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The Diversity of Life
... This type of writing is designed to engage the rational, intellectual aspects of cognition. In contrast, works of creative nonfiction such as Gore's "An Inconvenient Truth" [20] and Wilson's "The Diversity of Life" [21] are designed to engage the emotive, visceral aspects of cognition. ...
... An example from Wilson [21] will help illustrate the use of all these tools. Wilson begins a section of his book by relating a personal narrative: Grinding gears announced the approach of the truck sent to take me and two of the forest workers back to Manaus. ...
... 344) This sets up the scene, later in the book (in a passage too long to reproduce here) where the massive species extinction going on, caused by habitat destruction both directly and through climate change, is described as the removal of row upon row of books that exist nowhere else from a library and burning them in a gigantic bonfire, permanently extinguishing all the knowledge, experience, and beauty they contain. In this way, Wilson [21] translates scientific information into an essentially human drama that strongly impacts the emotions and, through them, the perceptions, beliefs, and values of his audience. ...
When it comes to science with significant potential social impacts, it is essential that scientists be able to communicate information effectively to non-scientists. This is especially true in the field of environmental science, where information is inherently action-oriented. To properly address issues such as global climate change, the communication of scientific information must engage not only the intellect but also the visceral and emotive dimensions of learning and decision-making. While conventional scientific communication (i.e., peer-reviewed articles and books, lectures) is not particularly effective in accessing these dimensions, the arts (i.e., visual and performing arts, creative writing) have long been known to be effective in communicating information so as to elicit social action. In this paper, we focus specifically on the impact of creative writing on global climate change communication and action. We review the efforts of authors of nonfiction, fiction, and poetry to engage the world so as to effectively respond to climate change. We then discuss the ways in which science and literature can work together to communicate the key issues and elicit social action to effectively address the problem.
... Remaining forests are often in fragmented patches within a matrix of other land uses (Young et al. 1995, Jokisch & Lair 2002, Williams-Linera 2002, Echeverr ıa et al. 2007. Moreover, montane cloud forest is typically dissected by mountain peaks and valleys, and patches are thus geographically isolated from one another and tend to show a high degree of species variation in space (Wilson 1992, Fjelds a et al. 1999, Sarmiento 2002, Legendre et al. 2005, Young 2009). ...
... But limiting our study to a narrow elevational range, no one factor was best correlated with variation. In the Intag region, forests at the same elevation are often isolated from one another by ridges, which act as barriers limiting plant seed dispersal and dispersers (Graham et al. 2010) thereby creating biotic isolation similar to islands (MacArthur 1967, Wilson 1992. This likely explains, in part, why our reserves are so different from one another: All except two are separated from each other by a ridge at least 400 m high (Fig. 1). ...
Montane tropical cloud forests, with their complex topography, biodiversity, high numbers of endemic species, and rapid rates of clearing, are a top global conservation priority. However, species distributions at local and landscape scales in cloud forests are still poorly understood, in part because few regions have been surveyed. Empirical work has focused on species distributions along elevation gradients, but spatial variation among forests at the same elevation is less commonly investigated. In this study, the first to compare tree communities across multiple Andean cloud forests at similar elevations, we surveyed trees in five ridge-top forest reserves at the upper end of the 'mid-elevation diversity bulge' (1900-2250 masl) in the Intag Valley, a heavily deforested region in the Ecuadorian Andes. We found that tree communities were distinct in reserves located as close as 10 to 35 km apart, and that spatially closer forests were not more similar to one another. Although larger (1500 to 6880 ha), more intact forests contained significantly more tree species (108-120 species/0.1 ha) than smaller (30 to 780 ha) ones (56-87 species/0.1 ha), each reserve had unique combinations of more common species, and contained high proportions of species not found in the others. Results thus suggest that protecting multiple cloud forest patches within this narrow elevational band is essential to conserve landscape-level tree diversity, and that even small forest reserves contribute significantly to biodiversity conservation. These findings can be applied to create management plans to conserve and restore cloud forests in the Andes and tropical montane cloud forests elsewhere.
