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Preserving Endangered Languages
Abstract
Over the last few decades an increasing number of books, scholarly articles and media reports have predicted that as many as 60 to 90% of the world's some 6900 languages may be at risk of extinction within the next 100 years. This article provides an overview of the current state of the world's languages, explains some causes and consequences of the loss of linguistic diversity, in addition to outlining some of the range of efforts currently underway worldwide to preserve endangered languages. We should think about languages in the same way as we do other natural resources that need careful planning: they are vital parts of complex local ecologies that must be supported if global biodiversity is to be sustained.
... Many languages have only few speakers and children of many minority community groups do not speak their native language as the first language at home. The extinction of languages is evident in different parts of the world (see Nettle and Romaine, 2000;Romaine, 2007;UNESCO, 2010;Romaine, 2017). The Ethnologue (2024) published by the Summer Institute of Languages (SIL) estimates that there are around 7,164 languages spoken by 7.668 billion people all over the world (also see World Economic Forum, 2022). ...
... and a large number of languages (about 95%) is spoken by a smaller fraction of the population. About 80% of the world population speaks a total of 75 languages (that is about 1% of total languages). 2 More than 6500 languages are spoken by only 5% of the world population (Romaine, 2007). According to Ethnologue (2024), there are 204 languages with fewer than 10 speakers each, 344 languages with 10-99 speakers. ...
... Many studies reckon that the majority of the smaller languages of the present world may be at risk. Romaine (2007) recognizes that as many as 60% to 90% of about 6900 languages in the world are at the risk of extinction within next 100 years. Many language related studies have predicted and revealed that minority languages all over the world report an alarming rate of decline and disappearance. ...
Indigenous Vedda language in Sri Lanka is recognized as critically endangered and many argued that it is on the verge of disappearance. After decades of debates, the Veddas are still alive luckily and their language is still been spoken at least partially. The paper examined the factors that drive existence/ disappearance of Vedda language. The study was conducted in Dambana Vedda village and Pollebadda Vedda village. Field surveys took place in July 2024, utilizing a specially designed questionnaire to gather information on the use of the Vedda language. The questionnaire included items rated on a Likert scale from 1 to 5, covering various aspects of the language. A total of 25 interviews were conducted in Dambana and Pollebadda Vedda villages. Participants were selected through purposive sampling to ensure access to the most reliable sources of information. The sample consisted of 80% male and 20% female respondents. Regarding age distribution, 10% were below 25 years, 60% were between 25 and 50 years, and 30% were over 50 years old. The study reveals that Veddas today speak Sinhalese better than their native language. Compared to Dambana, more Veddas in Pollebadda, where modernization is apparent, demonstrate weak fluency in their native language. The Vedda children, compared to their parents, have poor knowledge in Vedda language, though they have acquired fluency in all domains of Sinhalese. The poor Vedda language knowledge is highly prevalent among Pollebadda children. Majority of the Veddas accept that younger generation is not interested in learning the language, the absence of elders to teach it, their language is disappearing and their language should be preserved. Though it does not help them finding jobs, as Veddas believe, the Vedda language carries economic benefits and they remain vital for learning it. The Pollebadda Veddas are more interested in economic benefits of the language. The Veddas, again with more support from Pollebadda, reckon that their language helps them earning from tourism. The Veddas strongly agree that their language is essential for the protection of their priceless intangible cultural heritage. Thus, this paper recommends an ideological shift and resulting policies to look at the Veddas, and their language too, as an inherent asset than something to be modernized and assimilated.
... Many languages have only few speakers and children of many minority community groups do not speak their native language as the first language at home. The extinction of languages is evident in different parts of the world (see Nettle and Romaine, 2000;Romaine, 2007;UNESCO, 2010;Romaine, 2017). The Ethnologue (2024) published by the Summer Institute of Languages (SIL) estimates around 7,164 languages spoken by 7.668 billion people all over the world (also see World Economic Forum, 2022). ...
... About 80% of the world population speaks a total of 75 languages (that is about 1% of total languages). 2 More than 6500 languages are spoken by only 5% of the world population (Romaine, 2007). According to Ethnologue (2024), there are 204 languages with fewer than 10 speakers each, 344 languages with 10-99 speakers. ...
... Many studies reckon that the majority of the smaller languages of the present world may be at risk. Romaine (2007) recognizes that as many as 60% to 90% of about 6900 languages in the world are at the risk of extinction within next 100 years. Many language related studies have predicted and revealed that minority languages all over the world report an alarming rate of decline and disappearance. ...
Indigenous Vedda language in Sri Lanka is recognized as critically endangered and many argued that it is on the verge of disappearance. After decades of debates, the Veddas are still alive luckily and their language is still been spoken at least partially. The paper examined the factors that drive existence/ disappearance of Vedda language. The study reveals that Veddas today speak Sinhalese better than their native language. Compared to Dambana, more Veddas in Pollebadda, where modernization is apparent, demonstrate weak fluency in their native language. The Vedda children, compared to their parents, have poor knowledge in Vedda language, though they have acquired fluency in all domains of Sinhalese. The poor Vedda language knowledge is highly prevalent among Pollebadda children. Majority of the Veddas accept that younger generation is not interested in learning the language, the absence of elders to teach it, their language is disappearing and it should be preserved. Though it does not help them to find jobs, as Veddas believe, the Vedda language carries economic benefits and they remain vital for learning it. The Pollebadda Veddas are more interested in economic benefits of the language. The Veddas, again with more support from Pollebadda, reckon that their language helps them earning from tourism. The Veddas strongly agree that their language is essential for the protection of their priceless intangible cultural heritage. Thus, this paper recommends an ideological shift and resulting policies to look at the Veddas, and their language too, as an inherent asset than something to be modernized and assimilated.
... Over the past few decades, an increasing number of books, scholarly articles, and media reports have predicted an alarming decline in the number of languages. Some linguists have estimated that as many as 60-90% of the world's approximately 6900 languages may be at risk of extinction within the next 100 years [2]. UNESCO regularly publishes a list of endangered languages, based on a 5scale classification system such as vulnerable, definitely endangered, severely endangered, critically endangered, and extinct. ...
... Safeguarding and reinvigorating these languages have become crucial for maintaining and preserving the cultural identity of the society. Many research findings indicated that a language decline once the usage declines in domains where the language was once secure, [2] e.g., in the market, the neighborhood, the workplace, schools, and, most importantly, the home. In today's world, it is very common that growing numbers of parents are failed to transmit the language to their children. ...
... In today's world, it is very common that growing numbers of parents are failed to transmit the language to their children. As a result, fluency in the language is higher among older speakers, as younger generations prefer to speak another (usually the dominant societal) language [2]. Looking at this situation, Kuvi language also does not have any other fate. ...
The act of writing is an inherent and fundamental right, and utilizing one's mother tongue for written communication is an essential linguistic entitlement. Unfortunately, the majority of languages worldwide lack a standardized writing system, resulting in their status as unwritten languages. Consequently, these unwritten languages are highly vulnerable to endangerment. Among them is Kuvi, an unwritten language spoken in Andhra Pradesh and Odisha, India. In an effort to tackle this issue, the Kalinga Institute of Social Sciences, with the generous support of Lenovo and Motorola, conducted a comprehensive three-month workshop with the aim of developing character sets specifically designed for Kuvi. As a result, a writing system for the Kuvi language has been successfully developed and implemented within the Android mobile setup (moto e13). The development of a Kuvi character set within a mobile interface holds significant promise for the revitalization of the endangered Kuvi language. By providing a user-friendly platform for Kuvi speakers to engage with their language, this initiative supports language preservation, cultural heritage, and the continued use and transmission of Kuvi. They are leveraging technology to empower language revitalization efforts. The Kuvi character set in a mobile interface represents a crucial step toward ensuring the future vitality of the Kuvi language. This paper will investigate the detailed process involved in creating character sets for unwritten languages, focusing specifically on the case of Kuvi.
... state that indigenous languages are dying across the world, but there are many valiant efforts and apparent successes in preserving Indigenous language and culture; the topic of language preservation and maintenance is significant. Romaine (2007) also states that "In recent decades, a growing number of publications, scientific papers, and media stories have forecast an alarming fall in the number of languages." Furthermore, (Romaine, 2007) "Linguists believe that 60-90 percent of the world's approximately 6900 languages might become extinct during the next 100 years." ...
... Romaine (2007) also states that "In recent decades, a growing number of publications, scientific papers, and media stories have forecast an alarming fall in the number of languages." Furthermore, (Romaine, 2007) "Linguists believe that 60-90 percent of the world's approximately 6900 languages might become extinct during the next 100 years." Krauss et al. (1992) suggest "one language every two weeks may become extinct over the next 100 years. ...
... Krauss et al. (1992) suggest "one language every two weeks may become extinct over the next 100 years. However, Romaine (2007) assumes that perhaps the 600 or so languages having massive populations (i.e., 100,000 plus speakers) would survive (Romaine, 2007). UNESCO (2003) affirms when a language is imperiled, it is on the verge of extinction because speakers have stopped using it, have decreased the number of communication domains, and have stopped transmitting it from one generation toward the next. ...
As the world advances to its course, some languages become indigenous and endangered at the same time due to the domination of significant languages; this implies understanding, preservation, and maintenance if we are looking forward to a healthy diversity of languages and coexistence. This study aims at analyzing how to conserve and sustain imperiled and indigenous dialects in the Philippines with limitations of the previous studies, identification of barriers, formulation of new perspectives, and possible solutions. The researchers used both quantitative and qualitative methods to analyze language preservation and maintenance in the Philippines. With that, the researchers employed secondary data from previous studies. The researchers have reflected those data to their current research to be analyzed along with the gathered data. These paved the way to analyzing the limitations of previous studies and barriers to the present analysis. The researchers utilized this concept to formulate an ideal perspective and possible solutions for the present study. This research concludes that endangerment among indigenous languages is imminent if not because of language preservation and maintenance, vital in achieving diversification and cultural awareness of different communities in the Philippines.
