivated by social capital,
reputation, connectedness, and the enjoyment derived from giving things of value away [Fischer et
al., 2004]
An emphasis on open systems, which are systems focused on the “unfinished” and take into account
that design problems have no stopping rule, need to remain open and fluid to accommodate ongoing
change, and for which “continuous beta” becomes a desirable rather than a to-be-avoided attribute.
The importance of user-generated content, in which “content” is broadly defined: (a) creating artifacts
with existing tools (e.g., writing a document with a word processor) or (b) changing the tools (e.g.,
writing macros to extend the word processor as a tool). In specific environments (such as open source
software), the content is subject to the additional requirement of being computationally interpretable.
Moving from guidelines, rules, and procedures to exceptions, negotiations, and work-arounds to
complement and integrate accredited and expert knowledge with informal, practice-based, and situated
knowledge [Suchman, 1987][Orr, 1996; Winograd & Flores, 1986].
Exploiting the Long Tail [Anderson, 2006] of knowledge distribution, allowing people from around
the world to engage in topics and activities about which they feel passionate.
Fostering and supporting richer ecologies of participation (see Section 4.1).
Creating a new understanding of motivation, creativity, control, ownership, and quality (see Section
4.2 ).
4 Meta-Design
Meta-design [Fischer & Giaccardi, 2006] is focused on “design for designers.” It creates open systems at
design time that can be modified by their users acting as co-designers, requiring and supporting more
complex interactions at use time. Meta-design is grounded in the basic assumption that future uses and
problems cannot be completely anticipated at design time, when a system is developed. At use time, users
will invariably discover mismatches between their needs and the support that an existing system can
provide for them. Meta-design contributes to the invention and design of socio-technical environments
[Mumford, 1987] in which humans can express themselves and engage in personally meaningful activities.
The conceptual frameworks that we have developed around meta-design explore some fundamental
challenges including the following:
How we can support skilled domain workers who are neither novices nor naive users, but who are
interested in their work and who see the computer as a means rather than as an end?
How we can create co-adaptive environments, in which users change because they learn, and in which
systems change because users become co-developers and active contributors?
Gerhard Fischer 6 EUD Journal
How we can deal with the active participation and empowerment in domains whose boundaries blur
and dissolve beyond the limits of definite and independent professional domains, practices, and
technologies?
Meta-design allows significant modifications when the need arises. It reduces the gap in the world of
computing between a population of elite high-tech scribes who can act as designers and a much larger
population of intellectually disenfranchised knowledge workers who are forced into consumer roles.
The seeding, evolutionary growth, and reseeding (SER) model [Fischer & Ostwald, 2002] is an
emerging descriptive and prescriptive model in support of meta-design. Instead of attempting to build
complete systems at design time, the SER model advocates building seeds (in participatory design activities
with meta-designers and end-users) that can evolve over time through small contributions of a large number
of people (being the defining characteristics of a culture of participation). It postulates that systems that
evolve over a sustained time span must continually alternate between periods of planned activity (the
seeding phase), unplanned evolution (the evolutionary growth phase), and periods of deliberate
(re)structuring and enhancement (the reseeding phase). A seed is something that has the potential to change
and grow. In socio-technical environments, seeds need to be designed and created for the technical as well
as the social component of the environment.
To be more specific about the role of meta-designers: what do they do? They use their own creativity to
create socio-technical environments in which other people can be creative. The main activity of meta-
designers shifts from determining the meaning, functionality, and content of a system to encouraging and
supporting end-users acting as designers to engage in these activities. Meta-designers must be willing to
share control of how systems will be used, which content will be contained, and which functionality will be
supported. They do so with a focus on underdesign [Brand, 1995; Habraken, 1972]which can be
characterized as follows:
it is grounded in the need for “loose fit” in designing artifacts at design time so that unexpected uses
of the artifact can be accommodated at use time; it does so by creating contexts and content creation
tools rather than content;
it avoids that design decisions will be made in the earliest part of the design process, when everyone
knows the least what is really needed;
it offers users (acting a designers at use time) as many alternatives as possible, avoiding irreversible
commitments they cannot undo (one of the drawbacks of overdesign);
it acknowledges the necessity to differentiate between structurally important parts for which
extensive professional experience is required and which should therefore not be easily changed
(such as structure bearing walls in buildings) and components which users should be able to modify
to their needs because their personal knowledge is most relevant; and
it creates technical and social conditions for broad participation in design activities by supporting
“hackability” and “remixability”.
