Content uploaded by Luciano Fadiga
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Luciano Fadiga on May 21, 2015
Content may be subject to copyright.
A preview of the PDF is not available
Understanding motor events: A neurophysiological study
Abstract
Neurons of the rostral part of inferior premotor cortex of the monkey discharge during goal-directed hand movements such as grasping, holding, and tearing. We report here that many of these neurons become active also when the monkey observes specific, meaningful hand movements performed by the experimenters. The effective experimenters' movements include among others placing or retrieving a piece of food from a table, grasping food from another experimenter's hand, and manipulating objects. There is always a clear link between the effective observed movement and that executed by the monkey and, often, only movements of the experimenter identical to those controlled by a given neuron are able to activate it. These findings indicate that premotor neurons can retrieve movements not only on the basis of stimulus characteristics, as previously described, but also on the basis of the meaning of the observed actions.
... The discovery of "mirror neurons" (Pellegrino et al., 1992) provides a basis for explaining some of the behavioral deficits seen in individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), and it has increased interest in the biological mechanisms underlying cognitive and social processes. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies in humans have shown brain regions (inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), lower part of the precentral gyrus, the rostral part of the inferior parietal lobe (IPL), and also the temporal, occipital, and parietal visual areas) that are active during movement, but with an increased activation when the same movement is elicited by the observation of an identical action made by another individual (Iacoboni et al., 1999). ...
... Early progress in this domain was spearheaded by Rizzolatti et al., who employed high-precision single-cell recording techniques in the premotor cortex (area F5) of Macaca nemestrina monkeys, revealing the properties of these neurons (di Pellegrino et al., 1992). Subsequent studies extended their reach to other areas of the monkey brain, including the rostral ventral premotor cortex (Keysers et al., 2003), lateral ventral premotor (Ferrari et al., 2005), and superior temporal sulcus (STS) (Jellema et al., 2000). ...
Background
Since its discovery in the late 20th century, research on mirror neurons has become a pivotal area in neuroscience, linked to various cognitive and social functions. This bibliometric analysis explores the research trajectory, key research topics, and future trends in the field of mirror neuron research.
Methods
We searched the Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) database for publications from 1996 to 2024 on mirror neuron research. Statistical and visualization analyses were performed using CiteSpace and VOSviewer.
Results
Publication output on mirror neurons peaked in 2013 and remained active. High‐impact journals such as Science, Brain, Neuron, PNAS, and NeuroImage frequently feature findings on the mirror neuron system, including its distribution, neural coding, and roles in intention understanding, affective empathy, motor learning, autism, and neurological disorders. Keyword clustering reveals major directions in cognitive neuroscience, motor neuroscience, and neurostimulation, whereas burst detection underscores the emerging significance of brain‐computer interfaces (BCIs). Research methodologies have been evolving from traditional electrophysiological recordings to advanced techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging, transcranial magnetic stimulation, and BCIs, highlighting a dynamic, multidisciplinary progression.
Conclusions
This study identifies key areas associated with mirror neurons and anticipates that future work will integrate findings with artificial intelligence, clinical interventions, and novel neuroimaging techniques, providing new perspectives on complex socio‐cognitive issues and their applications in both basic science and clinical practice.
... This form of learning is suggested to be supported by mirror neurons (though see [87] for an alternative perspective). Mirror neurons were first identified in the premotor cortex of macaque monkeys, which fire during an individual's own movements and when observing others' movements [88]. In the human brain, areas proposed to contain mirror neurons include the ventral premotor cortex (PMv), inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), IPL and intraparietal sulcus (IPS) [89]. ...