... Con ello, a su vez, han dejado afuera el foco en el "conflicto" que hay, no en los sistemas, sino que en las comunidades lingüísticas, y la agencia/agentividad que los y las hablantes tienen respecto de sus lenguas, su uso y funcionamiento. b) Además, a partir de lo anterior, han construido y legitimado un objeto de estudio -el lenguaje y las lenguas -funcional con una ideología lingüística monoglósica (Garcia & Torres, 2009;Pennycook, 2000;Romaine, 2007) y, por tanto, un proyecto que no discute la identidad entre lengua y nación, y que naturaliza la necesidad del estándar y de visiones puristas/esencialistas sobre estas realidades históricas que son las lenguas. Con ello, en el fondo, han construido mitos acerca de la existencia de (i) las "lenguas" y el "bilingüismo", (ii) los "hablantes nativos" y (iii) la "competencia" medible de los y las hablantes, y nos han hecho creer aquello. ...
... Frente a esta tradición hegemónica, la Antropología lingüística, en tanto la rama de la Antropología que estudia al lenguaje, las lenguas y la comunicación como fenómenos culturales/históricos, en su versión más contemporánea (Duranti 2003;Kroskrity 2010) propone una aproximación que no considera al lenguaje y las lenguas como fenómenos cosificados y neutros, sino que las entiende como fenómenos culturales y políticos altamente dinámicos y heterogéneos (Makoni & Pennycook, 2006;Romaine, 2007;Jaffe, 2007;Kroskrity, 2009). Si bien el campo, en sus inicios, en la Antropología norteamericana temprana, se abocaba a la descripción gramatical y fonética de lenguas indígenas que se creía estaban condenadas a desaparecer, con el tiempo fue adquiriendo una identidad propiamente antropológica de la mano de la obra de Hymes y Gumperz (Hymes, 1963) y, posteriormente, de autores contemporáneos como Duranti y Kroskrity, en lo que Duranti (2003) denomina como un tercer paradigma del campo, enfatizando el rol del lenguaje en la socialización, la construcción de identidades y de comunidades heterogéneas, incluidos los conflictos de poder que el fenómeno lingüístico conlleva. ...
Publicación en prensa que formará parte del libro "La lengua mapuche en Gulumapu y Puelmapu:
Avances e intersecciones en los estudios lingüísticos, la enseñanza y los
activismos" Universidad de la Frointera - Universidad Nacional de Río Negro
... The Ethnologue report states that there are a total of 6912 languages in the world. Of that number, 516 face the threat of extinction (Romaine, 2007). Statistics show that the world's endangered and most likely to extinct are 200 languages in Europe, 1000 languages in America (North and South), 2400 languages in Africa, 231 languages in Australia, and in Asia and the Pacific 3200 languages and of that number, 800 languages are found in Papua New Guinea. ...
... The variables collected were related to age, gender, place of birth, maternal lineage, paternal lineage, education, occupation, religious beliefs, marital statuses and language ability. King (1989), Romaine (2007), and Arafani et al. (2021) outlined the similar variables for looking at the level of language obsolescence and making predictions of the future of the language. ...
The Kensiu Orang Asli community is a minority group in Malaysia with population about 208, living in Kampung Lubuk Legong, Kedah. The extinction of the indigenous language is a matter of great concern today. Therefore, a study on language preservation needs to be done so that the language of minorities can be saved from disappearing. The study aims to describe the preservation of the Kensiu language based on the framework of Language Threats Typology. It useda simple qualitative and statistical approachby using random sampling techniqueto select 150 respondents in Kampung Lubuk Legong, Baling, Kedah. The direct questionnaire techniques were used to obtain more accurate and have high reliability data. Data was analysed based on backgrounds and the demographics of the respondents. The results showed four factors that describe the preservation of the Kensiu language, namely gender, age group, parental ancestry, place of birth and language ability. Currently, the Kensiu language is also in a safe situation because 100% of the respondents say they are fluent in the Kensiu language. This study has contribution for policymakers in the country to do a perfect and orderly language planning to preserve the culture and language of Kensiu.
... Linguists estimate that 60% to 90% of the world's 7,000 spoken languages are likely to become extinct within the next century [1]. The extinction of any language represents an irreversible loss of information for humanity, as unique linguistic, psychological, and sociocultural information are embedded within the phonology, syntax, and semantics of each language [2]. ...
... The extinction of any language represents an irreversible loss of information for humanity, as unique linguistic, psychological, and sociocultural information are embedded within the phonology, syntax, and semantics of each language [2]. The pressing nature of this problem has motivated linguists to conduct research and community interventions to preserve endangered languages [1], [3]. Linguists begin language preservation efforts by collecting spoken data from native speakers and transcribing phonemes, the fundamental speech sounds and linguistic units of a language [4], [5]. ...
A vast majority of the world's 7,000 spoken languages are predicted to become extinct within this century, including the endangered language of Ladin from the Italian Alps. Linguists who work to preserve a language's phonetic and phonological structure can spend hours transcribing each minute of speech from native speakers. To address this problem in the context of Ladin, our paper presents the first analysis of speech representations and machine learning models for classifying 32 phonemes of Ladin. We experimented with a novel dataset of the Fascian dialect of Ladin, collected from native speakers in Italy. We created frame-level and segment-level speech feature extraction approaches and conducted extensive experiments with 8 different classifiers trained on 9 different speech representations. Our speech representations ranged from traditional features (MFCC, LPC) to features learned with deep neural network models (autoencoders, LSTM autoencoders, and WaveNet). Our highest-performing classifier, trained on MFCC representations of speech signals, achieved an 86% average accuracy across all Ladin phonemes. We also obtained average accuracies above 77% for all Ladin phoneme subgroups examined. Our findings contribute insights for learning discriminative Ladin phoneme representations and demonstrate the potential for leveraging machine learning and speech signal processing to preserve Ladin and other endangered languages.
... Jerusalem of Greece, to undertake preliminary research on endangered-language heritage performance with funding from the Welsh Government's Taith programme. Linguists are warning that 60-90% of the world's languages could be extinct by the end of this century, with languages declining faster than ever before (Crystal, 2002;Nettle & Romaine, 2000;Romaine, 2007;Bisang et al., 2007;Austin & Sallabank, 2011;Dalby, 2003). Thus, researching strategies to transmit and preserve endangered languages is critical, especially in Europe, where more than two thirds of European languages are listed in UNESCO's Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger 2 as 'vulnerable' to 'severely endangered.' ...
During the spring and summer of 2023, I visited my hometown Veria to undertake preliminary research on endangered-language heritage performance with funding from the Welsh Government’s Taith programme. During my visit, I worked closely with the Folklore Association of Vlachs of Veria, observed their work, and participated in their heritage performance, learning not only about the communities’ cultural heritage but also about my own personal heritage. Based on empirical research, observations, personal experience and practice research, this paper focuses on the use of supertitles and multimedia projection as a translation strategy to safeguard endangered languages, traditions, and cultures. In particular, I discuss the case of Vlach-language theatre play La Câshiari (Στο Τυροκομείο / In the Dairy) by Takis Georgiou (playwright and director), performed on 28 May 2023 with Greek supertitles. Here, both the original text and translation are written by the same author simultaneously, self-translation (see Grutman & Van Bolderen, 2014), rather than translated by a different person; ‘an extreme case of the author/work – translator/work dialectic’ (Tanqueiro, 2000, p. 63). It is then enriched by other members of the community contributions, who either identify a more appropriate Vlach word or correct the translation to allow for a clearer meaning to be made, which can be seen as an interlinear and group-dialectic approach to translation. As Geraldine Brodie notes, ‘[t]he intermedial performance of surtitles positions surtitles within new media dramaturgy, creating a form of interlinear translation’ (Brodie, 2020, p. 450). Indeed, new technologies allow intermedial approaches in supertitled theatre, reaching beyond textual aspects.
... With about one-third of these located in the broader Asian region, and most of the population in Western cultures being monolingual in one of the 'big' languages, two-thirds of the world's population share just 12 major languages. Also, around 2000 languages have fewer than 1000 speakers with hundreds of languages going extinct each year (Romaine, 2007). In all this diversity, English obviously is the dominant language in most non-English speaking countries, thanks to its global spread in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries through the colonial expansion machinery, commerce and trade, and administration in colonised countries. ...
Advances in neuroscience and digital technologies have helped replace reductive monoglossic views of bilingual education with a more holistic understanding of the value of learning multiple languages. Despite the obvious benefits of a heteroglossic approach to language education—which views a speaker’s linguistic repertoire as inseparable—in practice, monoglossic language ideologies continue to shape foreign language teaching in many countries, including Vietnam. Language teachers still often resort to a ‘monolingual mindset’ that sidelines the value of dynamic bilingualism. Such discrepancy between predominantly monolingual institutional policies and practices, and the multilingual realities of our classrooms, both in countries where English is the main foreign language (such as Vietnam) and in English speaking countries with learners from multilingual backgrounds (such as Australia), can have a profound effect on the learning of students. This paper critically considers some of the latest research on the benefits of heteroglossic bilingual education, including the value of bilingual instruction, traslanguaging and own language use and how they can inform a more respectful approach to teaching English as an International (rather than foreign) language. By comparing English language teaching in Australia with that in Vietnam, it presents the heteroglossic approach to bilingualism as an alternative that has the potential to facilitate ideological spaces from which aspiring and emergent bilinguals can speak, while also upholding their linguistic and cultural identities.