The American Constitution can be considered as one of the biggest success stories in underdesign
[Simon, 1996]. Written over 200 years ago, and only updated by a small number of amendments, it still
serves as a foundation of the US nation in a world which has changed dramatically.
4.1 Richer Ecologies of Participation
The traditional notions of developer and user are unable to reflect the fact that many socio-technical
environments nowadays are developed with the participation of many people with varied interests and
capabilities. Cultures of participation require contributors with diverse background knowledge who require
different support and value different ways of participating. Many collaborative design environments serve
only as content management systems: participants contribute and share their own interests and abilities, and
additional activities such as critiquing, rating, tagging, deliberating, extending, improving, and negotiating
do not take place and are not adequately supported; their value is therefore not sufficiently recognized.
Figure 1 (inspired by the “reader to leader” framework of Preece and Shneiderman [Preece & Shneiderman,
2009]) illustrate a richer ecology underlying cultures of participation by postulating four major roles.
Gerhard Fischer 7 EUD Journal
consumers contributors collaborators meta-designers
!!
!!!
!!!
!!!!
!!!
!!!!
Figure 1: Different Levels of Participation and Engagement
As participants move from left to right, the complexity of the tasks which they do and the demand for
how much they have to learn is increasing. To accept these additional efforts participants must consider
these tasks as personally meaningful [Fischer, 2002] and the migration paths need to be supported by gentle
slope systems in which the transitions from one level to a another level are smooth.
Within one level, these roles can be further differentiated. Early studies [Gantt & Nardi, 1992] already
identified that EUP and EUD is more successful if supported by collaborative work practices rather than
focusing on individuals. Gantt and Nardi observed the emergence of “gardeners” (also known as “power
users” and “local developers”), who are technically interested and sophisticated enough to perform system
modifications that are needed by a community of users but that other end-users are not able or not inclined
to perform.
A detailed analysis of open-source software systems [Ye & Fischer, 2007] revealed a variety of different
roles: (1) passive users (using the system); (2) readers (trying to understand how the system works by
reading the source code); (3) bug reporters (discovering and reporting bugs); (4) bug fixers (fixing bugs);
(5) peripheral developers (occasionally contributing new functionality or features); (6) active developers
(regularly contributing new features and fixing bugs); and (7) project leader(s) (initiating the project and
being responsible for its vision and overall direction).
In the SketchUp/3D Warehouse/Google Earth (see Section 5.4) environments, a similar role distribution
can be observed: contributors create new models with SketchUp, raters and taggers evaluate and describe
these models, and curators organize models in collections and create narratives (see Figure 7).
4.2 Motivation, Control, Ownership, Creativity, and Quality
As argued before, understanding and fostering cultures of participation with meta-design requires paying
attention to factors from political, economical, and social domains [Fischer, 2007]. This section takes a
brief look at a few of those factors.
Motivation. Human beings are diversely motivated beings. We act not only for material gain, but for
psychological well-being, for social integration and connectedness, for social capital, for recognition, and
for improving our standing in a reputation economy. The motivation for going the extra step to engage in
EUD was articulated by Rittel [Rittel, 1984]: “The experience of having participated in a problem makes a
difference to those who are affected by the solution. People are more likely to like a solution if they have
been involved in its generation; even though it might not make sense otherwise.” Meta-design relies on
intrinsic motivation for participation and it has the potential to influence this by providing contributors with
the sense and experience of joint creativity, by giving them a sense of common purpose and mutual support
in achieving it, and in many situations by replacing common background or geographic proximity with a
sense of well-defined purpose, shared concerns, and the successful common pursuit of these.
Control. As argued above, meta-design supports users as active contributors who can transcend the
functionality and content of existing systems. By facilitating these possibilities, control is distributed
among all stakeholders in the design process. The importance of this distribution of control has been
emphasized as important for architecture [Alexander, 1984]: “I believe passionately in the idea that people
should design buildings for themselves. In other words, not only that they should be involved in the
buildings that are for them but tha t they should actually help design them.” Other arguments indicate that
Gerhard Fischer 8 EUD Journal
shared control will lead to more innovation [von Hippel, 2005]: “Users that innovate can develop exactly
what they want, rather than relying on manufacturers to act as their (often very imperfect) agents.”