... Among the terrestrial biomes, ecoregions falling within the tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests, temperate grasslands, Mediterranean shrublands, and temperate broadleaf and mixed forests are the most threatened. Virtually all biotas on small islands are vulnerable or critical/endangered due, in large part, to their limited habitat area and extreme sensitivity to anthropogenic disturbance and alien species (Raven, 1988;Wilson, 1988Wilson, , 1992WCMC, 1992;Sujatnika et al., 1995;Brooks et al., 1997;ReakaKudla et al., 1997). Island ecoregions are projected to experience a wave of extinctions over the next two decades given the fragility of island ecosystems, the sensitivity and endemicity of island species, and the severe threats native island biotas face worldwide. ...
... Among the terrestrial biomes, ecoregions falling within the tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests, temperate grasslands, Mediterranean shrublands, and temperate broadleaf and mixed forests are the most threatened. Virtually all biotas on small islands are vulnerable or critical/endangered due, in large part, to their limited habitat area and extreme sensitivity to anthropogenic disturbance and alien species (Raven, 1988;Wilson, 1988Wilson, , 1992WCMC, 1992;Sujatnika et al., 1995;Brooks et al., 1997;ReakaKudla et al., 1997). Island ecoregions are projected to experience a wave of extinctions over the next two decades given the fragility of island ecosystems, the sensitivity and endemicity of island species, and the severe threats native island biotas face worldwide. ...
A global strategy to conserve biodiversity must aim to protect representative examples of all of the world's ecosystems, as well as those areas that contain exceptional concentrations of species and endemics. Although lacking the richness of tropical forests, deserts, tropical lakes, and subpolar seas all contain distinct species, communities, and ecological phenomena. We analyzed global patterns of biodiversity to identify a set of the Earth's terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecoregions that harbor exceptional biodiversity and are representative of its ecosystems. We placed each of the Earth's ecoregions within a system of 30 biomes and biogeographic realms to facilitate a representation analysis. Biodiversity features were compared among ecoregions to assess their irreplaceability or distinctiveness. These features included species richness, endemic species, unusual higher taxa, unusual ecological or evolutionary phenomena, and the global rarity of habitats. This process yielded 238 ecoregions—the Global 200—comprised of 142 terrestrial, 53 freshwater, and 43 marine priority ecoregions. Effective conservation in this set of ecoregions would help conserve the most outstanding and representative habitats for biodiversity on this planet.
... Levels of biodiversity vary dramatically around the world, with some regions, especially in the tropics, accounting for a disproportionate amount of earth's species (Forsyth & Miyata 1984). Quantifying such global variation in biodiversity is an important goal of biology and is vital to channeling conservation efforts effectively (Wilson 1999). However, because inventorying biodiversity, especially marine biodiversity, is costly, difficult, and time consuming (Vargas & Cortés 2006, Solan et al. 2009), there is great value in simple metrics that can reliably indicate a given region's biodiversity and that can be efficiently gathered (Wilson 1999). ...
... Quantifying such global variation in biodiversity is an important goal of biology and is vital to channeling conservation efforts effectively (Wilson 1999). However, because inventorying biodiversity, especially marine biodiversity, is costly, difficult, and time consuming (Vargas & Cortés 2006, Solan et al. 2009), there is great value in simple metrics that can reliably indicate a given region's biodiversity and that can be efficiently gathered (Wilson 1999). ...
Cuantificar la variación de la biodiversidad es un objetivo importante
de la biología. Sin embargo, debido a que tales inventarios, en especial
para la biodiversidad marina, son costosos, difíciles y consumen
mucho tiempo, hay un gran valor en indicadores simples que permitan
determinar la biodiversidad de una región determinada de manera
eficiente. Hicimos un inventario de las conchas usadas como casas
móviles terrestres por los cangrejos ermitaños (Coenobita compressus)
en la Península de Osa, Costa Rica, un “punto álgido” de biodiversidad.
Se registraron 41 especies, el mayor número registrado en cualquier
población de cangrejos ermitaños. Proponemos que la “diversidad del
mercado de vivienda” en los cangrejos ermitaños puede proporcionar
un índice de biodiversidad ecosistémica conveniente, lo que podría
facilitar las comparaciones entre sitios.
ABSTRACT
Quantifying variation in biodiversity is an important goal of biology.