... Den svenskspråkiga befolkningen utgör samtidigt en etnisk minoritet som kan möta diskriminering på grund av olika etnokulturella markörer. Studier har visat att minoritetsspråk är under press och att möjligheterna till språklig mångfald minskar avsevärt i postmodernistiska, postkapitalistiska och globaliserade samhällen (Romaine 2007). Trender på detta syns även i Finland, där forskning visar att språkklimatet och språkrelationerna mellan svenskoch finskspråkiga har försämrats över tid (Lindell 2021). ...
Tillit till andra människor är grundläggande för den sociala sammanhållningen. Tidigare forskning har visat att etniska minoriteter ofta uppvisar lägre nivåer av generaliserat förtroende. Emellertid har den svenskspråkiga befolkningen i Finland framstått som en avvikelse från det förväntade mönstret, där forskning visat att denna grupp uppvisar högre nivåer av generaliserat förtroende jämfört med finskspråkiga. Vidare indikerar nyare studier att denna skillnad i generaliserat förtroende har minskat över tid. Denna artikel syftar till att undersöka och jämföra nivåerna av generaliserat förtroende mellan svenskspråkiga och finskspråkiga i Finland, samt att analysera hur socioekonomiska och kontextuella faktorer påverkar detta förtroende. Studien använder två datamaterial: Barometern (en online-panel för svenskspråkiga i Finland) och Medborgaropinion (en online-panel för finskspråkiga), vilka är representativa för dessa språkgrupper. Resultaten visar att finskspråkiga, i motsats till tidigare forskning, har ett högre generaliserat förtroende än svenskspråkiga. Variationerna inom båda grupperna förklaras av socioekonomiska faktorer som utbildning, ålder, inkomst, sysselsättning och kön, samt kontextuella faktorer som kommunens språkförhållande och urbaniseringsgrad. Dessa resultat kan ha betydande implikationer för förståelsen av samhällssammanhållning och kräver vidare studier för att utforska deras långsiktiga påverkan på det finländska samhället.
... % masewalmeh nohwan tlahtowah se masewaltlahtolli (INEGI, 2020). Ipan nochi tlaltipaktli poliwi masewaltlahtolli (Romaine, 2007). San pampa onka se ixtlamatzintokalistli (investigación científica) tlen kiihtowa se politika linwistika kena kipalewiya masewaltlahtolli (Hornberger, 1998). ...
Se ome tlahtolli: Inin tlatemolistekitl kineki kichiwas se politika linwistika ipan weyi tekisenkawalli para kipalewis masewaltlahtolli ipan Mexkotlalli. Ika ome tlanechikoltlahtlanilistli (grupo focal), ihyok mochihki ika tlayekankemeh iwan kaompa ika masewaltekitikemeh, inin tlatemolistekitl kiixpantiya inintlahtol para moittas tlen tlachiwalistli kipalewis masewaltlahtolli iwan moittas tlen tlachiwalistli welis mochiwas ipan tekisenkawalli. Ipan inin ome tlanechikolli nohkia moittak se tlahkuilolli tlen mochihtok ipan Vaskotlalli pampa ipan Vaskotekiwahkapan iwaya ipan vaskotekisenkawalli kimanawiya euskeratlahtolli. Ika mahtlaktli tlachiwalli tlen kipehpena ome tlanechikolli, welis pewa se politika linwistika ika seki tlachiwalistli tlen moitta kualli kipalewis masewaltlahtolli ipan weyi tekisenkawalli. Tlahtolli tlen ipati: Politika linwistika, tekisenkawalli, tlahtolmikilistli. Resumen: Este estudio exploratorio busca proponer una política lingüística para las grandes corporaciones con el fin de ayudar a revitalizar las lenguas indígenas en México. Basado en dos grupos de enfoque, primero con gerentes de recursos humanos y luego con empleados indígenas, el documento resume sus comentarios sobre lo que las empresas pueden y deben hacer para ayudar a preservar las lenguas indígenas. Además, ambos grupos examinaron una lista de prácticas lingüísticas desarrolladas por el Gobierno Vasco para promover el uso del euskera en las empresas. Al examinar las diez prácticas mencionadas con mayor frecuencia por ambos grupos, se puede ver el surgimiento de una política lingüística en la empresa privada que sería factible y útil para fomentar el uso de lenguas indígenas en la empresa. Palabras clave: Política lingüística; empresa; muerte de lenguas. Abstract: This exploratory study seeks to propose a language policy for large corporations in order help revitalize Indigenous languages in Mexico. Based on two focus groups, first with human resource managers, and then with Indigenous employees, the paper summarizes their comments on what companies can and should do to help preserve Indigenous languages. In addition, both groups examined a list of language practices developed by the Basque government to promote the use of Euskera in companies. By examining the ten practices most frequently mentioned by both groups, one can see the emergence of a language policy in the private firm that would be both feasible and helpful for fostering the use of Indigenous languages in the firm. Keywords: Language policy; company; language death.
... Therefore, youngster have shown the tendencies to choose these languages in vogue over their native languages, leading to deterioration in language proficiency and usage, hence, globalisation and urbanisation leading to both the weakening and preservation of indigenous African languages (Miller, 2007). While some languages face endangerment and extinction due to language shift and dominant language influence, there are also ongoing efforts to preserve and revitalize these languages to maintain Africa's linguistic diversity and cultural heritage (Romaine, 2007). With the increasing global interconnectedness and urbanisation, there is a tendency for people to migrate from rural areas to cities. ...
The effects of colonization on indigenous African languages were profound and far-reaching. When European powers colonized Africa, they imposed their own languages on the indigenous populations and discouraged the use of native African languages. This had a number of negative consequences for African languages and their speakers: many African languages were suppressed or even banned by the colonial authorities. This led to the loss of many languages and the extinction of some of them. The colonial authorities often invested little in the development of African languages, such as creating written scripts, grammar rules, dictionaries, and educational materials. This meant that many African languages remained underdeveloped and were unable to keep pace with the modern world.
... In this imagined world, more than 7,000 distinct language communities coexist, [8] yet only a handful have had the opportunity to represent their cultures in the calendar. This stark imbalance highlights the challenge of bridging cultural diversity and mutual understanding. ...
Indigenous people worldwide possess rich calendric knowledge deeply intertwined with their languages, heritage, and sustainable practices. However, many of these calendars exist in oral form, putting them at risk of extinction due to contemporary challenges. One of the most challenging areas is the native language. This paper explores the innovative use of artificial intelligence (AI) as a tool for preserving and revitalizing an endangered Indigenous calendar and language. Focusing on the Dongaria Kondh community of Southern Odisha, which speaks an endangered language Kuvi, this study investigates the potential of AI to document and teach traditional calendar systems, thereby ensuring the transmission of cultural knowledge to future generations. By harnessing AI technologies for language preservation, transcription, and educational tools, this paper demonstrates that Indigenous calendars can thrive in the digital age, contributing to the cultural continuity of the Kuvi-speaking community.
... Language revitalisation refers to the practice of restoring a language's vitality and reviving a language that is in danger of disappearing (Romaine 2007;Reyhner and Lockard 2009). Following the movement to revitalise te reo Māori in the 1970s, many initiatives have since been launched, including the establishment of Kōhanga Reo (Māori language immersion ECE), the foundation of independent organisations specifically promoting te reo Māori use, increased funding for te reo Māori education, and the development of government strategies for Māori language revitalisation (Ministry of Education 2013; Te Taura Whiri i te Reo Māori 2018; Simmonds et al. 2020). ...
This research provides insight into current te reo Māori (the Indigenous language of Aotearoa, New Zealand) use in English-medium ECE settings. We videoed naturalistic conversations between kaiako (educators) and tamariki (aged 15–28 months) at 24 English-medium BestStart ECE centres. Te reo Māori was quantitatively assessed across five routines: kai (food) time, book time, group time, free play, and nappy change. The highest rates of te reo Māori use per minute were observed during the kai time, book time, and group time routines, respectively, and lowest during free play and nappy change. Although scripted/prepared te reo Māori use (e.g. karakia and waiata; prayer and song) were well used, opportunities for more complex and elaborate te reo Māori use remain. This research provides insight into the current use of te reo Māori in English-medium ECE settings, an enhanced understanding of kaiako contributions to te reo Māori revitalisation goals, and applications for practice.
... Due to competing pressures, it is not possible to predict with complete certainty which language an individual and social group use in particular domains (Romaine, 2000). In each language learning domain, various kinds of pressures that could be marked are urbanization and its extension with urban interests; that influence the use of indigenous languages. ...
Addis Ababa/Finfinne, the capital of Ethiopia, is currently among the most booming cities in Africa, using Amharic, the Federal working language of the country, as its lingua franca. Afan Oromo, another language with wider usage in the country, is also native to the indigenous Oromo community residing in the Sheger sub-cities surrounding Addis Ababa/Finfinne (SSSAA/F). This study (a) describes patterns of language use and (b) examines if and how the increasing urbanization of Addis Ababa/Finfinne affects language use and lingo-cultural identity among young people residing in SSSAA/F. A combination of descriptive quantitative and qualitative research design involving questionnaires, surveying of official reports, interviews and observation was employed. Data were collected from 151 adolescents (age: M = 18.22, SD = 1.31, range = 10 years; Male = 74, Female = 74) with diverse lingo-cultural backgrounds and analyzed statistically and thematically. Results showed that there has been an increasing pattern of diversity as well as total shifts toward an Amharic-based lingo-cultural identity due to urbanization. Such a phenomenon is only natural in the absence of a language policy that embraces diversity and averts the dominance of a certain lingo-cultural identity at the expense of others. The results, therefore, have policy and practical implications.