Ownership. Our experiences gathered in the context of the design, development, and assessment of our
systems indicate that meta-design methodologies are less successful when users are brought into the
process late (thereby denying them ownership) and when they are “misused” to fix problems and to address
weaknesses of systems that the developers did not fix themselves. Meta-design does work when users are
part of the participatory design effort in establishing a meta-design framework, including support for
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, user toolkits for reducing the effort to make contributions, and the
seeding of use communities in which individuals can share their contributions.
Social Creativity. Where do new ideas come from in meta-design environments and cultures of
participation? The creativity potential is grounded in (1) user-driven innovations, (2) taking advantage of
breakdowns as sources for creativity, and (3) exploiting the symmetry of ignorance and conceptual
collisions [Fischer, 2000]. To increase social creativity requires: (1) diversity (each participants should have
some unique information or perspective); (2) independence (participants’ opinions are not determined by
the opinions of those around them) [Surowiecki, 2005]; (3) decentralization (participants are able to
specialize and draw on local knowledge) [Anderson, 2006]; and (4) aggregation (mechanisms exist for
turning individual contributions into collections, and private judgments into collective decisions). In
addition, participants must be able to express themselves (requiring technical knowledge how to
contribute), must be willing to contribute (motivation), and must be allowed to have their voices heard
(control).
Quality. Many teachers will tell their students that they will not accept research findings and
argumentation based on articles from Wikipedia. This exclusion is usually based on considerations such as:
“How are we to know that the content produced by widely dispersed and qualified individuals is not of
substandard quality?”
The online journal Nature (http://www.nature.com/) has compared the quality of articles found in the
Encyclopedia Britannica with Wikipedia and has come to the conclusion that “Wikipedia comes close to
Britannica in terms of the accuracy of its science entries.” This study and the interpretation of its findings
has generated a controversy, and Tapscott and Williams [Tapscott & Williams, 2006] have challenged the
basic assumption that a direct comparison between the two encyclopedias is a relevant issue: “Wikipedia
isn't great because it's like the Britannica. The Britannica is great at being authoritative, edited, expensive,
and monolithic. Wikipedia is great at being free, brawling, universal, and instantaneous.”
There are many more open issues to be investigated about quality and trust [Kittur et al., 2008] in
cultures of participation, including: (1) errors will always exist, resulting in learners acquiring the important
skill of always being critical of information rather than blindly believing in what others (specifically
experts or teachers) are saying; and (2) ownership as a critical dimension: the community at large has a
greater sense of ownership and thereby is more willing to put an effort into fixing errors. This last issue has
been explored in open source communities and has led to the observation that “if there are enough
eyeballs, all bugs are shallow” [Raymond & Young, 2001].
5 The Ubiquity of Meta-Design: Exploring Different Application Domains
Meta-design transcends end-user development by studying and supporting cultures of participation not only
in the area of software artifacts, but in numerous other domains of information and cultural production and
it explores different purposes associated with the artifacts under development. In our research, we have
explored meta-design [Fischer & Giaccardi, 2006] in the following areas:
design of computational artifacts [Lieberman et al., 2006], with an emphasis on customization,
personalization, tailorability, end-user modifiability, and design for diversity;
architectural design [Brand, 1995], with an emphasis on underdesign and support for an “unself-
conscious culture of design” [Alexander, 1964];
new models of teaching and learning [Brown, 2005; Rogoff et al., 1998], with an emphasis on learning
communities, teachers as meta-designers, and courses-as-seeds [dePaula et al., 2001]; these approaches
challenge the assumption that information must move from teachers and other credentialed producers
to passive learners and consumers [Illich, 1971];
open source [Raymond & Young, 2001], with an emphasis on open source as a success model of
decentralized, collaborative, evolutionary development [Scharff, 2002]; and
Gerhard Fischer 9 EUD Journal
interactive art [Giaccardi, 2004], with an emphasis on collaboration and co-creation facilitated by
putting the tools rather than the object of design in the hands of users.
