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National
Speleological
Society
January 2000 Edition
Speleogenesis
Evolution of Karst Aquifers
Alexander B. Klimchouk
Derek C. Ford
Arthur N. Palmer
Wolfgang Dreybrodt
Editors
With Members of the Commission on Karst Hydrogeology and Speleogenesis
International Speleological Union
1
Speleogenesis
Evolution of Karst Aquifers
January 2000 Edition
2
3
Alexander B. Klimchouk
Derek C. Ford
Arthur N. Palmer
Wolfgang Dreybrodt
Editors
With Members of the Commission on Karst
Hydrogeology and Speleogenesis
International Speleological Union
Contributing Authors
• Thomas Aley Protem, Missouri, U.S.A.
• Philippe Audra Aix-en-Provence, France
• Patricia Beddows Bristol, England, UK
• Thomas Bitterli Peseux, Switzerland
• Simon Bottrell Leeds, England, UK
• Jose Maria Calaforra Almería, Spain
• James Carew Charleston, South Carolina, U.S.A.
• Atlas Corrêa Neto Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
• Wolfgang Dreybrodt Bremen, Germany
• Victor Dublyansky Perm, Russia
• Yuri Dublyansky Novosibirsk, Russia
• Laurent Eisenlohr Bremen, Germany
• Ralph Ewers Richmond, Kentucky, U.S.A.
• E. Fernández-Gibert Madrid, Spain
• Andrej Filippov Irkutsk, Russia
• Derek C. Ford Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
• Amos Frumkin Jerusalem, Israel
• Franci Gabrov‰ek Postojna, Slovenia
• John Gunn Huddersfield, England, UK
• Philippe Häuselmann Fribourg, Switzerland
• Carol Hill Albuquerque, New Mexico, U.S.A.
• Louise Hose Fulton, Missouri, U.S.A
• Peter Huntoon Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.A
• Pierre-Yves Jeannin Neuchatel, Switzerland
• Alexander Klimchouk Kiev, Ukraine
• Stein-Erik Lauritzen Bergen, Norway
• Rudolf Liedl Tübingen, Germany
• David Lowe Huddersfield, England, UK
• Joyce Lundberg Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
• J.E.J. Martini Pretoria, South Africa
• John Mylroie Mississippi State, Mississippi, U.S.A.
• R.A.L. Osborne Sydney, Australia
• Arthur N. Palmer Oneonta, New York, U.S.A.
• Margaret Palmer Oneonta, New York, U.S.A.
• A. Pulido-Bosch Granada, Spain
• C. Rossi Madrid, Spain
• Martin Sauter Jena, Germany
• Trevor Shaw Bath, England, UK
• Jorg Siemers Bremen, Germany
• France ·u‰ter‰iã Ljubljana, Slovenia
• Elizabeth White University Park, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
• Susan White Bundoora, Victoria, Australia
• William White University Park, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
• Stephen Worthington Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
NSS Special Publications Committee
• Design and Production David McClurg, Chairman
• Text Style Editors Margaret Palmer and George W. Moore
• Bibliography Editor Gail McCoy
• Index Editor Elizabeth White
National Speleological Society, Inc. Huntsville, Alabama, U.S.A.
Speleogenesis
Evolution of Karst Aquifers
January 2000 Edition
4
Speleogenesis
Evolution of Karst Aquifers
January 2000 Edition
Copyright © 2000 National Speleological Society, Inc.
Published by the National Speleological Society, Inc.
2813 Cave Avenue
Huntsville, Alabama 35810, U.S.A.
256 852-1300
Email: manager@caves.org Web page: http://www.caves.org
All rights reserved including the right to reproduce this book or
portions thereof in any form or by any means, mechanical or
electronic, including photocopying, recording, or by any informa-
tion storage or retrieval system without permission in writing from
the publisher. All inquiries should be addressed to the National
Speleological Society.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 99-74622
ISBN: 1-879961-09-1
Printed in the U.S.A.
Conservation Alert: Speleothems (cave formations) and cave
minerals are fragile, extremely fragile. Delicate soda straws and
eccentric helictites, for example, that took untold thousands of
years to create can be destroyed in an instant by a careless or
thoughtless act on our part. The conservation ethic of the National
Speleological Society—and other speleological associations
worldwide—is to enjoy the natural beauty of speleothems in place
without disturbing them in any way. Remember that cave conserva-
tion is more a state of mind than a set of rules. Use your common
sense and always remember to take the action that will cause the
least damage to the cave and its rare and beautiful speleothems.
Front Cover: Safari Straight, a river passage in Sof Omar Cave, Ethio-
pia. Photo by A. Klimchouk and V. Kisseljov.
Back Cover: Kizil Coba Cave, Crimea, Ukraine. Photo by V. Kisseljov.
5
Dedication
This book is dedicated to the memory of these three col-
leagues and to their outstanding lifetime achievements:
Alfred Bögli, Switzerland—Cave and karst studies
Vladimir Kisseljov, Russia—Exploration
Jim Quinlan, United States—Practical applications
Together they symbolize the unity of the three essential parts
of cave science.
In addition, we express our respect for the other enthusiasts
now departed who also devoted their lives to the exploration
and study of the underground world.
Finally, this book is dedicated to the memory of Fred L.
Wefer—who as a vice president and later as the president of
the National Speleological Society—strongly supported the
publication of this book by the Society.
