The European blueberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) and the potential for cultivation. A review
Abstract and Figures
Blueberries belong to the genus Vaccinium, a widespread genus with more than 200 species of woody plants. In Northern Europe, the European blueberry (EB), also called bilberry, is one of the most important wild berries. EB (Vaccinium myrtillus) is very demanded by the processing industry, due to its delicious taste and high dietary value. However, to our knowledge there has been made no efforts of domestication of the species, and it is still harvested in forest fields without any cultivation. The successful management of the sweet lowbush blueberry (V. angustifolium), which in many ways is similar to the EB, suggests that there are opportunities to increase yield and decrease the significant yearly variation in EB yield, by practices including fertilization, irrigation, cutting trees, and weed control. The fruit yield in wild stands of EB is very variable, but the potential is probably close to 2 tons per hectare. Results from literature on growth of the EB, development and ecology are discussed in relation to possibilities for domestication.
Figures - uploaded by Inger Martinussen
Author content
All figure content in this area was uploaded by Inger Martinussen
Content may be subject to copyright.
... The United States state of Maine and eastern Canada account for the largest share of global wild blueberry production, with the native Vaccinium angustifolium as the main species representing 95% of North America's crop, while the remaining 5% is Vaccinium myrtilloides, also known as the velvet leaf blueberry (IBO, 2023). There is no evidence of the impact of BLMoV on other Vaccinium species, especially on V. myrtillus, which is mainly found in the EU environment as non-cultivated blueberry and could be increasingly cultivated in the future (Nestby et al., 2011). ...
... The impact is assessed for the most cultivated Blueberry in the EU, V. corymbosum, the species for which evidence is available. The experts considered the European context for blueberry production (CBI, 2023;Nestby et al., 2011). The diversity of climatic conditions and agricultural practices in the EU area of potential distribution is considered in the assessment. ...
In 2022, EFSA was mandated by the European Commission's Directorate‐General for Health and Food Safety (M‐2022‐00070) to provide technical assistance on the list of Union quarantine pests qualifying as priority pests, as specified in Article 6(2) of Regulation (EU) 2016/2031 on protective measures against plant pests. As part of Task C, EFSA conducted expert knowledge elicitations for candidate priority pests, focusing on the lag period, expansion rate and impact on production (yield and quality losses) and the environment. This report provides the rationale for the dataset on Nepovirus myrtilli, delivered to the European Commission's Joint Research Centre, to feed the Impact Indicator for Priority Pest (I2P2) model and complete the pest prioritisation ranking exercise.
... In general, bilberry and lingonberry yields are similar, literature reports on yield range 12-38 kg ha -1 for bilberry, 12-35 kg ha -1 for lingonberry . Thus, average yields can variate by more than three times from year to year , Nestby et al., 2011. Bilberry blooms in spring, so in most cases low yields have occurred in years with spring frosts during flowering (Nestby et al., 2011). ...
... Thus, average yields can variate by more than three times from year to year , Nestby et al., 2011. Bilberry blooms in spring, so in most cases low yields have occurred in years with spring frosts during flowering (Nestby et al., 2011). As lingonberry usually blooms in late spring or early summer, risk for frosts is lower. ...
Wild berries – bilberry, lingonberry, cranberry, and cloudberry are typical boreal forest species and have been a source of food and traditional medicine since ancient times. Based on the SCOPUS database, this review evaluates the popularity of wild berries in Latvia and the world, comparing the latest scientific research on each species. The literature highlights the global popularity of bilberry and a notable research interest on cloudberry in Latvia. The large proportion of articles in health-related fields emphasizes the importance of using wild berries for health benefits.
... In general, bilberry and lingonberry yields are similar, literature reports on yield range 12-38 kg ha -1 for bilberry, 12-35 kg ha -1 for lingonberry . Thus, average yields can variate by more than three times from year to year , Nestby et al., 2011. Bilberry blooms in spring, so in most cases low yields have occurred in years with spring frosts during flowering (Nestby et al., 2011). ...
... Thus, average yields can variate by more than three times from year to year , Nestby et al., 2011. Bilberry blooms in spring, so in most cases low yields have occurred in years with spring frosts during flowering (Nestby et al., 2011). As lingonberry usually blooms in late spring or early summer, risk for frosts is lower. ...
