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Adrenaline, arousal and sport
Abstract
In general, the literautre review provides theoretical explanations for the popular, common-sense belief that a little stress improves performance, whereas when stress becomes severe, performance declines and ultimately breaks down. In terms of psychological stress (as opposed to physiological) the single most important variable appears to be the subject's interpretation of the stress-producing stimuli. Increases in adrenaline and noradrenaline accompany a variety of emotional responses, but differential proportions are not seen as characterizing the various emotions. Noradrenaline secretion appears to be related to physiological stress, or the amount of work attempted by the organism. Adrenaline secretion seems to be more-directly related to mental stress and emotional response. As emotional involvement increases, adrenal medullary secretion of adrenaline increases. The accompanying physiological and metabolic responses faciltate performance to a point; however, extremely high levels of arousal may adversely affect the athlete's proficiency. This is expecially true of sport skills requiring steadiness, precision, and concentration. Finally, for the sake of perspective, it should be stated that any contribution or complication created by the catecholamines is minimal when the entire ability range of competitors is considered. Whereas near superhuman feats by ordinary individuals caught in life-threatening situations have been reported, variations of great magnitude are unlikely in sport. The average individual is not transformed into a world class athlete merely by "getting the adrenaline flowing." Among athletes of similar physical stature and physiological function, however, adrenaline and arousal may certainly tip the scale of performance in sport.
... Here we were interested in leveraging mobile EEG to test a well established, but only partially validated, interaction between attention and arousal. Several lines of evidence suggest that moderate arousal facilitates performancein both physical and cognitive realms (Krahenbuhl, 1975;Schmidt-Kassow et al., 2013) -through putative mediation by the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine (LC-NE) system (Mefford and Potter, 1989;Solanto, 1998). Specifically, arousal is thought to modulate the gain of neural responses to target, or selectively predisposed, inputs (Eldar et al., 2013;Warren et al., 2016), thus facilitating selective attention (Aston-Jones and Cohen, 2005;Nieuwenhuis et al., 2011;Sara and Bouret, 2012;van den Brink et al., 2016). ...
... Specifically, arousal is thought to modulate the gain of neural responses to target, or selectively predisposed, inputs (Eldar et al., 2013;Warren et al., 2016), thus facilitating selective attention (Aston-Jones and Cohen, 2005;Nieuwenhuis et al., 2011;Sara and Bouret, 2012;van den Brink et al., 2016). This interaction is particularly interesting in the context of competitive sports (Krahenbuhl, 1975) and sensation-seeking activities (Ball and Zuckerman, 1992), such as skydiving or motorcycle riding, in which arousal-based facilitation of performance is associated with positive sensations and anecdotal reports of stress-relief, relaxation, and heightened sensory perception. The aforementioned empirical and theoretical data from laboratory experiments predict that arousing activities heighten sensory processing, leading to a positive subjective response that may contribute to the paradoxical co-occurrence of risk and self-reported stress-relief in sensation-seeking activities. ...
Existing theories suggest that moderate arousal improves selective attention, as would be expected in the context of competitive sports or sensation-seeking activities. Here we investigated how riding a motorcycle, an attention-demanding physical activity, affects sensory processing. To do so, we implemented the passive auditory oddball paradigm and measured the EEG response of participants as they rode a motorcycle, drove a car, and sat at rest. Specifically, we measured the N1 and mismatch negativity to auditory tones, as well as alpha power during periods of no tones. We investigated whether riding and driving modulated non-CNS metrics including heart rate and concentrations of the hormones epinephrine, cortisol, DHEA-S, and testosterone. While participants were riding, we found a decrease in N1 amplitude, increase in mismatch negativity, and decrease in relative alpha power, together suggesting enhancement of sensory processing and visual attention. Riding increased epinephrine levels, increased heart rate, and decreased the ratio of cortisol to DHEA-S. Together, these results suggest that riding increases focus, heightens the brain’s passive monitoring of changes in the sensory environment, and alters HPA axis response. More generally, our findings suggest that selective attention and sensory monitoring seem to be separable neural processes.