6
7
Contents
Preface and Acknowledgements 11
Part 1 Introduction (Klimchouk, Ford, Palmer, Dreybrodt) 14
Part 2 Historical Perspective
2.0 Overview 20
2.1 Views on Cave Formation Before 1900 (Shaw) 21
2.2 Development of Speleogenetic Ideas in the 20th Century:
The Early Modern Approach (Lowe) 30
2.3 Development of Speleogenetic Ideas in the 20th Century:
The Modern Period:1957 to the Present (White) 39
Part 3 Geologic and Hydrogeologic Controls of Speleogenetic Development
3.0 Overview 44
3.1 Types of Karst and Evolution of Hydrogeologic Settings (Klimchouk and Ford) 45
3.2 Lithologic and Structural Controls of Dissolutional Cave Development
(Klimchouk and Ford) 54
3.3 Role of Stratigraphic Elements in Speleogenesis: Speleoinception Concept: (Lowe) 65
3.4 Hydrogeologic Control of Cave Patterns (Palmer) 77
3.5 The Formation of Epikarst and Its Role in Vadose Speleogenesis
(Klimchouk) 91
3.6 Role of Condensation in Karst Hydrogeology and Speleogenesis
(V. Dublyansky and Y. Dublyansky) 100
3.7 Paleokarst and Its Significance for Speleogenesis (Osborne) 113
Part 4 Theoretical Fundamentals of Speleogenetic Processes
4.0 Overview—Implications of Experimental and Modeling Results in
Speleogenetic Studies (Dreybrodt) 124
4.1 Chemistry of Speleogenetic Processes 126
4.1.1 Equilibrium Chemistry of Karst Waters in Limestone Terranes (Dreybrodt) 126
4.1.2 Limestone Dissolution Rates in Karst Environments (Dreybrodt and
Eisenlohr) 136
4.1.3 Dissolution of Limestone from Field Observations (W. White) 149
4.1.4 Calcite Dissolution by Sulfuric Acid (Bottrell, Gunn, and Lowe) 156
4.1.5 Dissolution of Carbonates by Geothermal Waters (Y. Dublyansky) 158
4.1.6 Dissolution and Conversions of Gypsum and Anhydrite (Klimchouk) 160
4.1.7 Dissolution of Salt (Frumkin) 169
4.1.8 Dissolution of Quartz and Silicate Minerals (Martini) 171
8
4.2. Modeling of Initiation and Propagation of Single Conduits and Networks
4.2.1 Hardware and Software Modeling of Initial Conduit Development in Karst
Rocks (Ford, Ewers, and Lauritzen) 175
4.2.2 Dynamics of the Evolution of Single Karst Conduit
(Dreybrodt and Gabrov‰ek) 184
4.2.3 Digital Modeling of Individual Solution Conduits (Palmer) 194
4.2.4 Cave Evolution on Two-Dimesional Networks of Primary Fractures in
Limestone (Dreybrodt and Siemers) 201
4.2.5 Modeling Karst Aquifer Genesis Using a Coupled Continuum-Pipe Flow
Model (Sauter and Liedl) 212
4.2.6 Influence of Fracture Roughness on Karstification Times
(Dreybrodt and Gabrov‰ek) 220
Part 5 Development of Cavities and Cave Systems in Various Settings
5.0 Overview 224
5.1 Speleogenesis in Coastal and Oceanic Settings (Mylroie and Carew) 225
5.1.1 Syngenetic Karst in Coastal Dune Limestones: A Review (S.White) 234
5.1.2 Speleogenesis on Tectonically Active Carbonate Islands (Gunn and Lowe) 238
5.2 Speleogenesis Under Deep-Seated and Confined Settings (Klimchouk) 244
5.2.1 Speleogenesis of Great Gypsum Mazes in the Western Ukraine (Klimchouk) 261
5.2.2 Speleogenesis of the Black Hills Maze Caves, South Dakota, USA
(A. Palmer and M. Palmer) 274
5.2.3 Speleogenesis of Botovskaya Cave, Eastern Siberia, Russia (Filippov) 282
5.2.4 Karstification Associated with Groundwater Circulation through the
Redwall Artesian Aquifer, Grand Canyon, Arizona, U.S.A (Huntoon) 287
5.2.5 Hydrothermal Speleogenesis: Its Settings and Peculiar Features
(Y. Dublyansky) 292
5.2.6 Hydrothermal Speleogenesis in the Hungarian Karst (Y. Dublyansky) 298
5.2.7 Some Case Studies of Speleogenesis by Sulfuric Acid
(Lowe, Bottrell, and Gunn) 304
5.2.8 Sulfuric Acid Hypogene Karst in the Guadalupe Mountains
of New Mexico and West Texas, USA (Hill) 309
5.2.9 A Giant Hydrothermal Cavity in the Rhodope Mountains (V. Dublyansky) 317
5.3. Speleogenesis Under Unconfined Settings (Ford) 319
5.3.1 Deep Phreatic Caves and Groundwater Systems of the Sierra de El Abra,
Mexico (Ford) 325
5.3.2 Speleogenesis of Castleguard Cave, Rocky Mountains, Alberta, Canada
(Ford, Lauritzen, and Worthington) 332
5.3.3 Genesis of a Large Cave System: Case Study of the North of Lake Thun
System (Canton Bern, Switzerland) (Jeannin, Bitterli, and Häuselmann) 338
5.3.4 Pliocene-Quaternary Karst Development in the French Prealps:
Speleogenesis and Significance of Cave Fills (Audra) 348
5.3.5 Speleogenesis in the Picos de Europa Massif, Northern Spain
(Fernández-Gibert, Calaforra, and Rossi) 352
5.3.6 Speleogenesis of Sistema Cheve, Oaxaca, Mexico (Hose) 358
5.3.7 Cave Development in Burnsville Cove, Virginia, U.S.A. (White) 362
5.3.8 Speleogenesis of the Mammoth Cave System, Kentucky, U.S.A. (Palmer) 367
9