... Estas lenguas con menos de cien mil hablantes que corren el mayor riesgo de desaparecer representan el 82% de las lenguas del mundo (Ethnologue, 2009). Si la situación sociolingüística de estas lenguas no cambia, se considera que para finales del siglo XXI más del 50% de las lenguas del mundo desaparecerán del planeta (Krauss, 1992;Grenoble y Whaley, 2006;Romaine, 2007). Esta preocupación aumenta en vista de la aparente difusión actual, en la era de la globalización y tecnologías modernas, de unas pocas lenguas que representan el 4% de las lenguas del mundo. ...
El presente volumen ofrece trabajos acerca de lenguas pertenecientes a las familias lingüísticas quechua, aimara, uro-chipaya, cahuapana, arawak, jíbaro y pano, entre otras, además de estudios enfocados en el castellano andino.
... Preservation of the Rumanyo language in secondary schools is necessary in order to keep the identity, culture and norms sustainable. As Romaine (2007) affirms, thinking about natural resources must contain thinking about language as well. Languages must be seen as "vital parts of complex local ecologies" which need careful planning "if global biodiversity as well as human cultures and even humanity in general, are to be sustained" (ibid.: 130). ...
Sustainability in teacher education is discussed and enacted differently in various countries. A look into ten countries, as well as universities world-wide, offers insights, good practice examples and initial approaches to beneficially implement ESD in teacher education around the globe. First steps are already being taken and serve as a helpful blueprint for col-leagues working in this field.
... Considering the linguistic situation, pluralists believe in the importance of preserving as many languages as possible (including regional), because languages have a code on how to maintain biodiversity, which is, together with cultural diversity, a precondition of survival on the planet (Romaine, 2007). There is a lot of discussion about possible relationships between biodiversity and linguistic/cultural diversity; nowadays the holistic understanding of biolinguistic diversity is prevalent (Harmon & Skutnabb-Kangas, 2017). ...
The paper offers psychological explanations for linguistic and educational issues that arise as a result of the accelerated loss of cultural and linguistic diversity in heterogeneous settings in Central-Eastern Europe, attributable mainly to the decline in the number of indigenous ethnic minorities. The aim is to analyze the psychological mechanisms of language and culture shift using knowledge from the psychology of learning (operant and classical conditioning) and motivation, seeking answers to the following research questions: 1) What are the possible psychological explanations of the decrease of minority language use, and linguistic and cultural shift?, and 2) What are the guiding principles that should be taken into consideration when choosing the medium of education/instruction for indigenous ethnolinguistic children in Central-Eastern Europe to mitigate this decrease? A systematic review conducted on sources from the field of the psychology of multilingualims running the SCOPUs database, and the applied behaviour analysis (ABA) on selected sources has shown that such a systematic analysis is missing. The context of the analysis is the debate between representatives of pluralistic conceptions and their opponents over language use and educational practice that support sustainable development in heterogeneous regions. Analysing their views it turned out that the linguistic and cultural shift can be, at least partly, explained with the mechanisms of positive reinforcement, punishment, avoiding, and with the concepts of learned helplessness and culture shock. It is concluded that strong models of multilingual education, relying on pluralists` view, offer ways to slow down the decrease of diversity. The Minority SafePack Initiative that calls for protection of European language minorities seems justifiable, but further research is needed on interactions between decline of diversity and developmental processes in children.
... This review concerns the application of methods developed in conservation biology, macroecology and macroevolution to the patterns and causes of language endangerment. This is not a general review of language endangerment because there are many excellent reviews written by experts in linguistics (e.g., Maffi, 2002;Romaine, 2007;Rehg and Campbell, 2018;Evans, 2022). Instead, it is focused specifically on the way that methods originally developed in biology have been adapted and applied to endangered languages. ...
Language diversity is under threat, with between a third to a half of all languages considered endangered, and predicted rates of loss equivalent to one language per month for the rest of the century. Rather than reviewing the extensive body of linguistic research on endangered languages, this review focuses specifically on the interdisciplinary transfer of methods developed in conservation biology, macroecology and macroevolution to the study of language endangerment and loss. While the causes of language endangerment and loss are different to those for species, studying patterns of diversity of species and languages involves similar analytical challenges, associated with testing hypotheses and identifying causal relationships. Solutions developed in biology can be adapted to illuminate patterns in language endangerment, such as statistical methods that explicitly model phylogenetic nonindependence, spatial autocorrelation and covariation between variables, which may otherwise derail the search for meaningful predictors of language endangerment. However, other tools from conservation biology may be much less use in understanding or predicting language endangerment, such as metrics based on International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) criteria, population viability analysis or niche modelling. This review highlights both the similarities and the differences in approaches to understanding the concurrent crises in loss of both linguistic diversity and biodiversity.
... In addition to the language situation, migration from traditional areas has been recognised as a language loss threat to the number of language speakers (Romaine, 2007). While most of the elderly Sami people live in the Sami core areas, most children live outside these core areas (Keskitalo, 2019;Ruotsala-Kangasniemi & Lehtola, 2016). ...
... In terms of languages, Africa is like no other continent (Childs, G. T. ,2003). There are well over 2,000 different languages spoken across the continent; some spoken by just a few communities and others used by millions of Africans (Romaine, S., 2007). ...
The official status of Swahili in Uganda is more symbolic than functional, the reason it features on Ugandan shilling notes and notices in courts of law. The country's language policy also stipulates its use in primary and secondary schools, but many schools disregard this matter. Though Kiswahili (often called Swahili) is the official dialect of the East African Community as an economic bloc and its wider use would make Uganda more competitive in the regional trade market and can play a significant role in national development, Kiswahili language has not been readily accepted in Uganda, perhaps owing to bad memories of its use by troops of violent dictator former President Idi Amin Dada. The current regimes and /or Leadership in Uganda is apprehensively placing a lot of endeavor to popularise Kiswahili, though tardily reasonably compared to other East African countries. This paper therefore intends to elucidate Opportunities and challenges of branding African products and enterprises in Kiswahili using Uganda as a benchmark.
... Goodall & Montgomery (2014:400) describes the difference between 'parental involvement' and 'parental engagement with the latter as involving "a greater commitment, a greater ownership of action, than will parental involvement with schools. (2001), Fishman (1990Fishman ( , 1991Fishman ( , 2001, Spolsky (2004Spolsky ( , 2019, and Romaine (2000Romaine ( , 2007. In elaborating the importance of the language nest approach to indigenous language revitalization, McIvor & Parker (2016) stated that "It is parents' belief in language revitalization and willingness to commit to language learning in their family that makes language nests successful. ...
Bahasa Kadazandusun or BKD is the sole indigenous language offered in schools in Sabah, initially under the Pupils’ Own Language (POL) program based on the Education Act 1966. Different reactions towards BKD come from various concerned stakeholders i.e., ethnic societies, cultural bodies, and political organizations within the Kadazan and Dusun Orang Asal communities that make up almost 30% of the population of Sabah. Views on BKD range from critical and hardline positions to support and tolerance. Differing opinions can be read in the media due to the press statements by organizations or individuals reported in the news. However, one group whose opinions are rarely heard within the debates is the Orang Asal parents whose children are BKD learners at schools. This paper extracts findings from a larger study conducted to investigate the views and perspectives of stakeholders on the teaching and learning of the Kadazandusun language. In particular, this paper discusses relevant extracts from focus group discussions specifically with parents (n = 294) from five districts (Tambunan, Keningau, Kudat, Kota Marudu, and Tuaran). The study found that Orang Asal parents who are non-Kadazan or non-Dusun speakers are supportive of the BKD’s position and role as the sole indigenous language option taught in the national education system while recognizing that they want their indigenous languages to be transmitted to their younger generation, the parents also strongly encourage for inclusion of other ethnic languages in the system, formally or informally. This study found that the acceptance and tolerance shown by the parents, though themselves not speakers of Kadazandusun, are consistent with the sense of community present within indigenous communities in Sabah. The support given by non-Kadazandusun speakers to the standard language points to existing social harmony in a multicultural and multilingual society in Sabah. This paper also discusses at length the history behind the establishment of BKD and language standardization ideology within indigenous communities’ context.
... The investigation of cognitive effects related to the acquisition of minority languages is not only important for numerical reasons-around 85% of the world languages have <100,000 speakers and 50% of the languages have <5,000 speakers (Harrison, 2007;Romaine, 2007) 1 -but also for theoretical and ethical reasons. First, adult learners of indigenous minority languages need to overcome multiple political and sociological barriers, which range from the lack of public policies promoting these languages and the reduced contexts where the L2 is spoken, to the stigma and discrimination against minority languages and the scarcity of learning materials. ...
We compare the motion lexicalization patterns produced by L1 and L2 speakers of Mapudungun, an indigenous minority language spoken in Chile and Argentina. According to previous descriptions, the patterns of motion expression in Mapudungun have some characteristics of an equipollently-framed language, which contrast with the usual motion expression in Spanish. The data comprise oral narratives of the picture storybook “Frog, where are you?”, collected from 10 Mapudungun native speakers and 9 Spanish native speakers who are late bilinguals of Mapudungun. We report the general results (comparison of total clauses, translational clauses, types, and tokens) and analyze three general conflation patterns: the encoding of the semantic components of Path and Manner, the conflation of various components into serial verb constructions, and the encoding of Ground. The results show that L2 speakers encoded a significantly lower proportion of Manner verbs and a higher proportion of Path verbs than L1 speakers, used a significantly less diverse inventory of Path and Manner verb types, a significantly lower number of motion serial verb constructions, and a significantly higher number of plus-Ground clauses than L1 speakers, suggesting cross-linguistic influence from Spanish.