... Studies have shown that stresses activate NE release in the brain [ 1 ], which is related to psychiatric diseases such as depression, anxiety disorders, and fear modulation [2][3]. Additionally, A/E secretion is primarily related to mental stress and is a reliable respondent of strong emotional arousal [ 4 ]. Despite having a similar structure, DA brings a completely different emotion, i.e., happiness [ 5 ]. ...
... Thus emotional arousal or fear and anger emotions can increase sport performance merely by "getting the adrenaline flowing". However, the accompanying physiological and metabolic responses facilitate performance to a point [28], and extremely high levels of arousal may adversely affect the athlete's proficiency, this is especially true for the sports that requires skills in steadiness, precision, and concentration [29]. In addition, it is found that the effects of catecholamine depend on the skills: if the entire ability range is high, adrenaline and arousal can increase the performance in sport. ...
... linked to emotional distress, while noradrenaline is mostly linked to the physical activation [35]. Although they are distinct indices, they are usually measured together as a chronic stress index and have been tested in relation to adolescent anxiety, obesity, and several other physical illnesses [36,37]. ...
Adolescence is a period of stressful physiological and psychosocial changes. Exposure to chronic stress can cause specific structural and functional changes in the organism, which can be appraised objectively. Some of these alterations are an expected reaction of the body in its attempt to adapt to the stressful situation, while others are signs of possible disease development. The aim of this review is to present the most widely used methods of stress evaluation in adolescence research. Primary biomarkers associated with different biological systems, such as the stress hormones glucocorticoids and catecholamines, as well as the available methods of extraction and assessment of each biomarker, are presented. This work also includes secondary outcomes, which can also provide an estimation of an individual’s stress level. Also, most available psychometric instruments of stress, constructed to address specifically this period of life, are presented and discussed. In addition, this paper addresses possible confounding factors that may affect stress measurements, which should be taken under consideration when conducting stress research. To objectively evaluate stress, it is of great importance for a researcher to be familiar with the condition under examination and its representative stress indices. Adequate evaluation of adolescents with selection of proper psychometric tests and biological markers can help design targeted interventions aiming to prevent or reverse the effects of physical and mental stressors that occur during adolescence, effects that can be carried into adulthood with detrimental consequences.
... The amygdala activates the sympathetic nervous system and discharges the catecholamines adrenaline and noradrenaline into the bloodstream. The catecholamines then initiate cortisol output (Krahenbuhl, 1975). ...
Duale Prozessmodelle unterscheiden implizite und explizite Formen der Informations-verarbeitung (Strack & Deutsch, 2004). Implizite Verarbeitung erfolgt schnell und un-bewusst und basiert auf affektiv-assoziativen Netzwerken. Explizite Verarbeitung geschieht überlegt und langsam und beinhaltet bewusste, kognitive Entscheidungsprozesse. In dualen Prozessmodellen der Motivation sagen implizite Motive langfristiges Verhalten und explizite Motive bewusste Entscheidungen vorher (McClelland, et al., 1989). Hoher positiver Affekt sowie geringer negativer Affekt aktivieren implizite kognitive Systeme während eine entgegen gesetzte Ausprägung explizite Informationsverarbeitung bahnt (J. Kuhl, 2000a). Drei Feldstudien untersuchen die diskriminante Validität impliziter vs. expliziter motivationaler Prozesse für das Verhalten in unbewussten vs. bewussten kritischen Situatio-nen im Hochleistungssport. In Studie 1 und 2 wird bei Tennis- (N = 60) und Basketballspielern (N = 56) die Fähigkeit erhoben, positiven und negativen Affekt zu regulieren (ACS-90; J. Kuhl, 1994). In Studie 3 (N = 86) werden zusätzlich implizite (OMT; J. Kuhl & Scheffer, 1999) und explizite Motive (PRF; D. N. Jackson, 1999) sowie die Fähigkeit zur bewussten Selbstregulation (VCQ; J. Kuhl & Fuhrmann, 1998) gemessen. In Studie 1 sagen explizite Formen der Verarbeitung (niedrige positive Affektregulation) die Tennisleistung in objektiv kritischen (wie Tie Breaks) aber nicht in bewusst kritischen Situationen vorher. In Studie 2 führt implizite Verarbeitung (hohe negative Af-fektregulation) zu besseren Basketballleistungen in objektiv kritischen Spielen. In Studie 3 unterstützt explizite Verarbeitung Leistungen in bewusst kritischen Situationen im Rückschlagsport. In unbewusst kritischen Situationen erzielen dagegen Sportler mit ausgeprägten impliziten Motiven bessere Ergebnisse. Die Befunde werden hinsichtlich der Sportartenspezifik, dem Grad der Bewusstheit sowie Persönlichkeitsunterschiede diskutiert.