However, because inventorying biodiversity, especially marine
biodiversity, is costly, difficult, and time consuming, there is great value
in simple metrics that can reliably indicate a given region’s biodiversity
and that can be efficiently gathered. We inventoried shells used as
portable houses by terrestrial hermit crabs (Coenobita compressus) in
Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica, a biodiversity hotspot. Forty-one species were
recorded, the largest number registered for any hermit crab population.
We propose that housing market diversity in hermit crabs might provide
a convenient biodiversity index of ecosystems, potentially facilitating
comparisons across different sites.
... Their habitat's disappearance and pesticide spreading are deleterious for them, among other factors [15]. In the last 2000 years 20% or more aerial dinosaur species have disappeared by man-bound interventions [15] and about 50% of the extant species are currently being reduced by the same cause [20]. ...
Birds are considered dinosaurs that passed the 65 million years ago bottleneck. Songbirds (Passeriformes) include about half extant bird species (about 5000) and are generally the most air-thriving bird species, concordantly with their small size. Mayor Histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules stimulate immune responses against microbes and its class I molecules have seven conserved residues in all vertebrates from jawed-fishes, 300 million years ago, to humans, including chickens. All wild songbird species tested by us (n=18) and others (n= 2) differ in α1 domain residue 10 and α2 residue 96 from all other vertebrates. Amplification, cloning and sequencing were performed by standard methods. Sequences alignment were done by using PAUP and MEGA programs software. Crystallographic studies were performed by using mammal and bird MHC molecules from MPID database and other sources and showed that these changes did not significantly vary the MHC class I molecule stability in songbirds. Further α1 and α2 domain comparisons by simple Composition Distances and Bayesian Inference showed that songbirds overall MHC class I molecules are phylogenetically more separated from mammal than other birds molecules. In addition MHC class I introns from Passeriformes (songbirds) were found to be longer than humans, chicken introns being the shortest ones. These small mainly airborne dinosaurs (Passeriformes) have undergone a different evolutive pathway, regarding to MHC, than all other tested vertebrates and more terrestrial birds. This may have been originated by an altogether different dinosaurs linage origin or to adaptation to more aerial than terrestrial environment or other unknown cause. In any case, the specific changes observed in this work for class I molecules in songbirds have reached a entropic, stable solution similar to that reached by other vertebrates.
... There are several perspectives from which to consider biodiversity (Wilson 1992; Wü rtz & Annila 2008), I have presented a simple method for detecting and measuring diversity of a vegetation system from the perspective of similarity theory as introduced in vegetation ecology by Feoli and Orló ci (2011). This perspective allows a great flexibility in calculating the diversity of vegetation systems since it constructs the classes of VUs that represent the richness and the heterogeneity of the system according to their similarity according any kind of characters we are considering useful to understand the vegetation structure and functions and its changes in space and time. ...
In this article, I suggest a simple method, based on similarity theory that can be used to generate diversity patterns of vegetation systems at different hierarchical levels of their description. It is a very flexible method that measures the diversity according to hierarchical classifications of vegetation units (VUs) sampled from the vegetation system under study. The VUs may be either individual plants or vegetation relevès (preferably of the Braun Blanquet approach). It follows that the diversity measures of a vegetation system can be “individual plant based diversity measures” or “plant community based diversity measures”. The two kinds of measures of vegetation diversity are complementary and the choice to calculate both or a single one of them depends on the aim of the study.
... Angiosperms or plants with flowers encompass approximately a sixth of all known plants and insects almost two-thirds of the animal species ( Wilson 1992). These two major taxonomic groups dominate the Earth's flora and fauna, and their interactions form key processes in terrestrial ecosystems. ...