... Languages can disappear with time, especially due to language shift as users opt to use other languages. This shift could be due to difficulty in usage, including lack of NLP resources [2], [3] There are many NLP datasets for machine learning but mostly for English language. Such datasets include MCTest [4] for comprehension QA, SQuAD [5] based on Wikipedia articles, Wikidata [6] and BaBl [7] for the task of QA. ...
Though it is well recognized that Question Answering systems play an important role in natural language processing applications, such as web search and information extraction, their adoption for low resource languages has been low. This is mainly due to lack of language resources such as machine learning tools and training datasets. This research contributes to language processing initiatives by providing a model for semantic network generation for such languages. The model can guide on how to process natural language text and give it structure. The structured language can then be used for downstream tasks such as Question Answering. Proof of concept experiment is done using the Swahili part of TyDi QA, a publicly available QA dataset. The results show that the model can be used to generate semantic networks that can be applicable to Question Answering, with accuracy of 64.8% based on the sampled data. Lack of diverse and task specific curated corpora however remain a challenge in developing tools for low resource languages.
... In the case of the Rohingya, the external pressures working against the maintenance of their language are seemingly insurmountable in the presence of multiple majority and world languages, backed by military might. As Suzanne Romaine (2007) writes, "maintaining cultural and linguistic diversity is a matter of social justice because distinctiveness in culture and language has formed the basis for defining human identities" (pp. 130). ...
Language plays a role in the genocide of the Rohingya people in Myanmar and continues to shape their experiences in displacement, yet their linguistic rights are rarely discussed in relation to their human rights and humanitarian concerns. International human rights standards offer important foundations for conceptualizing the “right to language” and identifying how linguistic rights can be violated both in situ and in displacement. The Rohingya case highlights how language policies are weaponized to oppress unwanted minorities; their outsider status is reinforced by the country’s language education policy and they face additional rights challenges in displacement—including obstacles to effectively accessing humanitarian aid. Moving forward, norms associated with self-determination and language rights offer a conceptual foundation for shifting attitudes and altering negative perceptions of Rohingya identity.
... Due to these standards, many countries in the world are setting their philosophy on language policies in such a way that learners develop communicative competence in at least one or two foreign languages (Tandlichova, 2008). English, even though it is not the largest language by speakers and geographic spread, is the language of the 'global village' (Romaine, 2007). Even though curricular documents in their frameworks and guidelines for teaching portray the objectives of education without giving stepby-step instructions of how exactly teaching should be done (Harmer, 2012), reaching communicative competence is one of the most important objectives in them all. ...
Reaching communicative competence in a foreign language is one of the key objectives of the foreign language education policy of multiple European countries, including Slovakia. The unified concept of communicative competence provides learners with equal opportunities for mastering languages at their best and enables its development from the very beginning of learners' studies. In low proficiency levels (A1) in primary education teachers play a crucial role in developing communicative competence of their learners. Research in the field reveals that although teachers are aware of their great influence and importance in the development of communicative competence, they often do not provide sufficient circumstances for learners to reaching it. A qualitative inquiry conducted with a number of in-practice English teachers working in Slovak primary schools presents the importance of having balanced development in all the components of communicative competence in TEFL, its implementation into the lessons of English, as well as an overall view of teachers’ standpoints towards its development at the primary level. The results show the tendencies of teachers to concentrate more on certain (especially linguistic) elements of communicative competence, whereas other competences (mainly of pragmatic character) are often neglected.
... In Pakistan, all languages do not enjoy the equal status, and this is the reason few of the languages are deteriorating not only in their usage but also they are considered of low status. On the other hand, some languages are considered influential and powerful (Romaine 2007, Khalique 2006. Language is used not as a medium of communication, but also as an identity marker (Kim, Siong, Fei&Ya'acob, 2010). ...
This study aims to dig out the politeness strategies employed by Punjabi speakers; males and females, while requesting their seniors, juniors and friends. Furthermore, it seeks out their preferred language; English, Urdu or Punjabi, during these face-saving acts. The researcher enquired two queries; if there is an association between gender and politeness strategies and gender and their preferred language code. Secondly, which of the strategies and languages are the most preferred ones, while requesting different interlocutors who are different to them in their social status, intimacy and power? The sample comprised of 168 Punjabis (male=83, females= 85), and a Discourse Completion Test (DCT) was given to them to collect data. The results were analyzed through SPSS by applying the chi-square test. The results concluded that there is a close association between gender and language choice while requesting friends and subordinates, but no difference is observed in the language choice and politeness strategy while requesting someone who is senior to them socially. Interestingly, females have totally abandoned Punjabi with their friends, and they are more into Urdu, while males' second preferred language is Punjabi, unlike females. Males request their juniors in Punjabi, contrastingly to females who use the Urdu language. The research is beneficial to the language policy makers and the institutes who are stakeholders of languages and who are responsible for the maintenance of languages and preservation of culture.
The Punchi language is a lesser-known, vulnerable (at risk of becoming endangered) Indo-Aryan language (IA), spoken primarily in the Poonch district of the Republic of India. Unlike the majority of the IA languages, Punchi does not find any mention as a language in official records such as in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution. Punchi is a verb-final language (SOV type) with a relatively flexible word order which exhibits a complete set of nasalized vowels that produce phonemic contrast with the oral vowels while the aspirated voiced and voiceless consonants are in contrastive distribution. A high amount of inflection is observed in nominal and verbal morphology as the Punchi nouns and pronouns inflect for number, gender, and person. This language employs postpositions while the nouns and pronouns are in the oblique case. The chapter presents a synchronic account of the distinctive grammatical properties of the Punchi language such as its diverse pronoun system, the subject-auxiliary agreement, its optional ergative marking, its elaborate system of verb morphology, and the syntactic aspects of the language are also discussed.
The survival of minority languages faces critical threats amid accelerating globalisation and cultural homogenisation. This article presents a comparative analysis of linguistic sustainability strategies in three Malay-speaking nations of the historical Nusantara—Indonesia, Malaysia, and Brunei Darussalam—each shaped by distinct colonial histories, governance structures, and sociolinguistic ecologies. Drawing on academic literature, official policy documents, and institutional reports, the study evaluates national approaches to the preservation of minority and indigenous languages across legal, educational, cultural, and technological domains. Indonesia, with over 700 living languages, adopts a comprehensive, decentralised strategy anchored in constitutional mandates and operationalised through initiatives such as the Revitalisasi Bahasa Daerah (Regional Language Revitalization) programme. This policy integrates endangered languages into curricula, trains local educators, and supports regional linguistic documentation. The expansion into digital media—via online dictionaries, apps, and content platforms—further broadens accessibility and youth engagement. However, regional disparities in infrastructure and implementation capacity challenge consistent outcomes. Malaysia’s approach is comparatively focused and regionally responsive. In Peninsular Malaysia, Chinese and Tamil vernacular schools operate alongside Malay-medium institutions, reflecting a federal commitment to ethnolinguistic pluralism. In Sabah and Sarawak, indigenous languages such as Iban and Kadazandusun receive targeted support through the Pupil’s Own Language (POL) programme and regional broadcasting. Cultural festivals and grassroots associations bolster intergenerational transmission, while institutions like the Language and Literature Bureau of Malaysia and collaborative digital projects (e.g. Wiktionary) contribute to documentation and language modernisation. Brunei Darussalam, by contrast, has adopted a preservationist and academic model in response to its concentrated linguistic ecology. While Malay and English dominate official domains, minority languages such as Tutong, Kedayan, and Dusun are sustained through limited but strategic documentation efforts. The Language and Literature Bureau of Brunei has produced bilingual lexicons, and Universiti Brunei Darussalam offers language courses and supports research on endangered local tongues. Although modest in scale, these initiatives reflect a state-led commitment to heritage preservation. The study concludes that linguistic sustainability must be pursued through context-sensitive, adaptive strategies. Indonesia’s expansive multilevel engagement, Malaysia’s differentiated and community-integrated model, and Brunei’s institutional focus each offer lessons for multilingual societies. Ultimately, a combination of legal recognition, mother-tongue education, cultural visibility, and technological innovation provides viable pathways for safeguarding linguistic diversity in the region.
Socio-political factors and pragmatism are frequently cited for language attrition and endangerment. Thus, UNESCO has drawn attention to language vitality research as it is pivotal for language planning and revitalization programs. Bugkalot is an indigenous language that strives for survival in a multilingual community. Based on UNESCO’s framework, this ethnographic study investigated the degree of vitality of the Bugkalot language. Today, the language is definitely endangered due to the disruption of intergenerational transmission. Tagalog and Ilocano now dominate the domains of language use and have begun to penetrate the homes. Likewise, Bugkalot language has dwindling social domains and is not used in school. It has no conventional orthography, insufficient documentation, and is spoken by the minority. Nonetheless, the community shows a positive attitude toward their heritage language. The findings of this study may help persuade the language community and the authorities to establish language revitalization programs.
Nigeria is home to a rich linguistic diversity, with different dialects at risk of extinction. Indoctrinated language like English is at the verge of side-lining major languages such as the Nigerian Pidgin, and other major ethnic dialects like Hausa, Yoruba, and Igbo which is leading to their gradual decline. This language shift is driven by social, economic, and educational factors, as well as urbanization. Local dialect extinct would result in the loss of cultural identity, traditions, and historical ecological knowledge tied to these dialects. This study uses language shift theory and ecological linguistics to understand the causes and consequences. These theories explain how younger generations adopt dominant languages, leading to the abandonment of indigenous dialects; as well as show how the loss of dialect also mean the loss of cultural and environmental knowledge tied to it. The causes include globalization, migration, colonial legacies, and educational policies that marginalize indigenous dialects. The consequences of language loss are weighty, contributing to social inequality, decrease in ethnocentrism, cultural erosion, loss of valuable local knowledge, among others. To address this, solutions like documentation, revitalization through the inclusion of dialects into formal education setting, and community-driven initiatives are essential. Government policies and public awareness campaigns should promote the use of indigenous dialects and support language preservation ideas. Protecting Nigeria’s linguistic heritage is vital to preserving its cultural identity and ensuring its diversity for future generations.