5.3.9 Speleogenesis of Vertical Shafts in the Eastern United States (White) 378
5.3.10 Cave Development in Vadose Settings in a Multilayer Aquifer, the
Sorbas Karst (Almería, Spain) (Calaforra and Pulido-Bosch) 382
5.3.11 Maze Origin by Diffuse Recharge through Overlying Formations (Palmer) 387
5.3.12 Caves Branch, Belize, and the Baradla-Domica System, Hungary and
Slovakia (Ford) 391
5.3.13 Speleogenesis in the Ljubljanica River Drainage Basin, Slovenia (·u‰ter‰iã) 397
Part 6 Meso- and Micromorphology of Caves
6.0 Overview 407
6.1 Solutional and Erosional Morphology of Caves (Lauritzen and Lundberg) 408
6.2 Breakdown Morphology (E. White and W. White) 427
Part 7 Speleogenesis in Noncarbonate Lithologies
7.0 Overview 430
7.1 Speleogenesis in Gypsum (Klimchouk) 431
7.2 Speleogenesis in Salts, with Particular Reference to the Monte Sedom Area,
Israel (Frumkin) 443
7.3 Speleogenesis in Quartzites
7.3.1 Speleogenesis in Quartzites from Southeastern Minas Gerais, Brazil
(Corrêa Neto) 452
7.3.2 Quartzite Caves in Southern Africa (Martini) 458
Part 8 Some Implications of Speleogenetic Studies
8.0 Overview 462
8.1 Porosity and Permeability Enhancement in Unconfined Carbonate Aquifers
as a Result of Solution (Worthington, Ford, and Beddows)463
8.2 The Role of Speleogenesis in the Development of Hydrocarbon and Mineral
Deposits (Lowe) 473
8.3 Water and Land-Use Problems in Areas of Conduit Aquifers (Aley) 481
Part 9 Bibliography 485
Part 10Index 514
10
11
Preface
This book is a pioneer attempt by an international group of cave
scientists to summarize modern knowledge about the cave origins
in various settings, to examine the variety of approaches that have
been adopted, and to outline the role of speleogenesis in the
evolution of karst aquifers. Selected contributions from 44 authors
in 15 nations are combined in an integrated volume. These were
prepared between 1994 and 1998 as an initiative of the Commis-
sion of Karst Hydrogeology and Speleogenesis, International
Speleological Union.
Despite a desire to produce an integrated book—rather than a
mere collection of papers—the editors’ policy has not been
directed toward unifying all views. Along with some well-estab-
lished theories and approaches, the book contains new concepts
and ideas emerging in recent years. We hope this approach will
stimulate further development and exchange of ideas in cave
studies and karst hydrogeology.
Préface
Cet ouvrage est l’aboutissement du travail d’un groupe interna-
tional de spéléologues scientifiques faisant le point des
connaissances récentes sur l’origine des cavités. Elles sont
étudiées dans divers contextes, en prenant en compte les
approches variées qui ont été développées et en esquissant le rôle
de la spéléogénèse dans l’évolution des aquifères karstiques.
Elaboré entre 1994 et 1998, à l’initiative de la Commission
d’Hydrogéologie du Karst et de Spéléogénèse (KHS), rattachée à
l’Union Internationale de Spéléologie (UIS), cet unique volume
rassemble les contributions de 44 auteurs émanant de 15 nations
différentes.
Tout en souhaitant produire un ouvrage global, plutôt qu’un
assemblage d’articles divers, la politique éditoriale n’a toutefois
pas pour autant uniformisé les divers points de vue. Au côté de
quelques théories désormais bien établies, cet ouvrage recèle les
nouveaux concepts et idées ayant récemment émergé. Nous
souhaitons que cette approche stimulera les futurs développements
et l’échange des idées sur l’étude des cavités et sur
l’hydrogéologie karstique.
Translation – Phillipe Audra
Vorwort
Dieses Buch ist ein bahnbrechender Versuch einer internationalen
Gruppe von Karstforschern und Speläologen, das gegenwärtige
Wissen über die Entstehung von Höhlen unter verschiedenen
geologischen Bedingungen zusammenzufassen. Es behandelt eine
Vielfalt von neuen Ideen und gibt einen Abriss der Bedeutung der
Speläologenese für die Entwicklung von Karstaquiferen. Aus-
gewählte Beiträge von 44 Autoren aus 15 Nationen sind in einem
12
Band aufeinander abgestimmt. Sie entstanden zwischen 1994 und
1998 durch eine Initiative der Kommission für Karst-
Hydrogeologie und Speläogenese, Internationale Union für
Speläologie.
Trotz des Ziels eher einen in sich abgeschlossenen Band
vorzulegen, als eine bloße Sammlung von Beiträgen, ist es nicht
Absicht der Herausgeber gewesen, alle verschiedenen Ansätze zu
vereinen. Neben gut abgesicherten Theorien enthält das Buch neue,
in der letzten Zeit entstandene Ideen und Konzepte. Wir hoffen, daß
es zum Austausch von Ideen und zur weiteren Entwicklung in der
Speläologie und Karst-Hydrogeologie anregen wird.