In our currently active research, we are further deepening our understanding of meta-design and cultures
of participation with the following projects which be be described in the following sections:
the Envisionment and Discovery Collaboratory, a table-top computing environment supporting
stakeholders from diverse backgrounds in face-to-face meetings;
the Memory Aiding Prompting System (MAPS) supporting people with cognitive disabilities and their
caregivers;
the “SketchUp+3D WAREHOUSE+ Google Earth” environment in which people from around the world
can share 3D models created with SketchUp, and allowing these models to be referenced and displayed
in Google Earth;
the SAP COMMUNITY NETWORK, an example of a successful socio-technical environment consisting of
more than one million registered users forming a highly active online community; and
the CREATIVEIT, a wiki-based environment fostering and supporting the evolving scientific community
participating in the NSF Program on “Creativity and IT.”
5.1 The Envisionment and Discovery Collaboratory (EDC)
The EDC [Arias et al., 2000] is a long-term research platform that explores conceptual frameworks for
democratizing design in the context of framing and resolving complex urban planning by bringing together
participants from various backgrounds in face-to-face meetings. The knowledge to understand, frame, and
solve such problems does not already exist [Engeström, 2001], but is constructed and evolves during the
solution process—an ideal environment to study meta-design and cultures of participation.
The EDC represents a socio-technical environment that incorporates a number of innovative
technologies, including table-top computing, the integration of physical and computational components
supporting new interaction techniques [Eden, 2002], and an open architecture supporting meta-design
activities.
Figure 1 shows members of the Boulder City Council and the Regents of the University of Colorado
using our table-top computing environment to engage in participatory problem solving and decision making
related to urban planning issues that are of concern to all participants.
Figure 2: A Participatory Problem Solving and Decision Making Environment
The table-top computing environment supports participation by maximizing the richness of communication
among stakeholders in face-to-face interaction, mediated by both physical and computational objects.
The vision of the EDC is to provide contextualized support for reflection-in-action [Schön, 1983] within
collaborative design activities. In our research with the EDC during the last decade, we have observed:
More creative solutions to problems can emerge from the collective interactions with the environment
by heterogeneous communities (such as communities of interest [Fischer, 2001], which are more
Gerhard Fischer 10 EUD Journal
diverse than communities of practice [Janis, 1972; Wenger, 1998]).
Boundary objects are needed [Star, 1989] to establish common ground and establish shared
understanding for communities of interest.
Participants must be able to naturally express what they want to say [Myers et al., 2006].
Interaction mechanisms must have a “low threshold” for easy participation and a “high ceiling” for
expressing sophisticated ideas [Shneiderman, 2007].
Participants are more readily engaged if they perceive the design activities as personally meaningful by
associating a purpose with their involvement [Brown et al., 1994; Rittel, 1984].
Obstacles to further investigated of the above observations rest with the difficulties of democratizing the
design of the EDC [von Hippel, 2005] by providing more control to the participants. Each urban-planning
problem is unique: it has to take into consideration the geography, culture, and population of specific cities.
Currently, EDC developers have to customize the system at the source-code level to reflect the specific
characteristics of the city and its urban planning problem. In most cases, EDC developers (the meta-
designers) do not have sufficient knowledge of the problem and the social context; they do not know which
issues are of greatest concern to the city planners and citizens and which conflicts need to be resolved
through the EDC system. The domain- and context-specific knowledge is sticky, tacit, and difficult to
transfer from local urban planners to EDC developers [Polanyi, 1966].
We are in the process to create a more powerful meta-design environment, the Scenario-Design-Kit
(SDK) that will empower participants to dynamically configure the EDC system to fit their specific needs
without detailed knowledge of programming.
Figure 3 illustrates a scenario that urban planners would be able to construct with the proposed SDK.
Charged with community engagement on a new development, the planners will utilize the SDK to pull
together numerous geographic information system (GIS) resources (maps, plans, census data, existing
buildings, traffic statistics, etc.) related to a proposed project. Selecting from a number of pre-existing
tools, models, and simulations, planners assemble an environment for a series of community meetings to
allow neighborhood groups to understand and provide feedback on the impacts of the new construction.