In recent years, the study of the neural mechanisms underlying social behavior has gained significant attention within the field of neuroeconomics. During this time, core ideas and theoretical frameworks developed through the study of decision-making and learning in non-social contexts have been adapted and extended to social contexts. New paradigms have been introduced to measure social behaviors, new models and theories have been proposed to explain these behaviors, and experimental evidence has accumulated to validate these theories and elucidate the neural substrates underpinning social computations in humans.This chapter highlights recent advances in the study of social processes using a neuroeconomics-based approach, focusing on important findings through computational modeling and neuroimaging methods. We begin by outlining the neural structures involved in processing various social rewards. Next, we discuss how values are computed and represented in the brain when making decisions that involve other people’s outcomes. We then examine the motivations behind these decisions, in two specific cases: altruistic and fairness-driven, decisions. Finally, we explore how individuals update their knowledge and beliefs about whom they interact with, and how they should interact - a process known as social learning. We categorize social learning into two broad types: learning about others and learning from others.
Studies of social cognition examine how organisms process and act on the presence, intentions, actions, and behavioural outcomes of others in social contexts. Many real-life social interactions unfold during direct face-to-face contact and rely on immediate, time-continuous feedback about mutual behaviour and changes in the shared environment. Yet, essential aspects of these naturalistic conditions are often lacking in experimental laboratory settings for direct dyadic interactions, i.e., interactions between two people. Here, we describe a novel experimental setting, the Dyadic Interaction Platform (DIP), designed to investigate the behavioural and neural mechanisms of real-time social interactions. Based on a transparent, touch-sensitive, bi-directional visual display, this design allows two participants to observe visual stimuli and each other simultaneously, allowing face-to-face interaction in a shared vertical workspace. Different implementations of the DIP facilitate interactions between two human adults, adults and children, two children, nonhuman primates and in mixed nonhuman-human dyads. The platforms allow for diverse manipulations of interactive contexts and synchronized recordings of both participants' behavioural, physiological, and neural measures. This approach enables us to integrate economic game theory with time-continuous sensorimotor and perceptual decision-making, social signalling and learning, in an intuitive and socially salient setting that affords precise control over stimuli, task timing, and behavioural responses. We demonstrate the applications and advantages of DIPs in several classes of transparent interactions, ranging from value-based strategic coordination games and dyadic foraging to social cue integration, information seeking, and social learning.
The Manual section of the Handbook of Pragmatics, produced under the auspices of the International Pragmatics Association (IPrA), is a collection of articles describing traditions, methods, and notational systems relevant to the field of linguistic pragmatics; the main body of the Handbook contains all topical articles. The first edition of the Manual was published in 1995. This second edition includes a large number of new traditions and methods articles from the 24 annual installments of the Handbook that have been published so far. It also includes revised versions of some of the entries in the first edition. In addition, a cumulative index provides cross-references to related topical entries in the annual installments of the Handbook and the Handbook of Pragmatics Online (at https://benjamins.com/online/hop/), which continues to be updated and expanded. This second edition of the Manual is intended to facilitate access to the most comprehensive resource available today for any scholar interested in pragmatics as defined by the International Pragmatics Association: “the science of language use, in its widest interdisciplinary sense as a functional (i.e. cognitive, social, and cultural) perspective on language and communication.”
The exploration of gender differences in non‐andrological fields was the core focus of a series of discussions, which took place at the Endocrinology Unit in Modena, Italy in the form of the aporetic dialogue of ancient Greece. This second episode reports the transcript of the actual debate on testosterone's role in defining empathic behavior in males and females. The two groups of discussants sustained that empathic gender differences may rely either on testosterone exposure (group 1) or on other factors (group 2). The first group supported the hypothesis that females are more empathic than males due to reduced exposure to fetal testosterone, which correlates with higher empathic scores at all ages and lower sensitivity to testosterone in adulthood. This hypothesis is also supported by evolutionary mechanisms and evidence in animal ethology. Conversely, the second group affirmed that gender differences rely on structural diversities in brain organization, hormonal factors such as vasopressin, oxytocin, and cortisol, as well as sociological aspects. An expert in neurophysiology, acting as a referee, moderated the discussion and decided whether the two theories were equivalent or one was predominant.