Translation—Wolfgang Dreybrodt
13
Prefacio
El presente libro es la tentativa pionera de un grupo internacional
de investigadores relacionados con el estudio de las cavidades de
resumir el conocimiento actual sobre el origen de cavidades en
distintas situaciones, examinar las diversas aproximaciones
teóricas que pueden realizarse y describir papel de la
Espeleogénesis en la evolución de los acuíferos kársticos. Las
contribuciones seleccionadas, realizadas por 44 autores
provenientes de 15 nacionalidades distintas, se han combinado de
en un volumen preparado entre 1994 y 1998 gracias a la iniciativa
de la Comisión sobre Hidrogeología del Karst y Espeleogénesis
perteneciente a la Unión Internacional de Espeleología.
Se ha puesto especial énfasis en producir un libro que constituya
un conjunto homogéneo, mas que una simple recopilación de
artículos; pero sin embargo, no ha estado en el ánimo de los
editores una dirección que unificara los distintos puntos de vista
expuestos. Además de algunas teorías y aproximaciones ya bien
fundadas, el libro abarca también nuevos conceptos e ideas que
han surgido en los últimos años. Esperamos que este intento
estimule el futuro desarrollo e intercambio de ideas en la
investigación sobre cavidades e hidrogeología kárstica.
Translation– Jose Maria Calaforra
Acknowledgements
We sincerely thank all contributors for their willing cooperation in
the long and difficult process of preparing this book, for their
participation in developing its logic and methodology, and for
their cheerful response to numerous requests. We thank all col-
leagues who discussed the work with us and encouraged it in
many ways, even though not contributing to its content as authors.
We are particularly grateful to Margaret V. Palmer for invaluable
help in editing the English in many contributions, to Nataly
Yablokova for her help in performing many technical tasks, and to
Elizabeth White, who prepared the comprehensive index. Our
thanks are due to David Drew, Philip LaMoreaux, and George W.
Moore for reviewing the manuscript and producing constructive
notes and comments on improvement of the final product. We are
also especially indebted to George W. Moore for his able assis-
tance in style editing the final text.
The organizational costs and correspondence related to the
preparation of the book were partially sponsored by the National
Speleological Society, the publisher. We thank David McClurg, the
Chair of the NSS Special Publication Committee, for his extensive
technical and organizational support in the preparation and pub-
lishing process.
Alexander Klimchouk
Derek Ford
Arthur Palmer
Wolfgang Dreybrodt
Editors
14 Speleogenesis
Part 1 Introduction
1.0 Plate 3. Chamber of Columns, Sof Omar
Cave, Ethiopia. (Photo by A. Klimchouk)
1.0 Plate 1. Delicate Arch and its surrounding landscape, in the Jurassic Entrada
Sandstone, Arches National Park, Utah, U.S.A. Note person sitting at bottom of arch, at
lower left. (Photo by A. Palmer)
1.0 Plate 2. Sinking
stream (ponor) at
the entrance of
Onesquethaw Cave,
New York, U.S.A.
(Photo by A.
Palmer)
15Part 1 Introduction
About This Book
The aim of this book is to present the advances made in recent
decades in our understanding of the formation of dissolutional
caves, and to illustrate the role of cave genetic (speleogenetic)
processes in the development of karst aquifers.
From the perspective of hydrogeology, karst groundwater flow
is a distinct kind of fluid circulation system—one that is capable
of self-organization and self-development due to its capacity to
dissolve significant amounts of the host rock and transport them
out of the system. Fluid circulation in soluble rocks becomes
more efficiently organized by creating, enlarging, and modifying
patterns of cave conduits, the process of speleogenesis. We can
assert that karst groundwater flow is a function of speleogenesis
and vice versa.
The advances in cave science are poorly appreciated in what
may be termed “mainstream hydrogeology,” which retains a
childlike faith in flow models developed in the sand box. Many
karst students also will not be aware of all emerging concepts of
cave origin. This is because discussions of them are scattered
through journals and books in different disciplines and
languages, including publications with small circulation.
An understanding of the principles of speleogenesis and its
most important controls is indispensable for proper
comprehension of the evolution of karst systems in general and
of karst aquifers in particular. We hope this book will be useful
for both karst and cave scientists, and for general hydrogeologists
dealing with karst terranes.
Organization of the Book
This book is organized in eight parts, each
with chapters and subchapters.
Part 1
Part 1 is this Introduction: About This Book.
Part 2
Part 2, The Historical Perspective, gives a
history of speleogenetic studies.
Shaw (Chapter 2.1) traces the develop-
ment of the most important ideas from
previous centuries through the early modern
period in the first half of this century.
Lowe (Chapter 2.2) traces the development
up to the threshold of modern times.
W. White (Chapter 2.3) brings the story
right up to the present time.
The current state of the art is best
illustrated by the entire contents of this book.
Part 3
Part 3 reviews the principal geologic and
hydrogeologic variables that either control or
significantly influence the differing styles of
cave development that are found.
In Chapter 3.1, Klimchouk and Ford
introduce an evolutionary approach to the
typology of karst settings, which is taken as a
base line for the book. Extrinsic factors and
intrinsic mechanisms of cave development
change regularly and substantially during the
general cycle of geologic evolution of a
soluble rock, and more specifically, within
the hydrogeologic cycle.
The evolutionary typology of karst
presented in this chapter considers the life
cycle of a soluble formation, from deposition
(syngenetic karst), through deep burial, to
exposure and denudation. It helps to
differentiate between karst types that may
concurrently represent different stages of
karst development, and is also a means of
adequately classifying speleogenetic settings.
The different types of karst are marked by
characteristic associations of the structural
prerequisites for groundwater flow and
speleogenesis, flow regime, recharge mode
and recharge-discharge configurations,
groundwater chemistry, and degree of
inheritance from earlier conditions. Conse-
quently, these associations make a convenient
basis to view both the factors that control
cave genesis and the particular types of
caves.