The EDC interactive table (pane (a) in Figure 3, used as an action space for citizen participants), will
allow them to bring their individual perspectives to the process and collectively interact with the emerging
design (for example, sketching proposed elements). Sketches will be shown in Google Earth as a simple 3D
model (pane b) to allow participants to visualize the impacts of the design on neighborhood views and local
environments so they can discuss whether proposed high building would block the view of the mountains
from certain neighborhoods. As the process progresses, the crude sketches could be used to locate
exemplars in the 3D Warehouse (pane c) or they could be imported to SketchUp to create more complete
models to be used in both the action space and the 3D Google-Earth reflection space [Schön, 1983].
In addition, the SDK will support creation of wiki spaces (pane d) to host participatory discussion issues
surrounding the proposed development. The wiki will be integrated with the EDC interactive table and
Google Earth to allow the results of design sessions to be captured and provide access to broader
participation by neighbors. The wiki websites will serve as reflection spaces and allow those who could not
participate in the meeting to view the sketches in Google Earth and provide their comments and ideas as
feedback. The collected feedback will then be linked to the project, and future discussions of the
development activate display of the comments that are contextualized to the design elements.
Gerhard Fischer 11 EUD Journal
Another dimension of the EDC research consists of deepening our understanding of and support for the
creative processes and technologies needed to integrate individual and social creativity [Fischer et al.,
2005]. The Carretta project [Fischer & Sugimoto, 2006; Sugimoto et al., 2004] has integrated and
intertwined collective interaction by using tabletop environments with handheld technologies (i.e., by using
PDAs and other personal devices). These initial efforts will exploit the participatory Web for supporting
cultures of participation that complement face-to-face sessions and activities beyond co-located meetings.
5.2 Memory Aiding Prompting System (MAPS)
Individuals with cognitive disabilities are often unable to live independently due to their inability to
perform activities of daily living, such as cooking, housework, or shopping. By being provided with socio-
technical environments [Mumford, 1987] to extend their abilities and thereby their independence, these
individuals can lead lives less dependent on others. Our research in this context [Carmien & Fischer, 2008]
explored end-user development, meta-design, and cultures of participation by supporting mobile device
customization, personalization, configuration by caregivers and effective use by clients.
Abandonment Based on the “Universe of One”. People with cognitive disabilities represent a “universe
of one” problem: a solution for one person will rarely work for another. The “universe of one”
conceptualization includes the empirical finding that (1) unexpected islands of abilities exist: clients can
have unexpected skills and abilities that can be leveraged to ensure a better possibility of task
accomplishment; and (2) unexpected deficits of abilities exist. Accessing and addressing these unexpected
variations in skills and needs, particularly with respect to creating task support, requires an intimate
knowledge of the client that only caregivers can provide. Currently, a substantial portion of all assistive
technology is abandoned after initial purchase and use resulting in that the very population that could most
benefit from technology is paying for expensive devices that end up in the back of closets after a short time.
Figure 3: The Integration among the Three Applications
Gerhard Fischer 12 EUD Journal
A unique challenge of meta-design in the domain of cognitive disabilities is that the clients themselves
cannot act as designers, but the caregivers must accept this role (see Figure 4). Caregivers, who have the
most intimate knowledge of the client, need to become the end-user designers. The scripts needed to
effectively support users are specific for particular tasks, creating the requirement that the people who
know about the clients and the tasks (i.e., the local caregivers rather than a technologist far removed from
the action) must be able to develop scripts.
Figure 4: Meta-Design: Empowering Caregivers to Act as Designers
Caregivers generally have no specific professional technology training nor are they interested in
becoming computer programmers. This creates the need for design environments with extensive end-user
support to allow caregivers to create, store, and share scripts [Fischer, 2006]. Figure 5 shows the MAPS
design environment for creating complex multimodal prompting sequences allowing sound, pictures, and
video to be assembled by using a film-strip-based scripting metaphor. The design environment supports a
multi-script version that allows caregivers to present the looping and forking behavior that is critical for
numerous task support situations.