Many actors report, anecdotally, a phenomenon known as a “showmance,” whereby actors develop romantic and/or sexual feelings for acting partners, often in the process of portraying romance onstage together. Because acting partners spend so much time together and may be engaging in several activities that facilitate emotional and physical closeness, it is possible that performing intimacy may influence feelings of actual intimacy. In this study, we aimed to understand the association between the type of onstage relationship that an actor portrays with their acting partner and the degree of intimacy—specifically nurturance and eroticism—that they feel toward this partner. We surveyed actors (amateur and professional) about their past theatrical experiences performing with a romantic acting partner ( romantic/intimate), a non-romantic but still intimate partner ( non-romantic/intimate; e.g., friendship, parent-child), and a non-romantic and non-intimate partner ( non-romantic/non-intimate; e.g., strangers, colleagues). We found that actors reported significantly higher levels of nurturance when recalling romantic and non-romantic/intimate onstage roles, compared to non-romantic/non-intimate roles. We also found that actors reported significantly higher levels of eroticism when recalling romantic onstage roles compared to other roles. Finally, we found that actors reported having experienced a significantly greater proportion of romantic/sexual feelings across their acting careers toward romantic acting partners, compared to other acting partners. The findings of this study provide a better understanding of the bidirectional relationship between behaviour and affect, as well as the predictors of intimacy, through a theatrical lens.
Heightened stress during air-pistol competitions may impair shooters’ abilities to maintain gun stability, resulting in inferior performance. This study aimed to compare the pre-trigger muscle activation levels of upper muscles in 10-m air pistol shooters between training and simulated competition conditions. Seven sub-elite shooters from the Singapore National Youth Air Pistol Team shot 30 shots in a training versus simulated competition condition in randomised orders on separate days. Muscle activation for the forearm and shoulder muscles, namely extensor carpi radialis, flexor carpi ulnaris, anterior deltoid, and posterior deltoid, were recorded using electromyography (EMG). Shooting performance was evaluated by total shot scores. Stress level was monitored via heart rate and the Mental Readiness Form-3. No statistically significant differences were found in EMG, performance, or stress-related variables between conditions, although moderate to large effect sizes were observed in some muscle activation and self-reported stress indicators. Analysis of individual performances using smallest worthwhile change showed that two participants improved under the simulated competition condition, while two declined, and three remained unaffected. In conclusion, sub-elite youth air-pistol shooters were able to exhibit good neuromuscular control under high anxiety situations and thus their performance was largely unaffected.
This chapter focuses on the current practicalities of providing the exercise component of cardiac rehabilitation in contemporary settings (hospital, community, or home‐based) and the scientific rationale that supports delivery of an exercise service. The text includes references to both the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease, with signposting to many additional resources. It stresses the value of ‘early’ commencement of exercise programming following diagnosis, intervention, and procedures as well as discussing the role of ‘prehabilitation’ for surgical patients.