In Chapter 3.2, lithological and structural
controls of speleogenesis are reviewed in
general terms (Klimchouk and Ford). Lowe
in Chapter 3.3 discusses the role of strati-
graphic elements and the speleoinception
concept. Palmer in Chapter 3.4 overviews the
16 Speleogenesis
hydrogeologic controls of cave patterns and
demonstrates that hydrogeologic factors, the
recharge mode, and the type of flow in
particular, impose the most powerful controls
on the formation of the gross geometry of
cave systems.
Hence, analysis of cave patterns is
especially useful in the reconstruction of
environments from paleokarst and in the
prediction and interpretation of groundwater
flow patterns and contaminant migration. Any
opportunity to relate cave patterns to the
nature of their host aquifers will assist in
these applied studies as well. Osborne in
Chapter 3.7 examines the significance of
paleokarst in speleogenesis.
More specific issues are treated such as the
nature of epikarst and its role in vadose
speleogenesis (Klimchouk, Chapter 3.5), and
the role of condensation processes (Chapter
3.6, V. Dublyansky and Y. Dublyansky).
Part 4
Part 4 outlines the fundamental physics and
chemistry of the speleogenetic processes in
Chapter 4.1 and presents a variety of different
approaches to modeling cave-conduit
development in Chapter 4.2.
In Chapter 4.1, the chemical reactions
during the dissolution of the common soluble
minerals, calcite, gypsum, salt, and quartz,
are discussed with the basic physical and
chemical mechanisms that determine their
dissolution rates. As limestone is the most
common karst rock and its dissolution is the
most complex in many respects, it receives
the greatest attention.
Dreybrodt (Chapter 4.1.1) and Dreybrodt
and Eisenlohr (Chapter 4.1.2) provide
advanced discussion and report the most
recent experimental data. These are used to
obtain realistic dissolution rates for a variety
of hydrogeologic conditions and as input for
modeling the evolution of conduits.
Although direct comparison between
theoretical or analytical dissolution rates and
those derived from field measurements is
difficult, a very useful comparison is
provided by W. White (Chapter 4.1.3). The
bulk removal of carbonate rock from karst
drainage basins can be evaluated either by
direct measurement of rock-surface retreat or
by mass balance within known drainage
basins. All of these approaches make sense
and give roughly accurate results that are
consistent with theoretical expectations.
It is well recognized today that the earliest
incipient phases of speleogenesis are crucial
in building up the pattern of conduits that
evolve into explorable cave systems. To
establish the major controls on these initial
stages by purely analytical or intuitive
methods is difficult, so modeling becomes
particularly important.
Various approaches are presented in
Chapter 4.2. Ford, Ewers, and Lauritzen
present the results of a systematic study of
the propagation of conduits between input
and output points in an anisotropic fissure.
They use a variety of hardware and
software models in series (Chapter 4.2.1)
discussing the cases of:
• single input
• multiple inputs in one rank
• multiple inputs in multiple ranks.
The results indicate important details of the
competitive development of protoconduits
and help to explain branching cave patterns.
In the competition between inputs, some
principal tubes in near ranks first link
(“breakthrough”) to an output boundary. This
reorients the flowfields of failed nearby
competitors, which then extend to join the
principal via their closest secondaries. The
process extends outward and to the rear,
linking up all inputs in a “cascading system.”
The exploding growth of computer
capability during the past two decades has
greatly enhanced possibilities for digital
modeling of early conduit development.
Investigating the growth of a single conduit is
a logical first step in understanding the
evolution of caves, realized here by
Dreybrodt and Gabrov‰ek in the form of a
simple mathematical model (Chapter 4.2.2)
and by Palmer by numerical finite-difference
modeling (Chapter 4.2.3).
The models show that positive feedback
loops operate. Widening a fracture increases
flow through it. Therefore dissolution rates
increase along it, and so on, until finally a
dramatic increase of flow rate permits a
dramatic enhancement of the widening. This
breakthrough event terminates the initial
stage of conduit evolution. From then on the
water is able to pass through the entire
conduit while maintaining sufficient
undersaturation to preserve low-order
kinetics.
So the growth rate is very rapid, at least
from a geologic standpoint—usually about
0.001–0.1 cm/yr. The initiation (“break-
through”) time depends critically on the
length and the initial width of the fracture,
and for the majority of realistic cases, it
covers a time range from a few thousand
years to ten million years in limestones.
The modeling results give a clear
explanation of the operation of selectivity in
cave genesis. In a typical unconfined karst
aquifer there is a great range of enlargement
rates along the competing flow routes, and
only a few conduits will grow to enterable
size. The modeling also provides one starting
point (others are discussed in Chapter 5.2) to
explain uniform maze patterns. These are
favored by enlargement of all openings at
comparable rates where the discharge to
length ratio is great enough.
Single-conduit modeling has the virtue of
revealing how the cave-forming variables
relate to each other in the simplest possible
way. Although it is more difficult to extend
this approach to two dimensions, many
investigators have done so. Examples are
Groves and Howard, 1994; and Howard and
Groves, 1995. And in this volume—Ford,
Ewers, and Lauritzen, Chapter 4.2.1;
Dreybrodt and Siemers, Chapter 4.2.4; and
Sauter and Liedl, Chapter 4.2.5.