Hard ticks Ixodidae (Acari) transmit pathogens causing dangerous diseases such as tick-borne encephalitis and Lyme disease. These tick species in Latvia are dog tick Ixodes ricinus and taiga tick Ixodes persulcatus. The use of acaricides to control tick populations raises concerns over environmental pollution. Environmentally friendly way to control ticks is necessary to develop. Parasitoid tick wasp Ixodiphagus hookeri (Hymenoptera, Encyrtidae) are natural enemies of Ixodidae ticks. The aim of the current research was to study natural enemies of Ixodes spp. and determine causes of tick mortality, and development of methods for tick rearing in laboratory conditions. In order to carry out the artificial feeding of ticks, a prototype of a tick feeding device using skin-imitating membrane was created.
... Bilberries (Vaccinium myrtillus) thrive in moist, well-drained soils, making adequate water availability crucial for their growth and fruit production [54]. These plants prefer environments where moisture levels are consistently maintained, as excessive drought can lead to reduced fruit set and poor berry quality. ...
The genus Vaccinium, which includes approximately 450 species, features economically significant berries such as bilberries (Vaccinium myrtillus) and blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum). Bilberries flourish in acidic, well-drained soils, typically found in heathlands and coniferous forests, while blueberries benefit from a broader range of soil types and intensive agricultural practices. Sustainable cultivation strategies, including organic fertilization and efficient water management, are vital for optimizing production and addressing the environmental challenges posed by climate change. Both berries are rich in antioxidants and other nutrients, driving consumer interest and market growth despite competition from alternative crops. Additionally, tailored fertilization techniques are crucial for maximizing yield and fruit quality. By implementing circular economy principles, the production of bilberries and blueberries can enhance sustainability and profitability, ensuring their long-term success in agricultural systems.
... Bilberries (Vaccinium myrtillus) thrive in moist, well-drained soils, making adequate water availability crucial for their growth and fruit production [54]. These plants prefer environments where moisture levels are consistently maintained, as excessive drought can lead to reduced fruit set and poor berry quality. ...
The genus Vaccinium, which includes approximately 450 species, features economically significant berries such as bilberries (Vaccinium myrtillus) and blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum). Bilberries flourish in acidic, well-drained soils, typically found in heathlands and coniferous forests, while blueberries benefit from a broader range of soil types and intensive agricultural practices. Sus-tainable cultivation strategies, including organic fertilization and efficient water management, are vital for optimizing production and addressing the environmental challenges posed by climate change. Both berries are rich in antioxidants and other nutrients, driving consumer interest and market growth despite competition from alternative crops. Additionally, tailored fertilization techniques are crucial for maximizing yield and fruit quality. By implementing circular economy principles, the production of bilberries and blueberries can enhance sustainability and profitability, ensuring their long-term success in agricultural systems.
... The natural habitat of V. myrtillus and V. vitis-idaea is typically associated with cooler, mountainous regions, aligning with their presence in Suva Planina and Kopaonik Mountain, which have the appropriate climatic and soil conditions for these species. In contrast, the Deliblat Sand area lack these environmental conditions, limiting the availability and traditional use of these plants by the local population (62). Furthermore, the ethnobotanical knowledge in each region has likely developed based on the plants most readily available in the local environment. ...
The use of medicinal plants dates back to ancient civilizations, where they were the primary form of treatment. This interest has evolved with scientific advances and led to their modern use. Around 13000 medicinal plants are used worldwide, and 65-80% of the population uses them for therapeutic purposes. In Serbia, approximately 700 medicinal plant species are found, of which around 420 are actively used. An important medical field in which medicinal plants play a crucial therapeutic role is the treatment of urinary tract infections (UTIs). This study aimed to collect and document the diverse uses of medicinal plants and the traditional knowledge in Serbia regarding their therapeutic applications in treating UTIs.
... Most workers are formally employed by staffing agencies based in Thailand (on behalf of a Swedish berry wholesaler), which arrange work visas and transportation in exchange for large upfront payments which are often covered with loans (Wingborg, 2011). The difficulty for regulatory oversight within these transnational employment arrangements, and the financial risks they place on workers, have been an ongoing source of concern surrounding the wild berry industry for the last two decades, amid repeated accounts of exploitation and in some cases human trafficking (Axelsson and Hedberg, 2018;Carmo and Hedberg, 2019;Eriksson and Tollefsen, 2018;La Mela, 2014;Nestby et al., 2011;Wikstr, 2021;Wingborg, 2011). ...
Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) expansion in subalpine and alpine ecosystems is increasing due to climate change and reduced land management. This review examines bilberry traits, environmental responses, and ecosystem impacts. As a stress-tolerant chamaephyte, bilberry thrives in acidic, nutrient-poor soils across various habitats. It propagates effectively through rhizomes and demonstrates a phalanx growth form. Bilberry’s growth and distribution are influenced by elevation, soil structure, pH, water availability, and nitrogen content. Mycorrhizal associations play a crucial role in nutrient uptake. The species modifies the microclimate, facilitates litter accumulation, and influences soil microbial communities, affecting nutrient turnover and biodiversity. Bilberry shows moderate tolerance to herbivory and frost, with the ability to recover through rapid emergence of new ramets. However, severe or repeated disturbances can significantly impact its abundance and reproductive success. Climate warming and atmospheric nitrogen deposition have accelerated bilberry growth in treeline ecotones. The management of bilberry expansion requires a nuanced approach, considering its resilience, historical land-use changes, and environmental factors. The goal should be to limit, not eliminate, bilberry, as it is a natural part of subalpine communities. Long-term comparative monitoring and experimental manipulation are necessary for effective management strategies.
Environmental factors regulate the regeneration of mountain spruce forests, with drought, wind, and bark beetles causing the maximum damage. How these factors minimise spruce regen-eration is still poorly understood. We conducted this study to investigate how the phenology and population dynamics of bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.), a dominant understory species of mountain spruce forests, are related to selected environmental factors that are modified by natural disturbances (bark beetle and wind). For this, we analysed bilberry at different sites affected by bark beetles and adjacent undisturbed forests in the Tatra National Park (TANAP) during the growing season (April-September) in 2016-2021, six years after the initial bark beetle attack. The observations were taken along an altitudinal gradient (1100-1250-1400 m a.s.l.) in two habitats (disturbed spruce forest-D, undisturbed spruce forest-U). We found that habitat and altitude influenced the onset of selected phenological phases, such as the earliest onset at low altitudes (1100 m a.s.l.) in disturbed forest stands and the latest at high altitudes (1400 m a.s.l.) in undisturbed stands. Although there were non-significant differences between habitats and altitudes, likely due to local climate conditions and the absence of a tree layer, these findings suggest that bilberry can partially thrive in disturbed forest stands. Despite temperature fluctuations during early spring, the longer growing season benefits its growth.
Growth of bilberry was investigated in two boreal forest types (moderately dry pine heath forest, EM, and mesic spruce heath forest, HM) after being clipped at ground level in July, August of September 1985. Treatments simulated herbivory damage caused by small rodents. Regrowth during the same season occurred after clipping in July, but survival of these ramets was low, especially in HM forest. The two later clipping times prevented current-year regrowth, but allowed new shoots to emerge in the follwing years. Calculated as a percentage of the original value, the biomass that had accumulated by 1989 was greater in the HM forest than in the EM forest. In the EM forest, the density and the biomass reached the control level in the plots clipped in July, growth decreasing as the time of clipping became later. Ramets were smaller in the EM forest, but the percentage of leaf biomass to total biomass was somewhat greater than in the HM forest. Results suggested that the ability of the bilberry to recover completely from severe herbivory between the years of peak rodent populations depends both on the timing of the damage and on the growing site. -from Authors
In the last 10 years, the area planted to all blueberries in North American increased 30% to 96,869 ha. During this period, lowbush blueberry area increased 33% and highbush 22%. In the USA, the area planted to "highbush" (northern and southern highbush and rabbiteye) blueberries increased from 19,758 to 22,393 ha from 1992 to 2003, a 13% increase. In 2003, the Midwest region of the USA accounted for 36% of the area of highbush blueberries planted. The South, New England, and Western regions accounted for 28%, 17%, and 14% of the planted area in 2003, respectively. Specific states in the USA that had considerable growth from 1992 to 2003 were California, Florida, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oregon, and Washington. In Canada, the area planted to highbush blueberries increased 102% to 4397 ha. Commercial blueberry plantings in Mexico were estimated at 28 ha in 2003. In the USA, total lowbush area increased 6% since 1992 with Maine accounting for 97% of the area planted. In Canada, lowbush area increased 57% since 1992 with 37% and 34% of the area planted in Quebec and Nova Scotia, respectively. The blueberry industry is still projected to grow considerably in the next 5 to 10 years. Highbush blueberries in the USA are expected to increase 16% and 35% in the next 5 or 10 years, respectively. In Canada, planted area of highbush blueberries is expected to increase by 22% in 5 years and 25% in 10 years. If projections are correct, planted area in Mexico will increase by almost 30 fold in 10 years. The managed area of lowbush blueberries is expected to increase by 10% to 20% in the next 5 to 10 years. Data on typical yields, types of cultivars grown, markets, proportion of machine harvest, major production problems, changes in production practices and research areas are presented.