The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, the University Grants Commission (UGC), and the National
Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) have recognised the importance of providing barrier-free access
to education for individuals with disabilities. Knowing the vitality of empowering accessibility, the Government
Law College library in Tiruchirappalli addresses the issue of print disability students accessing information. The
library has undertaken a pilot effort to convert Ten postgraduate printed law books into audio books by utilising
the provisions of the Indian Copyright Act of 2012. The audiobooks were stored in the DSpace repository and
shared with students. The objective of this study was to ensure that print-disabled students had access to the same
resources as their others. The findings suggest that audiobooks have the potential to enrich print-disabled students’
confidence in their ability to learn and read, leading them to become motivated and involved in their studies.
This review presents examples of language revitalisation practices, developed and implemented by whānau and other community groups, that are described in literature from Aotearoa New Zealand and across many countries.
Este artigo discute sobre dois fenômenos relacionados recentes que ocorrem no Brasil, resultado da resistência de grupos indígenas ao processo de colonização e de extermínio de povos e de línguas, a etnogênese e a glotogênese ou retomada de línguas. O objetivo é descrever a situação em que se encontram algumas línguas indígenas atualmente e como ações recentes de revitalização linguística, seja por iniciativa dos próprios povos indígenas ou por meio de parcerias entre povos indígenas e universidade, podem contribuir para a manutenção, fortalecimento e reativação de línguas indígenas. O texto trata especialmente sobre línguas da região localizada entre Minas Gerais e o sul da Bahia e descreve como tais línguas têm sido mantidas, revitalizadas ou retomadas e apresenta alguns desafios para ações de manutenção, revitalização, retomada ou fortalecimento de línguas.
Volume completo do dossiê "Por uma linguística menos eurocêntrica: reflexões, pesquisas e o estado da arte de línguas indígenas".
Audio-visual aids have been one of the most influential sources, especially, in teaching and learning an unknown language. The use of images found in textbooks has great implications for teaching and learning the English language to non-natives. The current study aimed to explore the use of images in textbooks to teach the English language in primary schools in a Pakistani urban setting. The researchers, following the norms of qualitative research, used class observations and interviews as the tools for data collection. The findings of the study reiterated that the use of pictures in language teaching is quite helpful; however, the teachers under observation, often, did not make use of pictures found in the textbooks to teach the English language. The teachers can make their lectures and classroom activities more lively, interesting, and fruitful by employing the pictures found in the textbooks they use to teach the English language.
The vast majority of work on language and landscape in Geography focuses on the linguistic landscape, which studies the presence or absence of certain languages or dialects on the landscape. This paper goes beyond linguistic landscape to explore language as representation of landscape imaginary. Landscape acts as a powerful symbol, and can work to strengthen territorial identities, solidifying nations as separate entities, intimately connected to the land that they inhabit. This is true of the nation of Galicia, an historic community in the northwest of Spain, where the national landscape and language have come to be inextricably linked in the Galician imagination. In conducting interviews with Galician educators about the nature of their language and its meaning to them personally, an unprovoked link emerged between the language and the landscape, painting the two as essential foundations of Galician identity. Language and landscape are seen as linked foundational symbols in a display of difference between Galicia and Spain. This paper uses themes that emerged from these interviews to elaborate how the Galician language can be seen as a representation of a landscape imaginary.
Written entirely in Spanish, this is the ideal introduction to Spanish linguistics for students. Using clear explanations, it covers all the basic concepts required to study the structural aspects of the Spanish language - phonetics and phonology, morphology and syntax - as well as the history of Spanish, its dialects and linguistic variation. This second edition incorporates new features designed to enhance its usefulness for classroom teaching: chapters have been added on the sociolinguistics of Spanish in the USA, and on semantics and pragmatics. The chapter on syntax has been considerably expanded. Numerous exercises have been added throughout the book, as well as a new glossary to help with technical terms.
One of the consequences of the close interrelationship between languages and their respective environments is the influence of the environment on the creation and maintenance of proverbs. Many proverbs use ecology-related lexemes (vocabulary from the "ecolexicon") to make their point. Previous studies were concerned with the general classification of ecolexical items used in proverbs. Such studies have neglected to study the use of bamboo in explorations of the flora-related ecolexicon, and this gap is especially notable when it comes to the study of proverbs. In response, this paper aims at (i) formulating the function-based typology of the bamboo-related ecolexicon used in Karonese proverbs; and (ii) finding out the cultural values of bamboo-related ecolexical items used in Karonese proverbs. This study was conducted using a descriptive qualitative method, taking Kabanjahe, the capital of Karo Regency, North Sumatra Province, Indonesia, as the research location. The data were bamboo-related ecolexical items used in Karonese proverbs, collected from five informants through an unstructured, open-ended interview. The data were analyzed qualitatively using an interactive model of data analysis. The findings promote research on the typology of bamboo-related ecolexical items based on how Karonese people utilize bamboo. The characteristics of bamboo-related ecolexical data also metaphorize the real-life setting in Karonese culture, contributing to the formation of several cultural values that have been passed down from generation to generation.
How sound change is initiated and propagates in smaller speech communities is not well understood. This paper provides an overview of the main themes, including theoretical and methodological issues, of the special collection on sound change in endangered and small speech communities.
Épisciences - Slovo
This article aims to compare the trajectories of Finnic minority or dialect languages within the post-communist area of Latvia, Estonia, the Leningrad oblast and the Republic of Karelia. It is based on an interdisciplinary work in social sciences. This study analyzes materials kept in museums or research institutions, but also uses ethnographic survey in the field, in medium-term immersion within communities (native speakers, researchers, NGOs). It focuses on Livonian, Votic, Ingrian, Kihnu and Manilaid, Karelian and Vepsian communities. This study seeks to compare the post-communist evolution of these languages, by examining their vitalities, in both quantitative and qualitative evolutions of speakers, but also in terms of areal evolution, or linguistic policies (such as imposed uniformization and standardization, etc.). Thus, the public policies put in place, and the major changes taking place within them, are exposed, as well as the actions of actors who are invested in defending those languages and dialects. It raises the question of the legitimization of knowledge, with the perspective of the knowledge of these NGOs (and their networking) and the knowledge produced by scientists studying these communities. At the end, a typology of the ecology of these languages is drawn up, making it possible to categorize them and compare them according to different types of trajectories.
Cet article analyse comparativement les trajectoires de langues fenniques minoritaires ou dialectales au sein de l’espace postcommuniste constitué de la Lettonie, de l’Estonie, de l’oblast de Leningrad et de la république de Carélie. Il s’appuie sur un travail interdisciplinaire en sciences sociales. Cette étude analyse à la fois des matériaux conservés au sein de musées ou d’institutions de recherche, mais emploie également l’enquête ethnographique de terrain, en immersion de moyenne durée au sein des communautés (locuteurs, chercheurs, ONG). Elle s’intéresse aux communautés lives, votes, ingriennes, de Kihnu et Manilaid, caréliennes et vepses. Elle cherche à mettre en regard l’évolution postcommuniste de ces langues, en s’intéressant à leur vitalité, en termes d’évolutions quantitatives et qualitatives des locuteurs, mais aussi en termes d’évolution aréales ou de politiques linguistiques (uniformisation et standardisation imposées, etc.). Ainsi, sont décryptées les politiques publiques mises en place et les grands changements intervenants en leur sein, mais également les actions d’acteurs investis dans la défense de ces langues et ces dialectes. La question de la légitimation des savoirs est posée, avec la mise en perspective des savoirs de ces ONG (et leurs mises en réseau) et des savoirs produits par les scientifiques étudiant ces communautés. À l’issue, une typologie de l’écologie de ces langues est dressée, permettant de les catégoriser et de les comparer selon différents types de trajectoires.
Cтатья посвящена сравнительному анализу траектории развития финно-саамской группы языков (фенических языков) и диалектов на посткоммунистическом пространстве (в Латвии, Эстонии, Ленинградской области и Республике Карелия). Данное исследование является междисциплинарной работой в области общественных наук. В статье анализируются как материалы, хранящиеся в музеях и исследовательских центрах, так и материалы, собранные в ходе полевых этнографических исследований, в частности интервью с представителями коренных сообществ (носителями языка, исследователями, членами общественных организациий). Особое внимание уделяется таким коренным народам, как ливы, водь, ижоры, карелы и вепсы, а также народам с островов Кихну и Манилаид. Целью статьи является сравнение изменений в данных языках, их жизнеспособности с точки зрения количественной и качественной эволюции носителей, а также с точки зрения ареальной эволюции и языковой политики (навязанные унификация и стандартизация и пр.) Отдельное место уделяется изучению проводимой государствами политики и происходящим в ней изменениям, а также действиям людей и огранизаций, занимающихся защитой этих языков и диалектов. Поднимается вопрос о легитимизации информации (и обмену ею благодаря сетевому взаимодействию), поступающей, в частности, от НПО, а также от учёных, изучающих эти сообщества. Результатом работы является составление типологии экологии изучаемых языков, позволяющей классифицировать и сравнить их в соответствии с различными типами траекторий.