Biotic interactions may shape deeply the structure of ecological communities and ecosystem functioning since species are interconnected in a direct and indirect manner through a complex web of interactions. Species are usually engaged in antagonistic or mutualistic networks. Two of the most studied plant–plant interactions are competition and facilitation which represent in turn negative and positive interactions; both have been described as drivers in arid and semiarid vegetation structure. In addition, plant–animal interactions such as pollination and seed dispersal (frugivory) have been described as responsible for distribution patterns of many plant species especially in desert ecosystems, such as Cactaceae species. Abiotic interactions are not less important, limited water supply has driven plants to a habitat specialization evolution, physical and chemical soil properties play a determinant role explaining plant distribution, plants influence soil at a local scale, and soil influences vegetation at landscape scale. Three environmental gradients have been detected as the factors influencing vegetation at El Huizache, San Luis Potosí, landscape characteristics (recognized as the most important group of variables), climate, and soil. Among plant species living in arid and semiarid regions of Mexico, Cactaceae family is the most emblematic group; this group of species has a great number of endemic; for this reason, it is considered as a priority in terms of biological conservation; in Mexico, this group has several risks such as over-exploitation, changes in land use, fragmentation of habitats, and the reduction in the populations causing many species to become extinct.
... One of the most frequently applied tree-based methods for species discovery is the General Mixed Yule Coalescent (GMYC), which estimates a threshold in an ultrametric phylogenetic tree that represents the point of transition between coalescent and diversification processes (Esselstyn et al., 2012;Fujisawa and Barraclough, 2013;Kekkonen and Hebert, 2014;Lang et al., 2015;Papadopoulou et al., 2008;Parnmen et al., 2012;Pons et al., 2006). Intraspecific variation is associated with coalescent process, represented by the most recent common ancestor of all alleles of a lineage, whereas interspecific variation occurs during diversification events when lineages are separating from each other (Kingman, 1982;Wilson, 1992). The method verifies the change in branching pattern that could correspond to a threshold between inter specific and intra specific variation, i.e., the point of transition between speciation and coalescent processes (Pons et al., 2006). ...
The use of genetic data and tree-based algorithms to delimit evolutionary lineages is becoming an important practice in taxonomic identification, especially in morphologically cryptic groups. The effects of different phylogenetic and/or coalescent models in the analyses of species delimitation, however, are not clear. In this paper, we assess the impact of different evolutionary priors in phylogenetic estimation, species delimitation, and molecular dating of the genus Oligoryzomys (Mammalia: Rodentia), a group with complex taxonomy and morphological cryptic species. Phylogenetic and coalescent analyses included 20 of the 24 recognized species of the genus, comprising of 416 Cytochrome b sequences, 26 Cytochrome c oxidase I sequences, and 27 Beta-Fibrinogen Intron 7. For species delimitation, we employed the General Mixed Yule Coalescent (GMYC) and Bayesian Poisson tree processes (bPTP) analyses, and contrasted 4 genealogical and phylogenetic models: Pure-birth (Yule), Constant Population Size Coalescent, Multiple Species Coalescent, and a mixed Yule-Coalescent model. GMYC analyses of trees from different genealogical models resulted in similar species delimitation and phylogenetic relationships, with incongruence restricted to areas of poor nodal support. bPTP results, however, significantly differed from GMYC for 5 taxa. Oligoryzomys early diversification was estimated to have occurred in the Early Pleistocene, between 0.7 and 2.6 MYA. The mixed Yule-Coalescent model, however, recovered younger dating estimates for Oligoryzomys diversification, and for the threshold for the speciation-coalescent horizon in GMYC. Eight of the 20 included Oligoryzomys species were identified as having two or more independent evolutionary units, indicating that current taxonomy of Oligoryzomys is still unsettled.
... The marine metazoan fauna first diversified in the early Cambrian around 540 million years (Myr) ago, but continental (terrestrial and freshwater) environments were not colonized by the descendants of these taxa until at least 100 Myr later (Labandeira 2005;Wilson 2010). The crustacean order Isopoda is one of the groups of organisms that have successfully colonized multiple environments, including continental environments. ...
The marine metazoan fauna first diversified in the early Cambrian, but terrestrial environments were not colonized until at least 100 million years later. Among the groups of organisms that successfully colonized land is the crustacean order Isopoda. Of the 10,000 described isopod species, ~ 3,600 species from the suborder Oniscidea are terrestrial. Although it is widely thought that isopods colonized land only once, some studies have failed to confirm the monophyly of Oniscidea. To infer the evolutionary relationships among isopod lineages, we conducted phylogenetic analyses of nuclear 18S and 28S and mitochondrial COI genes using maximum-likelihood and Bayesian methods. We also analyzed a second data set comprising all of the mitochondrial protein-coding genes from a smaller sample of isopod taxa. Based on our analyses using a relaxed molecular clock, we dated the origin of terrestrial isopods at 289.5 million years ago (95% credibility interval 219.6–358.9 million years ago). These predate the known fossil record of these taxa and coincide with the formation of the supercontinent Pangaea and with the diversification of vascular plants on land. Our results suggest that the terrestrial environment has been colonized more than once by isopods. The monophyly of the suborder Oniscidea was not supported in any of our analyses, conflicting with classical views based on morphology. This draws attention to the need for further work on this group of isopods.