One of the key messages emphasises the importance of reducing levels of physical inactivity in the general population as well as in those with cardiovascular disease and how this may be achieved through behaviour change and education. The guidance is clear: more activity starts with simply promoting that people spend less time seated and even regular light activity throughout the day confers many additional benefits to performing 75–150 minutes of moderate to vigorous activity per week.
The chapter ends with an example of a typical patient as a case study: a young male with Type II diabetes who has recently undergone a primary percutaneous coronary intervention to his left anterior descending artery following a diagnosis of acute anterior myocardial infarction (MI). It includes a clear description of best practice in assessment (with psychosocial and co‐morbid considerations), treatment plan, and the provision of an appropriate individually tailored exercise programme.
Preparatory arousal is a mental preparation strategy used immediately prior to performance to increase arousal and hence performance. Preparatory arousal increases maximum strength, power and endurance of simple motor skills. However, its effectiveness on more complex motor skills and sports is largely unknown. This study investigated the effect of preparatory arousal on hand grip strength and 50 m freestyle swim performance, and acute physiological and psychological responses. Twelve competitive swim athletes completed four randomised hand grip strength trials (baseline, control, placebo and preparatory arousal) and three randomised 50 m freestyle swim trials (control, placebo and preparatory arousal). Preparatory arousal significantly improved hand grip strength and 50 m freestyle swim performance and significantly altered emotional state and level of physiological and psychological arousal. Preparatory arousal appears to be a cost effective, safe and legal method for enhancing performance of competitive swim athletes.
The presence in the adrenal glands of a substance which gives a red color on oxidation was discovered by Vulpian. This substance was eventually shown to be mainly adrenaline and noradrenaline. Oliver, Schafer, and Szymonowicz working with Cybulski, independently discovered the pressor action of adrenal extracts, and adrenaline was isolated and synthesized a few years later. Noradrenaline (arterenol) is now recognized to be the main substance liberated by postganglionic sympathetic nerves. Much work has been done on this substance in recent years and this work is discussed in some detail in the chapter. Lewandowsky suggested, and Elliott proved, that the effects of stimulation of postganglionic sympathetic nerves corresponded closely with the effects of adrenaline. Elliott then made the brilliant suggestion that these nerves produced their effects by liberating adrenaline. Loewi proved that the sympathetic nerves in a frog's heart actually did liberate a substance resembling adrenaline, and at about the same time Cannon and Rapport found that stimulation of sympathetic nerves liberated a substance that was carried by the blood stream and produced effects in other parts of the body. Subsequent work in Cannon's laboratory showed that two adrenaline-like substances appeared in the blood when adrenergic nerves were stimulated.
Changes of plasma glucose and immunoreactive insulin (IRI) were measured during defense reactions elicited by electrical stimulation of the lateral hypothalamus in 12 unanesthetized rhesus monkeys adapted to chronic restraint in primate chairs. When hypothalamic stimulation was sufficient to produce marked behavioral excitement, plasma glucose approximately doubled within 15 min and remained elevated for the hour of stimulation. During the first 30 min of the elicited hyperglycemia, plasma IRI increased slightly, but less than expected relative to the glycemic stimulus. Despite the sustained hyperglycemia during the second 30 min of stimulation, plasma IRI returned to control values. The hyperglycemia during vivid defense reactions was abolished or greatly reduced in two adrenalectomized monkeys maintained on cortisone, suggests suggest that epinephrine is a major mechanism for acute hyperglycemia in monkeys. The hyperglycemia appeared to be related to the behavioral excitement of hypothalamic stimulation because when excitement was slight during stimulation of threshold intensity, or when excitement was prevented by pentobarbitol anesthesia, hyperglycemia was slight or was not observed. Inhibition of IRI during emotional hyperglycemia tends to divert glucose from the insulin dependent skeletal muscles and to conserve glucose for the central nervous system.