The design of MAPS involved three different groups of participants: (1) assistive technology
professionals and special education teachers, (2) parents of clients, and (3) professional caregivers. MAPS
was tested with representatives of several different groups resulting in the identification of the following
requirements for meta-design:
discover and learn about the client’s and caregiver’s world and their interactions;
observe and analyze how tasks and learning of tasks were currently conducted;
understand and explicate the process of creating and updating scripts;
comprehend and analyze the process of using the scripts with a real task; and
gain an understanding of the role of meta-design in the dynamics of MAPS adoption and use.
By designing the MAPS environment to enable script redesign and reuse, caregivers were able to create
an environment that matched the unique needs of a individual person with cognitive disabilities. MAPS
represents an example for democratizing design by supporting meta-design, embedding new technologies
into socio-technical environments, and helping people with cognitive disabilities and their caregivers have
more interesting and more rewarding lives.
Gerhard Fischer 13 EUD Journal
Figure 5: The MAPS Design Environment for Creating Scripts
5.3 Modeling the World in 3D: SketchUp, 3D Warehouse, and Google Earth
Having the whole world modeled in 3D and allowing users to explore this virtual world on their
computers is the objective behind Google’s effort to integrate the following three systems: SketchUp, 3D
Warehouse, and Google Earth. The amount of work and local knowledge needed to achieve this is beyond
the scope and capability of any locally operating development team. It requires the contributions of a large
user base, and as such represents a unique, large-scale example for assessing the conceptual framework
underlying meta-design and cultures of participation.
SketchUp (http://sketchup.google.com/) is a highly interactive, direct manipulation 3D-modeling
environment. Figure 6 shows a model of the Denver Public Library developed with SketchUp. Being a
high-functionality environment with a “low threshold and high ceiling,” developing sophisticated and
highly creative models with SketchUp requires a nontrivial learning effort. Powerful learning mechanisms
for SketchUp are critical to allow everyone to contribute to learn how to do so. These mechanisms, together
with the added value of participation are important to motivate enough stakeholders to contribute to
creative collaborations.
Gerhard Fischer 14 EUD Journal
Figure 6: A 3D Model Developed in SketchUp
The 3D Warehouse (http://sketchup.google.com/3dwarehouse/) is an information repository for the
collection of models created by all users who are willing to share their models. It contains ten thousands of
models from different domains, including buildings, houses, bridges, sculptures, cars, and so forth and it
supports collections (see Figure 7) to organize models. In addition, the environment supports tagging,
ratings, and reviews by the participating community. Interested users can utilize the 3D Warehouse for
creative collaborations by sharing, downloading, modifying, extending, and reusing existing models.
Figure 7: Collections of Models in the 3D Warehouse
Google Earth has the capability to show 3D objects that consist of users’ submissions that were
developed by using SketchUp. Figure 8 shows an example illustrating the interplay of the three systems:
the downtown area of the city of Denver in Google Earth, populated by 3D buildings created by users of
SketchUp and stored in the 3D Warehouse. The three systems are integrated in the following way: 3D
models can be shared by uploading them from SketchUp to the 3D Warehouse, where they can be searched,
shared, and re-stored. Models can be downloaded from the 3D Warehouse to SketchUp (for further
modification and evolution) and to Google Earth (if the models have a location on Earth) to be viewed by
anyone.
Gerhard Fischer 15 EUD Journal
Figure 8: Downtown Denver in 3D
In the ongoing collaboration with our partners from the Google Boulder office, we are exploring how to
support cultures of participation in the process of modeling the whole world in 3D by pursuing the
following research issues:
Allowing users to act as active contributors to achieve sufficient mastery of SketchUp requires
extensive learning support.
Assessing the effectiveness of different reward structures to motivate users to participate in the
collaborative effort to model the whole world, including recognition by the community and featuring
the best models in the 3D Warehouse and Google Earth.
Supporting a richer ecology of participation (see Section 4.1) including roles such as creators, raters,
curators, power users, and local developers, while attending to the diversity and independence of
participants.
Collaborating with Google in its ongoing effort to (1) more tightly integrate the three subsystems to
reduce the demands required for participation and (2) facilitate their systems with other environments,
such as the EDC (see Figure 3), and other 3D environments, such as Second Life.