... Local competitive and trophic interactions have to be studied in a metacommunity context as communities on habitat patches that are connected with each other by dispersal ( Amarasekare and Nisbet, 2001;Holyoak et al., 2005;Leibold et al., 2004). Metacommunity theory has increasingly gained attention since the 1990s ( Wilson, 1992) and amends classical ecological theory by acknowledging the spatial dynamics of species and alleviating the assumption that local communities are regulated by local niche processes alone ( Hillebrand and Blenckner, 2002;Leibold et al., 2004;Shurin and Allen, 2001). To date few field experiments have tried to investigate its basic principles despite the importance of habitat fragmentation and shifting species ranges with climate change ( Logue et al., 2011;Grainger and Gilbert, 2016). ...
Shallow tidal coasts are characterised by shifting tidal flats and emerging or eroding islands above the high tide line. Salt marsh vegetation colonising new habitats distant from existing marshes are an ideal model to investigate metacommunity theory. We installed a set of 12 experimental salt marsh islands made from metal cages on a tidal flat in the German Wadden Sea to study the assembly of salt marsh communities in a metacommunity context. Experimental plots at the same elevation were established within the adjacent salt marsh on the island of Spiekeroog. For both, experimental islands and salt marsh enclosed plots, the same three elevational levels were realised while creating bare patches open for colonisation and vegetated patches with a defined transplanted community. One year into the experiment, the bare islands were colonised by plant species with high fecundity although with a lower frequency compared to the salt marsh enclosed bare plots. Initial plant community variations due to species sorting along the inundation gradient were evident in the transplanted vegetation. Competitive exclusion was not observed and is only expected to unfold in the coming years. Our study highlights that spatially and temporally explicit metacommunity dynamics should be considered in salt marsh plant community assembly and disassembly.
... The primary lowland forests in the Southeast Asian (SEA) tropics are characterized by the extremely species-rich biodiversity (Whitmore 1998). Arthropod assemblages comprise the main part of the biodiversity in tropical rainforests (Erwin 1982, Wilson 1992. Many inventory studies have been done focusing on various arthropod taxa to reveal the species-richness of arthropod assemblages in SEA tropical rainforests (e.g. ...
Data of butterflies collected in Lambir Hills National Park, Malaysia in Borneo, and its surrounding areas since 1996 are presented. In addition, the data of observation for several species witnessed but not caught are also presented. In total, 347 butterfly species are listed with biological information (habitat etc.) when available.
... A second network, closely intertwined with the first one, consisted of a transnational community of scientists, with E. O. Wilson acting as primus inter pares. This network developed the conceptual framework of biodiversity as understood in the CBD (Wilson 1989(Wilson , 1992Wilson and Peter 1988). Referring to its dominant disciplinary orientation, we might characterize it as the conservation biology network (Soulé 1985). ...
The term “biodiversity” is often used to describe phenomena of nature, which can be studied without a reference to the socially constructed, evaluative, or indeed normative contexts. In our paper, we challenge this conception by focusing particularly on methodological aspects of biodiversity research. We thereby engage with the idea of interdisciplinary biodiversity research as a scientific approach directed at the recognition and management of contemporary society in its ecological embedding. By doing this, we explore how research on and assessments of biodiversity can be enhanced if meaning, aspiration, desires, and related aspects of agency are methodically taken into account. In six sections, we substantiate our claim that the discourse on biodiversity (including the IPBES (Intergovernmental science-policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services) debate) is incomplete without contributions from the social sciences and humanities. In the introduction, a brief overview of biodiversity’s conceptual history is provided showing that “biodiversity” is a lexical invention intended to create a strong political momentum. However, that does not impede its usability as a research concept. Section 2 examines the origins of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) by way of sociological discourse analysis. Subsequently, it proposes a matrix as a means to structure the ambiguities and tensions inherent in the CBD. The matrix reemphasizes our main thesis regarding the need to bring social and ethical expertise to the biodiversity discourse. In Section 3, we offer a brief sketch of the different methods of the natural and social sciences as well as ethics. This lays the groundwork for our Section 4, which explains and illustrates what social sciences and ethics can contribute to biodiversity research. Section 5 turns from research to politics and argues that biodiversity governance necessitates deliberative discourses in which participation of lay people plays an important role. Section 6 provides our conclusions.