The governing framework and national ethos of the Kingdom of Eswatini are grounded in the traditional culture of emaSwati (the people of Eswatini) and their language, siSwati. At the same time, economic success is tied to knowledge of English, the former colonial language of Eswatini, which is the language of government, the media, the judiciary and formal education. One outcome of this type of bilingualism is the relative marginalisation of large numbers of citizens whose command of English is limited. While siSwati remains alive through its use by emaSwati, there are concerns that, in the long term, the dominance of English in key domains could pose a threat to the survival of siSwati. This concern is reflected in the recent creation of a SiSwati Language Board by the Government of Eswatini. Drawing on research that suggests that inclusivity and language maintenance are linked, this paper proposes that the prestige of siSwati be enhanced within the English-based globally-oriented sector of emaSwati society through activities undertaken by the SiSwati Language Board, such as a project to produce a tagged digital corpus of siSwati texts from a wide variety of genres and a monolingual dictionary based on this corpus, parallel to the construction of such corpora by the ALLEX project at the University of Zimbabwe, as well as encouraging the expansion of siSwati into new genres as well. Such activities could contribute to raising the profile of siSwati as a language that merits the same study and attention afforded to more prestigious languages such as English.
Globalization can be viewed from economic, cultural and socio-political perspectives including information and communication technology (ICT). In view of this, it is seen as the increasing empowerment of western cultural values including language, philosophy and world view. In many African countries Nigeria inclusive, English language which is the language of colonization is gradually becoming a global language due to its influence and subsequent adoption as the official language by many African nations which are largely multi-cultural and multilingual under the British colony. This trend has not only relegated the status of Nigerian Indigenous languages to the background but has also threatened their existence in Nigeria which accommodates over 500 native languages. If this trend is left unchecked, the ill-wind of globalization will gradually sweep the native languages including the so-called major ones (Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba) out of existence particularly in Nigeria. This paper discusses globalization as one of the major factors for language endangerment with respect to Nigeria as a nation, with a view to proffering possible solutions capable of sustaining and empowering the nation’s socio-cultural and economic stability.
The prospect of the loss of linguistic diversity on a large scale has prompted scholars such as Fishman and others to propose programs of intervention to ‚reverse language shift’ (RLS). RLS theories and efforts are byproducts of European indigenous minority problems, and the ideological bias of Fishman’s model of RLS privileges intergenerational transmission in the context of stable diglossia. This article examines the ideological underpinnings and utility of this framework as an appropriate model for stabilizing and revitalizing indigenous languages. I question the assumptions and theoretical perspectives underlying terms such as RLS and reconceptualize what it might mean for a language to be maintained and survive without intergenerational mother tongue transmission. As an increasing number of communities around the world face the impending loss of their languages, it is imperative to clarify these issues not just for theory’s sake, but in the interest of providing sound advice.
This book provides an overview of the issues surrounding language loss. It brings together work by theoretical linguists, field linguists, and non-linguist members of minority communities to provide an integrated view of how language is lost, from sociological and economic as well as from linguistic perspectives. The contributions to the volume fall into four categories. The chapters by Dorian and Grenoble and Whaley provide an overview of language endangerment. Grinevald, England, Jacobs, and Nora and Richard Dauenhauer describe the situation confronting threatened languages from both a linguistic and sociological perspective. The understudied issue of what (beyond a linguistic system) can be lost as a language ceases to be spoken is addressed by Mithun, Hale, Jocks, and Woodbury. In the last section, Kapanga, Myers-Scotton, and Vakhtin consider the linguistic processes which underlie language attrition.
Since the 1960s, policies to 'revive' minority cultures and languages have flourished. But what does it mean to have a 'cultural identity'? And are minorities as deeply attached to their languages and traditions as revival policies suppose? This book is a sophisticated analysis of responses to the 'Gaelic renaissance' in a Scottish Hebridean community. Its description of everyday conceptions of belonging and interpretations of cultural policy takes us into the world of Gaelic playgroups, crofting, local history, religion and community development. Historically and theoretically informed, this book challenges many of the ways in which we conventionally think about ethnic and national identity.This accessible and engaging account of life in this remote region of Europe provides an original and timely contribution to questions of considerable currency in a broad range of social science disciplines.
The survival and maintenance of Aboriginal languages in Canada depend on their transmission from generation to generation. Children are the future speakers of a language. This paper demonstrates that the family and the community together play critical roles in the transmission of language from parent to child. On their own, neither family capacity nor community support is sufficient to ensure the adequate transmission of an Aboriginal language as a population's mother tongue from one generation to the next. Intergenerational transmission is maximized in Aboriginal communities among families where both parents have an Aboriginal mother tongue. Transmission can be best realized with the support of the community in those families with either both parents or the lone parent having an Aboriginal mother tongue. Outside of Aboriginal communities, particularly within large cities, transmission and continuity is significantly reduced even under ideal family conditions of linguistically endogamous parents. For exogamous families, it appears that community effect, while positive, is nevertheless limited in offsetting their low rate of mother tongue transmission. Trends indicate continuing declines in intergenerational transmission accompanied by a decreasing and ageing Aboriginal mother tongue population and a growing likelihood that Aboriginal languages will be learned increasingly as second languages.
Written not only for linguists and anthropologists, this book serves as a general reference guide to language revitalization for language activists and community members who believe they should ensure the future use of their languages, despite their predicted loss. Drawing extensively on case studies, it highlights the necessary background and central issues such as literacy, policy decisions, and allocation of resources. The volume’s primary goal is to provide the essential tools for a successful language revitalization program, setting and achieving realistic goals, and anticipating and resolving common obstacles.
Red books list everything endangered; green books revitalize the endangered. That is exactly what Hinton and Hale set out to do when they brought together no less than-thirty three essays, divided into categories such as Language Policy, Language Planning, Maintenance and Revitalization of National Indigenous languages, Immersion, Literacy, Media and Technology, and Training in their Green Book to bring home the severity of languages in danger of disappearing and the necessity of revitalizing these languages. Otherwise speakers of endangered languages, they argue, face disenfranchisement and marginalization. The categories are supposed to reflect the aim of the book: showing revitalization programmes in operation, and synthesizing principles and methods of language revitalization practice. Reference is made to Fishman's (1991, 2001) steps with regard to reversing language shift, (a synonym for language revitalization?) and some of the chapters in the book are assigned to ‘illustrate' his steps, but no clear outline of the structure and argument of the Green Book is given. Although the reader gets an excellent idea of revitalization programmes in the US, Australia and the UK, the relevance of the book is sadly reduced because it omits countries such as South Africa and India where excellent work in this regard is taking place. With its eleven official languages and various initiatives at revitalizing indigenous/heritage languages such as the Khoe, Ju and !Ui language families, including the Khoekhoegowab (Nama), !Xun, Khwedam, N!u and Xirigowab (Griqua) languages, South Africa could hardly have been overlooked for inclusion in this book. Let alone the pioneering work on the Khoe and San Language body by the South African San Institute. This institute traces, documents and develops these languages in equally compelling ways as being described in the Green Book. The s justify their prime focus on the US and the various excellent and successful revitalizing programmes done there by pointing out that other countries can learn from the ‘principles' underpinning these programmes. Essentially these principles come down to three: persistence, sustainability and honesty to oneself. These principles are stressed in each of the programmes. But the overall impression of the book is that endangered languages are studied and documented as cultural curiosities, and the use of indigenous languages are encouraged in various ways as a means of self-empowerment, as a way of perpetuating cultural hegemony. Hardly any chapters deal with the real empowering stuff: what can these speakers do with a revitalized language in the ‘real world'? To my mind, only one chapter deals with this issue in a direct way: Clay Slate's “Promoting Advanced Navajo Language Scholarship” in which issues such as employability, transferability and accreditation issues are raised and discussed at length. Concerns expressed at the outset of the book about the loss of indigenous knowledge systems and the infringement of human rights in the face of globalisation are addressed in a frank way in this chapter, but in few others. Another issue that is scantily addressed in the book is the delicate intersection of language and identity. Most of the chapters assume a homogenous view of cultural identity. Few show or report on clashing identities as a consequence of language use. That is why the most compelling chapter in the book is the last one by ‘independent scholar', Linda Yamane. Hers is a testimony of real perseverance in tracing the recordings of her endangered Rumsien language, one of the Ohlone or Costanoan languages spoken by the native people of California's Monterey area, and of her personal attempts to sustain the use of her language and of the honesty with which she reflects on the use of this language. This single personal testimony makes the book worth while as it single-handedly encapsulates all the principles of language revitalization. ‘To sleep, perchance to dream', says a world weary Hamlet. Hinton and Hale are not as world weary. They have dreams; their s write about their own dreams. (William Wilson and Kauanoe Kamanā write touchingly about “Mai Loko Mai O Ka ‘I'ini” – Proceeding from the Dream. It tells about the ‘Aha Pūnana Leo Connection in Hawaiian Language Revitalization. They say I ka ‘olelo no ke ola; I ka ‘olelo no ka make – in language rests life; in language rests death.) Hinton and Hale want to wake up ‘sleeping' languages (a word preferred by Frank Manriquez, to ‘dead' languages, such as his native Tongva). They want to give a voice to ‘silent' languages. And they do so in this book. Hinton's chapter on Audio-Video Documentation is seminal. So is Laura Buszars-Welcher's one on whether the web can save her language. Hinton and Hale show that between the birth and the death of a language plenty of living and dreaming can be done. (Journal for Language Teaching: 2003 37(1): 142-144)
The rapid endangerment and death of many minority languages across the world is a matter of widespread concern, not only among linguists and anthropologists but among all concerned with issues of cultural identity in an increasingly globalized culture. By some counts, only 600 of the 6000 or so languages in the world are 'safe' from the threat of extinction. A leading commentator and popular writer on language issues, David Crystal asks the fundamental question, 'Why is language death so important?', reviews the reasons for the current crisis, and investigates what is being done to reduce its impact. The book contains not only intelligent argument, but moving descriptions of the decline and demise of particular languages, and practical advice for anyone interested in pursuing the subject further.