The modeling performed by Dreybrodt and
Siemers shows that the main principles of
breakthrough derived from one-dimensional
models remain valid. The evolution of karst
aquifers has been modeled for a variety of
different geologic settings, including also
variation in lithology with respect to the
dissolution kinetics. Sauter and Liedl
simulate the development of conduits at a
catchment scale for fissured carbonate rocks
with rather large initial openings (about 1
mm). The approach is based upon hydraulic
coupling of a pipe network to matrix
continuum in order to represent the well-
known duality of karst aquifer flow systems.
It is also shown how understanding of the
genesis of karst aquifers and modeling of
their development can assist in characteriza-
tion of the conduit system, which dominates
flow and transport in karst aquifers.
Part 5
An important point that has emerged from
cave studies of the three decades is that no
single speleogenetic model applies to all
geologic and hydrologic settings. Given that
settings may also change systematically
during the evolutionary geologic cycles
outlined above (Chapter 3.1), an evolutionary
approach is called for.
This is attempted in Part 5, which is
organized to give extended accounts of
speleogenesis in the three most important
settings that we recognize:
• Coastal and oceanic (Chapter 5.1).
• Deep-seated and confined (Chapter 5.2).
• Unconfined (Chapter 5.3).
Each chapter begins with a review of modern
ideas on cave development in the setting,
followed by representative case studies. The
latter include new accounts of some “classic”
caves as well as descriptions of other little-
known cave systems and areas. Readers may
determine for themselves how well the real
field examples fit the general models
presented in the introductory sections.
Mylroie and Carew in Chapter 5.1
summarize specific features of cave and karst
development in young rocks in coastal and
island settings that result from the chemical
interactions between fresh and salt waters,
and the effects of fluctuating sea level during
the Quaternary. The case studies include a
review of syngenetic karst in coastal dune
17Part 1 Introduction
limestones, Australia (S. White, 5.1.1) and an
example of speleogenesis on tectonically
active carbonate islands (Gunn and Lowe,
5.1.2).
Klimchouk in Chapter 5.2 reviews
conditions and mechanisms of speleogenesis
in deep-seated and confined settings, one of
the most controversial but exciting topics in
modern cave research. Conventional karst
and speleogenetic theories are concerned
chiefly with shallow unconfined geologic
settings. These suppose that the karstification
found there is intimately related to surface
conditions of input and output, with the dis-
solution being driven by downward meteoric
water recharge. The possibility of hypogenic
karstification in deeper environments has
been neglected for a long time, and the quite
numerous instances of karst features found at
significant depths have usually been inter-
preted as buried paleokarst.
However, the past decade has seen a
growing recognition of the variety and
importance of hypogene dissolution process,
and of speleogenesis under confined settings
that often precedes unconfined development.
These include Hill, 1987, 1995; Klim-
chouk, 1994, 1996, 1997; Lowe, 1992; Lowe
and Gunn, 1995; Mazzullo and Harris, 1991,
1992; Palmer, 1991, 1995; Smart and
Whitaker, 1991; Worthington, 1991, 1994;
and Worthington and Ford, 1995.
Confined (artesian) settings were com-
monly ignored as sites for cave origin. This is
because the classic concept of artesian flow
implies long lateral travel distances for
groundwater within a soluble unit, resulting
in a low capacity to generate caves in the
confined area.
However, the recognition of nonclassical
features in artesian flow—namely the
occurrence of cross-formation hydraulic
communication within artesian basins, the
concepts of transverse speleogenesis, and of
the inversion of hydrogeologic function of
beds in a sequence—calls for a revision of
the theory of artesian speleogenesis and of
views on the origin of many caves.
It is proposed that artesian speleogenesis is
immensely important to speleoinception and
also accounts for the development of some of
the largest known caves in the world. Typical
conditions of recharge, the flow pattern
through the soluble rocks, and groundwater
aggressiveness favor uniform, rather than
competing, development of conduits,
resulting in maze caves where the structural
prerequisites exist. Cross-formational flow
favors a variety of dissolution mechanisms
that commonly involve mixing.
Hydrogeochemical mechanisms of
speleogenesis are particularly diverse and
potent where carbonate and sulfate beds
alternate and within or adjacent to hydrocar-
bon-bearing sedimentary basins.
Hypogene speleogenesis occurs in rocks of
varied lithology and can involve a variety of
dissolution mechanisms that operate under
different physical constraints but create
similar cave features.
Case studies include:
• The great gypsum mazes of the western
Ukraine (Klimchouk, Chapter 5.2.1).
• Great maze caves in limestones in the
Black Hills, South Dakota (Palmer,
Chapter 5.2.2), and Siberia (Filippov,
Chapter 5.2.3).
• Karstification in the Redwall Aquifer,
Arizona (Huntoon, Chapter 5.2.4).
• A summary of the peculiar features of
hydrothermal speleogenesis (Y. Dub-
lyansky, Chapter 5.2.5).
• Hydrothermal caves in Hungary (Y. Dub-
lyansky, Chapter 5.2.6).
• Sulfuric acid speleogenesis (Lowe, Bot-
trell, and Gunn, Chapter 5.2.7, and Hill,
Chapter 5.2.8).
• An outstanding example of a hydrothermal
cavity—in fact the largest ever recorded by
volume—in the Rhodope Mountains (V.
Dublyansky, Chapter 5.2.9).
Recognition of the scale and importance of
deep-seated speleogenesis and of the
hydraulic continuity and cross-formational
communications between aquifers in artesian
basins is indispensable for the correct
interpretation of the evolution of karst
aquifers, speleogenetic processes and
associated phenomena, regional karst water-
resource evaluation, and the genesis of
certain karst-related mineral deposits. These
and other theoretical and practical implica-
tions still have to be developed and evalu-
ated, which offers a wide field for further
research.