The effects of the Individual Quick Freezing (IQF) process and frozen storage at -18° C up to 10 months, on the nutraceutical compounds, antioxidant properties and color indices of various berries (blueberry, red raspberry and blackberry) have been evaluated. Samples were extracted and analyzed for their total phenolics content, total monomeric anthocyanins, vitamin C, antioxidant activity and color indices. Total anthocyanins and color indices were evaluated by using pH-differential method, total phenolics content was measured using Folin-Ciocalteu procedure, vitamin C content using 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol method and antioxidant activity using ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay. Blueberry contains the highest amounts of polyphenols, anthocyanins and antioxidant activity among the berries studied. The highest content of vitamin C was found in fresh raspberry. After freezing, no significant difference was observed for investigated nutraceuticals and color of berries, because the IQF is a rapid and non-destroying preservation method. Results showed that the frozen storage up to 4 months did not significantly affect the bioactive compounds and color indices of berries. The degradation of these characteristics was not recorded more than 23% during six months of storage. After 10 months, the content of polyphenols decreased up to 28-47% of the initial value; the total anthocyanins was found in proportion of 80-91%, and the ascorbic acid content was kept at 62-76%. After 10 months of storage the smallest loss of antioxidant activity was recorded for blueberries (approximately 23%) and the biggest loss for raspberries (approximately 37%). The results showed a positive correlation between antioxidant capacity and polyphenols, vitamin C and anthocyanins content. The correlation coefficient between FRAP and the total phenolics was higher than the correlation coefficient between FRAP and total anthocyanins or FRAP and vitamin C for all investigated berries.
In extreme arctic environments, selection forces driving evolution are mainly of the phsyical environment and plant interactions are positive. Elsewhere, biotic factors, such as herbivory, are important and plant interactions become negative through competition. Low winter temperatures rarely affect arctic plants, but snow depth and duration influence species distributions. Deep and persistent snow deforms plants and limits the period of resource acquisition. Cryptogams are common in such snow beds. Little or no snow cover exposes plants to abrasion by wind-blown particles and desiccation. In such fell-field sites, deciduous species and xerophytes, such as evergreen cushion plants, are common. Arctic summers are short and developmental processes are extended beyond one growing season, with perennials predominating. Cushion plants efficiently increase their temperatures above ambient, while evergreen and deciduous ericaceous dwarf shrubs exist and have complementary strategies for intercepting radiation in a low canopy. Tundra soils are generally infertile and may be disturbed by freeze/thaw cycles. Nutrients are conserved by recycling within shoots and between ramets within clones. Vegetative proliferation enhances the survival of young ramets, while physiological integration between ramets enables young ramets to forage across patchy environments. Periodic infestations of moth caterpillars defoliate large areas of mountain birch Betula pubescens tortuosa and stimulate increases in populations of their predators. Periodic population peaks of small rodents graze or kill much vegetation and they may moderate the dynamic structure of plant communities, as the plant species have different abilities to regenerate. -from Authors
In 1977, the total yield of bilberry in Pihtipudas was 2.4 million kg or 22 kg per hectare of land area. Only 2 per cent of the total yield of bilberry was picked 72 per cent of the bilberries picked were used by the families who picked them, 24 per cent were sold and 4 per cent were used for other purposes. -from English summary
Either all annual branches except the oldest stem were removed (R1), or half of the branches were removed (R2). Above-ground growth and fecundity were monitored for three growth seasons. Survival was >80%. The above-ground vegetative growth was vigorous, being 1.3-1.4 or 1.7-fold for R1 and R2 ramets, respectively, compared with control ramets. Increase in biomass in R1 ramets was a conseqence of the larger sizes of the annual branches and leaves, whereas in R2 ramets both the number and the size of the branches and leaves increased. Flower production decreased during the following growth seasons in R2 ramets, and fewer flowers developed into berries. Abundant sexual reproduction would apparently have been too costly for the stressed plants. R1 rejuvenated the ramets to a vegetative state; these started producing berries only in the third season following damage. -from Authors
Up to 39 tonnes/ha were obtained in three-harvest cumulative yields of superior lowbush blueberry materials planted in 1972 and harvested in 1974, 1976 and in 1978. Plants from four select clones yielded an average of 50% more fruit than did their four respective seedling progenies. At a spacing of 20 000 plants/ha, 70% survived through the third fruiting season.