Over the past two decades, the fields of social and contemplative neurosciences have made significant strides. Initial research utilizing fMRI identified neuronal networks involved in empathy, mentalizing, and compassion, as well as complex interactions among these networks. Subsequent studies shifted to testing the plasticity of these social skills via different types of mindfulness‐ or compassion‐based mental training programs, demonstrating brain plasticity, enhanced social capacities and motivation, as well as improved mental health and overall well‐being. Next, researchers developed scalable evidence‐based online mental training programs to address the growing levels of mental health problems and loneliness, both exacerbated by the COVID‐19 pandemic. Innovative approaches, such as novel relational partner–based practices and online app–based dyadic training programs, offer scalable solutions to counteract ongoing societal and mental health deterioration. Current studies are now applying the above findings to support resilience building within diverse domains of society and professional populations—such as healthcare workers and teachers—at high risk of burn‐out. Future research should explore the broader impact of such training‐related individual changes on larger systems, potentially leading to the development of a translational social neuroscience approach that leverages insights from social brain plasticity research to support societal needs, thereby enhancing resilience, mental health, and social cohesion.
The purpose of the article. The article refers to the issue of rhythm as an important element of the director’s interpretation of a literary work on the screen. Through the example of the work of Les Kurbas, the author analyzes how rhythm structures drama, forms a line of tension, and influences the viewer’s perception of time. Kurbas’ concept is inserted into the global context of his time, making parallels with Henri Bergson’s concept of “duration” and Albert Einstein’s theory of “relativity”. The analysis of the film “Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors” by Serhii Paradzhanov reveals how rhythmic structure affects the film adaptation of a literary work, in particular, its thematic direction. The study reveals how the director’s interpretation through rhythmic structures helps to create a holistic artistic embodiment that can emotionally engage the viewer. The methodology. Diachronic and synchronic analysis, historical and cultural practices, comparative and contextual analysis, modeling. The results can be used in educational programs and professional practices of directors, screenwriters, film critics, art historians and cultural experts. The article offers examples that will serve as a basis for developing practical recommendations to assist in the process of creating film adaptations. The scientific novelty of the research. This is the first time that it has been proposed to study Les Kurbas’ concept of rhythm in the context of synchronous worldview concepts in order to create a director’s toolkit for cinema, in particular, for the film adaptation of a literary work.
The notion of a neuron that responds selectively to the image of a particular complex object has been controversial ever since Gross and his colleagues reported neurons in the temporal cortex of monkeys that were selective for the sight of a monkey's hand (Gross, Rocha-Miranda, & Bender, 1972). Since that time, evidence has mounted for neurons in the temporal lobe that respond selectively to faces. The present paper presents a critical analysis of the evidence for face neurons and discusses the implications of these neurons for models of object recognition. The paper also presents some possible reasons for the evolution of face neurons and suggests some analogies with the development of language in humans.
It has been proposed that the premotor cortex plays a role in the selection of motor programs based on environmental context. To test this hypothesis, we recorded the activity of single neurons as monkeys learned visuomotor associations. The hypothesis predicts that task-related premotor cortical activity before learning should differ from that afterward. We found that a substantial population of premotor cortex neurons, over half of those adequately tested, showed the predicted learning-dependent changes in activity. The present findings support a role for premotor cortex in motor preparation, generally, and suggest a specific role in the selection of movements on the basis of arbitrary associations.
A variety of cell types exist in the temporal cortex providing high-level visual descriptions of bodies and their movements. We have investigated the sensitivity of such cells to different viewing conditions to determine the frame(s) of reference utilized in processing. The responses of the majority of cells in the upper bank of the superior temporal sulcus (areas TPO and PGa) found to be sensitive to static and dynamic information about the body were selective for one perspective view (e.g. right profile, reaching right or walking left). These cells can be considered to provide viewer-centred descriptions because they depend on the observer's vantage point. Viewer-centred descriptions could be used in guiding behaviour. They could also be used as an intermediate step for establishing view-independent responses of other cell types which responded to many or all perspective views selectively of the same object (e.g. head) or movement. These cells have the properties of object-centred descriptions, where the object viewed provides the frame of reference for describing the disposition of object parts and movements (e.g. head on top of shoulders, reaching across the body, walking forward 'following the nose'). For some cells in the lower bank of the superior temporal sulcus (area TEa) the responses to body movements were related to the object or goal of the movements (e.g. reaching for or walking towards a specific place). This goal-centred sensitivity to interaction allowed the cells to be selectively activated in situations where human subjects would attribute causal and intentional relationships.