Ford in Chapter 5.3 reviews the theory of
speleogenesis that occurs where normal
meteoric water sinks underground through
the epikarst or dolines and streamsinks, and
circulates in the limestone or other soluble
rocks without any major artesian confine-
ment. These are termed common caves (Ford
and Williams, 1989) because they probably
account for 90% or more of the explored and
mapped dissolutional caves that are longer
than a few hundred meters. This estimate
reflects the bias in exploration. Caves formed
in unconfined settings and genetically related
to surface recharge are the most readily
accessible and hence form the bulk of
documented caves.
Common caves chiefly display branchwork
forms where the dissolutional conduits
occupy only a tiny proportion of the total
length or area of penetrable fissures that is
available to the groundwater. The rules that
govern the selection of the successful
linkages that will be enlarged into the
branchwork pattern are supported in the
models presented in Chapter 4.2.
In longitudinal section, caves may be
divided into deep phreatic, multiloop, mixed
loop and water table, and ideal water table
types, with drawdown vadose caves or
invasion vadose caves above them. Many
large systems display a mixture of the types.
The concepts of plan-pattern construction,
phreatic, water table, or vadose state, and
multiphase development of common caves
are illustrated in the case studies that follow
the introduction.
They are organized broadly to begin with
examples of:
• Comparatively simple deep phreatic and
multiloop systems—El Abra, Mexico
(Ford, Chapter 5.3.1), and Castleguard
Cave, Canada (Ford, Lauritzen, and
Worthington, Chapter 5.3.2).
• Large and complex multiphase systems
such as the North of Thun System,
Switzerland (Jeannin, Bitterly, and
Häuselmann, Chapter 5.3.3), and Mam-
moth Cave, Kentucky (Palmer, Chapter
5.3.8).
• Representatives of mixed vadose and
phreatic development in mountainous
regions—the Alps (Audra, Chapter 5.3.4),
the Pyrenees (Fernandez, Calaforra, and
Rossi, Chapter 5.3.5), Mexico (Hose,
Chapter 5.3.6).
• Finally, cases where there is strong
lithologic or structural control—folded
Appalachians (W. White, Chapter 5.3.7),
and gypsum caves in southern Spain
(Calaforra and Pulido-Bosch, Chapter
5.3.10).
Two special topics are also considered:
• Speleogenesis of vertical shafts in the
eastern United States (W. White in Chapter
5.3.9).
• Maze origin by diffuse recharge through an
overlying formation (Palmer, Chapter
5.3.11).
The set concludes with:
• Two instances of nearly ideal water
table cave development in Belize and
Hungary (Ford, Chapter 5.3.12).
• A review of the latest models of
speleogenesis from the region where
modern karst studies began, the
Classical Karst of Slovenia and Trieste
(·u‰ter‰iã, Chapter 5.3.13).
Part 6
In Parts 2 to 5 attention is directed primarily
on how the gross geometry of a cave system
is established. Part 6 switches focus to the
forms at meso- and microscales that can be
created during enlargement of the cave.
Lauritzen and Lundberg in Chapter 6.1
summarize the great variety of erosional
18 Speleogenesis
forms (speleogenetic facies) that can be
created by a wide range of speleogenetic
agents operating in the phreatic or vadose
zones. Some forms of cave passages have
been subject to intensive research and may be
interpreted by means of simple physical and
chemical principles, but many others are
polygenetic and hence difficult to decipher
with certainty. However, in addition to the
analysis of cave patterns (see Chapter 3.4),
each morphological element is a potential
tool that can aid our inferences on the origin
of caves and on major characteristics of
respective past hydrogeologic settings.
In Chapter 6.2, E. White and W. White
review breakdown morphology in caves,
generalizing that the processes are most
active during the enlargement and decay
phases of cave development. Early in the
process, breakdown occurs when the flow
regime shifts from pipe-full conditions to
open channel conditions (that is, when the
roof first loses buoyant support). Later in the
process breakdown becomes part of the
overall degradation of the karst system. The
chapter addresses the mechanism of break-
down formation, the geologic triggers that
initiate breakdown, and the role that
breakdown plays in cave development.
Part 7
As the great majority of both theoretical
considerations and case studies in this book
deal with speleogenesis in carbonate rocks, it
is useful to provide a special forum to
examine dissolution cave genesis in other
rocks. This is the goal of Part 7.
Klimchouk (7.1) provides a review of
speleogenesis in gypsum. This is a useful
arena for testing the validity and limitations
of certain general speleogenetic concepts. A
difference in solution kinetics between
gypsum and calcite impose limitations and
peculiar features on the early evolution of
conduits in gypsum. These peculiarities seem
to be an extreme and more obvious illustra-
tion of some rules of speleogenetic develop-
ment devised from conceptual and digital
modeling of early conduit growth in
limestone.
For instance, it was shown (Palmer, 1984,
1991; Dreybrodt, 1996; and also see Chapters
3.4 and 4.2.2) that initiation of early, narrow,
and long pathways does not seem feasible
under linear dissolution rate laws (n=1) due
to exponential decrease of the dissolution
rate. Although the dissolution kinetics of
gypsum are not well known close to equili-
brium, it is generally assumed that they are
controlled entirely by diffusion and therefore
are linear. If dissolution of gypsum is solely
diffusion-controlled, with no change in the
kinetic order, conduit initiation could not
occur in phreatic settings or by lateral flow
through gypsum from distant recharge areas
in artesian settings. Hence, the fact that maze
caves are common in gypsum under artesian
conditions (see Chapter 5.2.1) gives strong
support to a general model of “transverse”
artesian speleogenesis where gypsum beds
are underlain by or sandwiched between
insoluble or low-solubility aquifers (Chapter
5.2). And it suggests that similar processes
may be applicable to cave development in
carbonates.