... One of the most important components of alternative Medicine is herbal medicine [3]. The link between herbs and modern pharmacology is so close that as many as 40% of the prescribed medicines dispensed in the US contain at least one active ingredient derived from herbs [4]. The vast majorities of these drugs are either made from plant extracts or synthesized to mimic a natural plant compound [2] . ...
Herbal medicine has been an age long tradition for the treatment and curing of diseases globally. Previous studies on telediagnostic and prescription of orthodox medicine have been examined using the application of modern technology device to improve health care services. In spite of this, there is yet an exhaustive study on the integration of technological framework for telediagnosis and prescription in herbal medicine. Therefore, this research focused on development of collaborative teleconsultation and telediagnosis in sharing of information on herbal medication for patients in remote areas to improve healthcare delivery. WAVA based collaborative framework was designed for telediagnosis and prescription in herbal medicine, it has multimedia features for videoconferencing, and ability to record, capture and replay consultations with the capacity for edit, data compression and short messages (sms) between the teleconsultants. The framework study the propagation time, link media delay, packet loss, processing delay between all (tele-herbal consultant 1, 2, 3…n) connected to the system. Each herbal tele-consultant was aloted with peer IP address in order to join the telediagnosis videoconference from their remote areas. The framework displays paradigms for data acquisition on herbal medications, video-recording, and imagery of patients. The integration of this collaborative framework enhanced telediagnosis of patients with better prescriptions on effective herbal drugs for speedy recovery.
... Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), renowned for their remarkable diversity and ecological significance [1], typically display extraordinary collective behavior [2]. A key question in evolutionary neurobiology concerns how ant sociality, ecology, and the ability to make accurate group decisions have impacted their brain structure The emergence of eusociality and social complexity are major novelties likely involving rapid behavioral changes that might be reflected in the anatomy of the brain [3,4], although this idea has been controversial [5,6]. ...
... As scientific and spiritual fields continue to develop broader understandings of our existence, one thread continues to connect humanity: the appreciation of natural biodiversity stemming from evolution (Wilson, 1999). As over-consumption runs rampant in modern society, it is important to consider the environmental conservationist argument as stated by Wilson (2006): ...
... The above two proximate mechanisms are not mutually exclusive, however, and they might often act in concert to promote the evolution of ecological character displacement (Pfennig & Pfennig, 2012b). Indeed, character displacement might often evolve from an initial phase in which trait divergence is environmentally induced to a later phase in which this divergence becomes genetically canalized (Wilson, 1992). Such a process might come about if: 1) underlying genetic variation exists in the tendency or manner in which individuals respond to interspecific competition (i.e., if different genotypes exhibit different reaction norms); 2) selection acts on this variation and, by promoting quantitative genetic changes, refines these induced resource-use traits over time (a process known as 'genetic accommodation'; sensu West-Eberhard, 2003); and 3) under recurrent selection to minimize interspecific competition, such environmentally induced resource-use traits eventually evolve to become 'fixed' in the population. ...