5.4 SAP Community Network (SCN)
Diverse and distributed communities represent important instances of cultures of participation. The
distribution is multi-dimensional [Fischer, 2005]: (1) spatially (across physical distance allowing the shift
that shared concern rather than shared location becomes the defining feature of a group of people
interacting with each other); (2) temporally (across time; design processes often take place over a long
period, with initial design followed by extended periods of evolution and redesign); (3) conceptually
(across different communities, including homogeneous and heterogeneous communities of practice); and
(4) technologically (between persons and artifacts to support distributed cognition). These communities
face the challenge of avoiding the reinvention of knowledge and artifacts already known by someone. This
hurdle is articulated in the slogan “If only HP knew what HP knows” [Sieloff, 1999] indicating that
cultures of participation are negatively impacted by a lack of awareness what others have done.
We have studied SCN [Gorman & Fischer, 2009] as an example of a successful socio-technical
environment consisting of more than one million registered users forming a highly active online
community [Hagel & Brown, 2008] of developers, consultants, integrators, and business analysts building
and sharing knowledge about SAP technologies via wikis, expert blogs, discussion forums, code samples,
training materials, and a technical library (https://www.sdn.sap.com/irj/sdn). We have collected a
comprehensive data set that includes all of the posting activity of more than 120,000 users from June 2003
through May 2008.
To get a better understanding of processes and dynamics in a culture of participation such as SCN, we
have developed an initial analytic framework to measure a number of factors, including attributes such as
(1) responsiveness (how often and quickly members get responses to their requests), (2) engagement
Gerhard Fischer 16 EUD Journal
intensity (how many helpers and responses are required to answer questions; and (3) role distribution (the
ratio of users who ask questions to those who answer questions).
Our analysis [Gorman & Fischer, 2009] indicates that we can find patterns in the data that hint toward an
environment that is supportive of cultures of participation. The SCN environment provides support and
motivation for users to contribute, as can be seen in the time it takes users to receive a response to their post
(see Table 2). This time is significantly less than in two other environments we analyzed for comparison,
the Open Source communities of Commons and Lucene [Ye & Fischer, 2007]. In the SCN the median
response time is 23 minutes, less than a third of the time it takes in the second-best environment.
Table 2: Statistical Features for First Response Time of the Three Distributed Online
Communities
The first, second, and third quartile times required for a post from one user to receive a response from another user.
First Response Time
Q1 (25%)
Q2 (Median)
Q3 (75%)
SDN
6 m
23 m
3 h 10 m
Commons
9 m
3 h 56 m
14 h 15 m
Lucene
24 m
1 h 27 m
5 h 51 m
In addition to this quantitative analysis, we have engaged in a limited qualitative analysis to understand
the impact of incentive systems on participation. SCN uses a point system to reward users for their
participation, but these features can have negative effects. Points are highly valued, and some users may
resort to “gaming the system” to earn points.
5.5 CreativeIT Community
The emerging CreativeIT Community, consisting of participants (researchers, artists, graduate students)
in the NSF CISE research program on “Creativity and IT” (http://www.nsf.gov/pubs /2007/nsf07562/-
nsf07562.htm), is a relatively small community (less than 100 active participants). With the support of NSF
grants, we have designed and seeded a wiki-based socio-technical environment
(http://swiki.cs.colorado.edu/CreativeIT) to support and foster an evolving scientific community. The
unique challenges of this specific community are that people working in interdisciplinary projects or in
niches of their disciplines are often isolated in their local environments and unaware of relevant work in
other disciplines. The CreativeIT Wiki allows us to assess and collect a variety of data using tools such as
Google Analytics as well as our own tools to gain a better understanding of the value of recording implicit
interactions and/versus engaging participants in explicit activities (such as tagging, rating, commenting).
Our ongoing research with the CreativeIT Wiki is focused on gaining a deeper understanding how to
support and foster cultures of participation by exploring and analyzing:
how awareness mechanisms will give the participants better overviews over activities;
how short- and long-term effects in participation can be achieved through events taking place in the
wiki (e.g., special presentations of the most popular contributions or nominations for the most creative
participants);
how social support tools that support participants to find and connect to other participants, represent
themselves to other researchers, and create networks of interests can influence user activities;
how the social environment (the number of users, the activities , the level of discussions, and making
the environment more permissive and unstructured versus more prescriptive and structured) will
influence social creativity and participation; and
how rating systems allowing participants to rate other people’s contributions will increase the trust and
interest in existing content.