In unconfined settings, speleogenesis in
gypsum occurs along fissures wide enough to
support undersaturated flow throughout their
length. Linear or crudely branching caves
overwhelmingly predominate. These rapidly
adjust to the contemporary geomorphic
setting and to the maximum available
recharge. Also, if considerable conduit
porosity has been created in deep-seated
settings, it provides ready paths for more
intense groundwater circulation and further
cave development when uplift brings the
gypsum into the shallow subsurface.
Speleogenesis in salt, reviewed in general
and exemplified by the Monte Sedom case in
Israel (Frumkin, Chapter 7.2), has been
documented only in open, unconfined
settings, where it provides a model for simple
vadose cave development. Chapter 7.3 deals
with speleogenesis in quartzite, illustrated by
case studies from southeastern Minas Gerais,
Brazil (Corrêa Neto, 7.3.1), and South Africa
(Martini, 7.3.2). The process involves initial
chemical weathering of the quartzite to create
zones of friable rocks (sanding or arenisa-
tion), which then are removed by piping, with
further conduit enlargement due to mechani-
cal erosion by flowing water.
Part 8
This part combines the theoretical with
some applied aspects of speleogenetic
studies. Worthington, Ford, and Beddows
(Chapter 8.1) show the important implica-
tions of what might be termed
“speleogenetic wisdom” when studying
groundwater behavior in karst.
They examine some standard hydro-
geologic concepts in the light of knowledge
of caves and their patterns, considering a
range of case studies to identify the
characteristic enhancement of porosity and
permeability due to speleogenesis that
occurs in carbonate rocks. The chapter
focuses on unconfined carbonate aquifers,
as these are the most studied from a
speleologic perspective and are most
important for water supplies.
Four aquifers, differing in rock type,
recharge type (allogenic and autogenic), and
age (Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic), are
described in detail to demonstrate the extent
of dissolutional enhancement of porosity and
permeability. All four cases are similar in
hydraulic function, despite the fact that some
of them were previously characterized as
different end members of a “karst to non-
karst” spectrum. Enhancement of porosity by
dissolution is relatively minor. Enhancement
of permeability is considerable, because
dissolution has created dendritic networks of
channels able to convey 94% or more of all
flow in the aquifer, with fractures providing a
small proportion and the matrix a negligible
amount.
These conclusions may be viewed as a
warning to hydrogeologists working in
carbonate terranes: probably the majority of
unconfined aquifers function in a similar
manner. Sampling is a major problem in their
analysis. This is because boreholes (the
conventional exploration tool in hydro-
geology) are unlikely to intersect the major
channels that are conveying most of the flow
and any contaminants in it. It is estimated—
using examples of comprehensively mapped
caves—that the probability of a borehole
intersecting a conduit ranges from 1 in 50 to
1 in 1000 or more. Boreholes simply cannot
be relied upon to detect the presence of caves
or to “characterize” the hydrologic function-
ing of cavernous aquifers.
Wherever comprehensive evidence has
been collected in unconfined carbonate
aquifers (cave mapping, plus boreholes, plus
lab analysis of core samples), dissolution
inexorably results in a similar structure.
Specifically, channel networks providing
most of the permeability of the aquifer, yet
occupying a very minor fraction of its volume
(Worthington, Ford, and Beddows, Chapter
8.1).
Lowe (Chapter 8.2) focuses on develop-
ments in understanding the vital role played
by karstic porosity (broadly viewed as being
a product of speleogenesis), in the migration
of mineralizing fluids (or hydrocarbons) and
in their deposition (or storage).
He also comments on the potential role of
new speleogenetic concepts in developing
greater understanding in the future. Although
some early workers were clearly aware of
evidence for a relationship between karstic
porosity and economic deposits—and others
noted its theoretical likelihood—it has been
ignored by many until relatively recent times.
This shortfall has gradually been redressed.
New understanding of the extent and variety
of karst processes is ensuring that new
relationships are being recognized and new
interpretations and models are being derived.
The chapter clearly demonstrates the wide
applicability of speleogenetic knowledge to
issues in economic geology.
In Chapter 8.3 Aley provides an overview
of the water and land-use problems that occur
in areas with conduit aquifers. He stresses
that sound land management must be
premised on an understanding that karst is a
three-dimensional landscape where the
surface and subsurface are intimately and
integrally connected. Failure to recognize that
activity at the surface affects the subsurface,
19Part 1 Introduction
and the converse, has long been the root
cause of many of the problems of water
and land use in karst regions.
Karst areas have unique natural-
resource problems, whose management
can have major economic consequences.
Although there is an extensive literature
on the nature of particular problems,
resource protection, and hazard minimi-
zation strategies in karst, it rarely
displays an advanced understanding of
the processes of conduit formation and
their characteristic. Yet, these are always
involved.
•••
This book does not pretend to be a
definitive text on speleogenesis. However,
we hope that readers will find it to be a
valuable reference source, that it will
stimulate new ideas and approaches to
develop and resolve some of the remain-
ing problems. We also hope that it will
promote an appreciation of the impor-
tance of speleogenetic studies in karst
hydrogeology and applied environmental
sciences.
Alexander Klimchouk,
Derek Ford ,
Arthur Palmer,
Wolfgang Dreybrodt, Editors
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