In four macaque monkeys horseradish peroxidase (HRP) was injected into physiologically defined hand-arm motor area. Ipsilaterally, HRP labeled neurons were found in both upper and lower limbs of the posterior bank of the arcuate sulcus and in an area surrounding the arcuate spur. Contralaterally, labeled neurons were found in the same areas, though less dense in concentration. Labeled neurons were found mostly in layer III of the cortex.
Rhesus monkeys with selective lesions of the frontal cortex were tested on a motor conditional associative-learning task. Monkeys with lesions of the periarcuate area were severely impaired in acquiring this task, whilst monkeys with lesions of the principalis region showed only a mild retardation in learning.
Single neurons were recorded from the rostral part of the agranular frontal cortex (area 6a beta) in awake, partially restrained macaque monkeys. In the medialmost and mesial sectors of this area, rostral to the supplementary motor area, neurons were found which were activated during arm reaching-grasping movements. These neurons ("reaching-grasping neurons") did not appear to be influenced by how the objects were grasped nor, with some exceptions, by where they were located. Their activity changed largely prior to the arm movement and continued until the end of it. The premovement modulation (excitatory or inhibitory) could start with stimulus presentation, with the saccade triggered by the stimulus or after stimulus fixation. The distance of the stimulus from the monkey was an important variable for activating many neurons. About half of the recorded neurons showed a modulation of the same sign during movement and premovement period. The other half showed an increase/decrease in activity which was of the opposite sign during movement and premovement period or part of it. In this last case the discharge changes were of the same sign when the stimulus was close to the monkey and when the monkey moved its arm to reach the objects, whereas they were of opposite sign when the stimulus was outside the animal's reach. Microstimulation of area 6a beta and the reconstruction of the locations of eye movement and arm movement related cells showed that the arm field was located more medially (and mesially) than the eye field described by Schlag and Schlag-Rey (1987). It is suggested that, unlike inferior area 6, which is mostly involved in selection of effectors on the basis of the physical properties of the objects and their spatial location (Rizzolatti and Gentilucci 1988), area 6a beta plays a role in the preparation of reaching-grasping arm movements and in their release when the appropriate conditions are set.
The laminar pattern of cytochrome oxidase activity was studied in the agranular frontal cortex (area 4-6 complex) of the macaque monkey. The cortex, stained with this method, showed 6 stripes of different enzymatic activity. On the basis of their characteristics and of the presence of highly active cells, the agranular frontal cortex could be parcellated in 5 areas (F1-F5). F1 very likely corresponds to area FA of von Bonin and Bailey. Rostral to F1 two large regions could be distinguished, one located medial to the spur of the arcuate sulcus and its imaginary caudal extension, the other laterally. The superior region was formed by areas F2 and F3. The first was located on the dorsomedial cortical surface, the other on the mesial surface. F3 possibly corresponds to the supplementary motor area. The inferior region was formed by areas F4 and F5. The rostral area (F5) showed transition characteristics that rendered it somehow similar to the prefrontal areas. It may correspond to the cytoarchitectonic area FCBm. The cytocrome oxidase technique is a useful means of parcellating the agranular frontal cortex and may greatly help in physiological and behavioral experiments.
Many cells in premotor cortex change their activity while a monkey waits before responding. In the present experiment lesions were placed in premotor cortex in order to investigate the information carried by this neuronal activity. The monkeys were trained to make one of two movements depending on the colour of a cue. There were two conditions: in one they could respond when the cue was presented, in the other they had to wait three seconds before responding. The monkeys were then retested after the bilateral removal of premotor cortex. Animals with premotor lesions performed very poorly under both conditions. It is concluded that premotor cortex is concerned with retrieving the response that is appropriate given a particular cue.