There are some 6,500 different languages in the world, belonging to around 250 distinct families and conforming to numerous grammatical types. This book explains why. Given that the biological mechanisms underlying language are the same in all normal human beings, would we not be a more successful species if we spoke one language? Daniel Nettle considers how this extraordinary and rich diversity arose, how it relates to the nature of language, cognition, and culture, and how it is linked with the main patterns of human geography and history. Human languages and language families are not distributed evenly: there are relatively few in Eurasia compared to the profusion found in Australasia, the Pacific, and the Americas. There is also a marked correlation between biodiversity and linguistic diversity. The author explains the processes by which this distribution evolved and changes still. To do so he returns to the earliest origins of language, reconstructing the processes of linguistic variation and diffusion that occurred when humans first filled the continents and, thousands of years later, turned to agriculture. He ends by examining the causes of linguistic mortality, and why the number of the world's languages may halve before 2100. Linguistic Diversity draws on work in anthropology, linguistics, geography, archaeology, and evolutionary science to provide a comprehensive account of the patterns of linguistic diversity. It is written in a clear, lively and accessible style, and will appeal broadly across the natural and human sciences, as well as to the informed general reader.
1. Except for the case of Eyak, which I can personally confirm, many of the statistics, large and small, in this article are but reports or estimates; I trust it will be obvious that any imprecision in the present figures should in no way detract from the basic point of their shocking significance. For North America and the Soviet North the figures for numbers of speakers come mainly from colleagues. For the numbers of languages and their speakers for the world generally, by far the best single source available that I am aware of is the Ethnologue (Grimes 1988), to which this paper refers below.
2.
Note, however, that 187 languages comprise only a very small proportion of the world's languages, about 3%. For this and much of the following I am most indebted to Barbara and Joseph Grimes and their Ethnologue (1988), together with some late 1990 updates (personal communication). This work provides by far the most detailed worldwide survey of languages yet available, and it is also a project continuously being updated. In keeping with the estimated nature of statistics, I have generally rounded the Grimeses' figures.
3. The Grimeses' updated figures now include over 100 more very nearly extinct Australian languages listed in Wurm & Hattori 1981 but not in the 1988 Ethnologue.
4. Ken Hale wishes to point out that the figures attributed to him in Time magazine, September 23, 1991, are from Mike Krauss's presentation in the LSA Endangered Languages symposium of January, 1991.
5. As this goes to press, I note the article 'World of the Living Dead' (Natural history 9/91:30, 32-37) by the biologist Jared Diamond, who takes the Javanese bird situation as an example to illustrate his view, held by many biologists, that 'half of the world's species will be extinct or on the verge of extinction by the end of the next century'. Thus the enormity of the impending biological catastrophe may come much closer to matching that of the linguistic catastrophe than one might believe from the official endangered species listings.
6. As this goes to press, in addition to the political support of the federal Native American Languages Act of 1990 (described below by Watahomigie & Yamamoto), new federal legislation is proceeding that is to include appropriations: S. 1595, the Alaska Native Languages Preservation and Enhancement Act of 1991, introduced by Senator Murkowski of Alaska in July, 'to preserve and enhance the ability of Alaska Natives to speak and understand their native languages', passed by the Senate in November; and S. 2044, the Native American Languages Act of 1991, 'to assist Native Americans in assuring the survival and continuing vitality of their languages', introduced by Senator Inouye of Hawaii in November.
Much of the work that is labeled 'descriptive' within linguistics comprises two activities, i.e. the collection of primary data and a (low-level) analysis of these data. These are indeed two separate activities as shown by the fact that the methods employed in each activity differ substantially. To date, the field concerned with the first activity — called 'documentary linguistics' here — has received very little attention from linguists. It is proposed that documentary linguistics be conceived of as a fairly independent field of linguistic inquiry and practice which is no longer linked exclusively to the descriptive framework. A format for language documentations (in contrast to language descriptions) is presented and various practical and theoretical issues connected with this format are discussed. These include the rights of the individuals and communities contributing to a language documentation, the parameters for the selection of the data to be included in a documentation, and the assessment of the quality of such data.1
This paper examines efforts to reverse language shift in two indigenous communities of southern Ecuador. The ongoing decline and rapid pace of extinction of many of the world's languages have received increasing amounts of attention. Yet while the linguistic and social processes of language loss and language death have been extensively investigated and analysed, relatively little work of similar scope and detail has addressed the processes of and prospects for language revitalisation. The paper presents findings from ethnographic work which investigated language use, language attitudes, and language instruction in two Andean communities which are attempting to revitalise their once native Quichua. The study finds that for different reasons in neither community is Quichua transmission occurring successfully and reveals how and why communities which are socially, economically, and culturally secure are most likely to be supportive of and participate in language revitalisation efforts.
Discusses Ocracoke English as an endangered dialect, examining the social responsibility linguists and dialectologists should assume in documenting and disseminating information about the state of moribund dialects and describing a community-based, collaborative model involving the development of materials and programs that foster knowledge of and pride in local dialects. (SM)
The theory and practice of assistance to speech communities whose native languages are threatened are examined. The discussion focuses on why most efforts to reverse language shift are unsuccessful or even harmful, diagnosing difficulties and prescribing alternatives based on a combination of ethnolinguistic, sociocultural, and econotechnical considerations. The first section looks at reasons for trying to reverse language shift, whether it is possible, where and why shift occurs, and how it can be reversed. A typology of disadvantaged languages and ameliorative priorities is presented. The second section contains a number of case studies from different continents, including those of: Irish; Basque; Frisian; Navajo, Spanish, and Yiddish (secular and ultra-orthodox) in America; Maori in New Zealand; Australian aboriginal and immigrant languages, Modern Hebrew and French in Quebec; Catalan in Spain; and the unique situation of non-transmission of "additional" (parents' second) languages. The third section addresses the related issues of language planning for reversal of language shift, dialect standards and corpus planning, intergenerational transmission of "additional" languages, and limitations on school effectiveness in connection with native language transmission. Chapters include bibliographies. (MSE)
published or submitted for publication is peer reviewed
Conservationists are far from able to assist all species under threat, if only for lack of funding. This places a premium on priorities: how can we support the most species at the least cost? One way is to identify 'biodiversity hotspots' where exceptional concentrations of endemic species are undergoing exceptional loss of habitat. As many as 44% of all species of vascular plants and 35% of all species in four vertebrate groups are confined to 25 hotspots comprising only 1.4% of the land surface of the Earth. This opens the way for a 'silver bullet' strategy on the part of conservation planners, focusing on these hotspots in proportion to their share of the world's species at risk.
There are global threats to biodiversity with current extinction rates well above background levels. Although less well publicized, numerous human languages have also become extinct, and others are threatened with extinction. However, estimates of the number of threatened languages vary considerably owing to the wide range of criteria used. For example, languages have been classified as threatened if the number of speakers is less than 100, 500, 1,000, 10,000, 20,000 or 100,000 (ref. 3). Here I show, by applying internationally agreed criteria for classifying species extinction risk, that languages are more threatened than birds or mammals. Rare languages are more likely to show evidence of decline than commoner ones. Areas with high language diversity also have high bird and mammal diversity and all three show similar relationships to area, latitude, area of forest and, for languages and birds, maximum altitude. The time of human settlement has little effect on current language diversity. Although similar factors explain the diversity of languages and biodiversity, the factors explaining extinction risk for birds and mammals (high altitude, high human densities and insularity) do not explain the numbers of endangered languages.
Why one cannot preserve languages (but can preserve language ecologies). Language endangerment and language maintenance
- Peter Mühlhäusler
Mühlhäusler, Peter. 2002. Why one cannot preserve languages (but can preserve language
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Maya Bradley, 34 -39. London: Routledge Curzon.
Linguistic genocide in education -or Worldwide diversity and human rights?
- Tove Skutnabb-Kangas
Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove. 2000. Linguistic genocide in education -or Worldwide diversity and
human rights? Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Warrabarna Kaurna! Reclaiming an Australian language
- Robert Amery
Amery, Robert. 2001. Warrabarna Kaurna! Reclaiming an Australian language. Lisse, The
Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger.
Language in danger. How language loss threatens our future
- Andrew Dalby
Dalby, Andrew. 2003. Language in danger. How language loss threatens our future. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin.
Language documentation. A program. Aspects of typology and universals
- Christian Lehmann
Lehmann, Christian. 2001. Language documentation. A program. Aspects of typology and
universals, ed. by Walter Bisang, 83-97. Berlin, Germany: Akademie.
Endangered languages of the Andaman islands
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In light of our differences. How diversity in nature and culture makes us human
- David Harmon
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The green book of language revitalization in practice
- Leanne Hinton
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The victims of the tsunami pay the price of war on Iraq.The Guardian
- Monbiot George
Monbiot, George. 2005. The victims of the tsunami pay the price of war on Iraq. The
Guardian. January 4, 2005.
Spoken here. Travels among threatened languages
- Mark Abley
Abley, Mark. 2003. Spoken here. Travels among threatened languages. Toronto, ON: Random
House of Canada.
How to keep your language alive: A commonsense approach to one-on-one language learning
- Leanne Hinton
- Matt With
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Hinton, Leanne with Matt Vera and Nancy Steele. 2002. How to keep your language alive: A
commonsense approach to one-on-one language learning. Berkeley, CA: Heyday Books.
On biocultural diversity. Linking language, knowledge, and the environment
- Luisa Maffi
- Ed
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World Atlas of the world's languages in danger of disappearing
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Linguistic diversity, sustainability, and the future of the past Endangered and minority languages and language varieties: Defining, documenting and developing
- Suzanne Romaine
Second Technical Paper Series No. 2. A report compiled for Environment Australia Department of Environment and Heritage Canberra
- Mcconvell Patrick