6 Drawbacks of Cultures of Participation
Cultures of participation open up unique new opportunities for mass collaboration and social production,
but they are not without drawbacks. One such drawback is that humans may be forced to cope with the
burden of being active contributors in personally irrelevant activities.
This drawback can be illustrated with “do-it-yourself” societies. Through modern tools, humans are
empowered to perform many tasks themselves that were done previously by skilled domain workers
Gerhard Fischer 17 EUD Journal
serving as agents and intermediaries. Although this shift provides power, freedom, and control to
customers, it also has forced people to act as contributors in contexts for which they lack the experience
that professionals have acquired and maintained through the daily use of systems, as well as the broad
background knowledge to do these tasks efficiently and effectively (e.g., companies offloading work to
customers).
Substantially more experience and assessment is required to determine whether the advantages of
cultures of participation (such as extensive coverage of information, creation of large numbers of artifacts,
creative chaos by making all voices heard, reduced authority of expert opinions, and shared experience of
social creativity) will outweigh the disadvantages (accumulation of irrelevant information, wasting human
resources in large information spaces, and lack of coherent voices). Such a determination will depend on
creating a deeper understanding of these trade-offs [Carr, 2008; Lanier, 2006].
7 Conclusions
For a couple of decades the rise of digital media has been providing new powers for the individual. The
world's networks are now providing enormous unexplored opportunities for groups and communities.
Providing all citizens with the means to become co-creators of new ideas, knowledge, and products in
personally meaningful activities presents one of the most exciting innovations and transformations, with
profound implications in the years to come.
This paper has described reasons why cultures of participation supported by meta-design are desirable.
Despite the fact that some EUD environments and their supporting research have been around for years and
some success models exist [Lieberman et al., 2006], there is evidence that the impact of academic research
efforts in this area has been limited.
We do know, however, that digital media are powerful catalysts of cultural change. The challenge for
the EUD research community is not only understanding, supporting, and participating in existing cultures,
but also shaping, transforming, and fostering new cultures. Humans all over the world have the opportunity
today not only to be exposed to cultures of consumerism [Postman, 1985], but to become active
contributors in cultures of participation. Without an analytic model and a demystification of media to
deeply understand and explain new emerging phenomena and environments, however, we will only be able
to treat cultures of participation as curiosities or transient fads [Benkler, 2006]. The potential impact of
cultures of participation supported by meta-design is substantial: they erode monopolistic positions held by
professions, educational institutions, and experts, and they increase the diversity of perspectives on the way
the world is and the way it could be. They require new metaphors, new levels of discourse, and new
environments to think, reflect, and support working, learning, and collaboration for alternative and more
democratic futures.
8 Acknowledgements
I thank the members of the Center for LifeLong Learning & Design at the University of Colorado, who
have made major contributions to the ideas described in this paper. I specifically would like to thank: (1)
Hal Eden who is the major architect and developer of the EDC; (2) Stefan Carmien who created and
evaluated the MAPS environment; (3) John Bacus from Google Boulder who provided unique insights into
the design of the 3D modeling effort; (4) Andrew Gorman who analyzed the SCN environment; and (5)
Holger Dick and Hal Eden who have developed the CreativeIT environment. In addition, I have learned
much over the years by interacting with my professional colleagues and collaborators in the EUD and
EUSE communities.
The research was supported in part by
(1) grants from the National Science Foundation, including: (a) IIS-0613638 “A Meta-Design
Framework for Participative Software Systems”, (b) IIS-0709304 “A New Generation Wiki for Supporting
a Research Community in ‘Creativity and IT’” and (c) IIS-0843720 “Increasing Participation and
Sustaining a Research Community in ‘Creativity and IT’”;
(2) a Google research award, “Motivating and Empowering Users to Become Active Contributors:
Supporting the Learning of High-Functionality Environments”; and
(3) a SAP research project, “Giving All Stakeholders a Voice: Understanding and Supporting the
Creativity and Innovation of Communities Using and Evolving Software Products.”
Gerhard Fischer 18 EUD Journal
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