Ecological character displacement is considered crucial in promoting diversification, yet relatively little is known of its underlying mechanisms. We examined whether evolutionary shifts in gene expression plasticity ('genetic accommodation') mediate character displacement in spadefoot toads. Where Spea bombifrons and S. multiplicata occur separately in allopatry (the ancestral condition), each produces alternative, diet-induced, larval ecomorphs: omnivores, which eat detritus, and carnivores, which specialize on shrimp. By contrast, where these two species occur together in sympatry (the derived condition), selection to minimize competition for detritus has caused S. bombifrons to become nearly fixed for producing only carnivores, suggesting that character displacement might have arisen through an extreme form of genetic accommodation ('genetic assimilation') in which plasticity is lost. Here, we asked if we could infer a signature of this process in regulatory changes of specific genes. In particular, we investigated whether genes that are normally expressed more highly in one morph ('biased' genes) have evolved reduced plasticity in expression levels among S. bombifrons from sympatry compared to S. bombifrons from allopatry. We reared individuals from sympatry vs. allopatry on detritus vs. shrimp and measured the reaction norms of nine biased genes. Although different genes displayed different patterns of gene regulatory evolution, the combined gene expression profiles revealed that sympatric individuals had indeed lost the diet-induced gene expression plasticity present in allopatric individuals. Our data therefore provide one of the few examples from natural populations in which genetic accommodation/assimilation can be traced to regulatory changes of specific genes. Such genetic accommodation might mediate character displacement in many systems. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... In this paper we have taken issue with the anthropocentric hierarchy that prioritises human interests and concerns over those of nonhuman animal subjects who are continuously taken for granted as resources, accorded a subordinate status, denied agency and rights, and subjected to pain and suffering in the cause of a humanly-constituted problematic notion of 'progress' (Peggs 2009), the pursuit of which has led to a relentlessly transformative and resourceintensive way of life and the prospect of the extinction of around half of all nonhuman animal and plant species by the end of the twenty-first century (Wilson 1994). What is now required is 'a seismic cultural shift' to liberate nonhuman animals, to transform their status and achieve a 'shift from animals as objects to animals as subjects', to accord them moral and legal status, to recognise their preferences and desires, to not expose them to suffering and pain, and to respect their right to live (Best 2002;Best 2014). ...
Each year millions of nonhuman animals are exposed to suffering in universities as they are routinely (ab)used in teaching and research in the natural sciences. Drawing on the work of Giroux and Derrida, we make the case for a critical pedagogy of nonhuman animal suffering. We discuss critical pedagogy as an underrepresented form of teaching in universities, consider suffering as a concept, and explore the pedagogy of suffering. The discussion focuses on the use of nonhuman animal subjects in universities, in particular in teaching, scientific research, and associated experiments. We conclude that a critical pedagogy of nonhuman animal suffering has the capacity to contribute to the establishment of a practical animal ethics conducive to the constitution of a radically different form of social life able to promote a more just and non-speciesist future in which nonhuman animals are not used as resources in scientific research in universities.
... Los bosques están entre los ecosistemas terrestres más diversos del planeta y son el habitat de comunidades complejas de plantas, animales y microorganismos. Los bosques tropicales, en particular, albergan a más de la mitad de la biodiversidad terrestre mundial [1,2] y además contienen la mayoría de los sitios clave de biodiversidad del mundo [3] . Esta biodiversidad sustenta los importantes servicios ecosistémicos que los bosques ofrecen, tales como la captura de carbono y la protección de cuencas hidrográficas [4,5] . ...
... All these organisms, in turn, interact with one another in numerous different ways within the varied and evolving ecosystems of the world. Although we cannot say that nature " wants " greater biodiversity or that our world was fated to evolve as it did, the long-term trend has been a richer and richer biosphere (Wilson, 2010). And as far as we know, no single species has ever significantly reduced planetary-level biological diversity—until now. ...
If we want a whole Earth, Nature Needs Half: a response to Büscher et al. - Philip Cafaro, Tom Butler, Eileen Crist, Paul Cryer, Eric Dinerstein, Helen Kopnina, Reed Noss, John Piccolo, Bron Taylor, Carly Vynne, Haydn Washington
... 1995;Longino and Colwell 1997). The importance and diversity of insects in tropical systems suggests that they hold great promise for illuminating patterns and processes of biological diversification (Wilson 1992). Since the Hymenoptera Aculeata are known to be bioindicators, sensitive to environmental change (Tscharntke et al . ...
The global decline in biodiversity has been mainly attributed to the expansion of agricultural areas that transform continuous forest ecosystems into mosaic landscapes of simple agricultural and natural forest fragments. Considering this, the objective of this research was to evaluate if habitat modification affects trap nesting bees and wasps richness and abundance. An assemblage of bees and wasps that nest in pre-existing cavities was studied. The tested hypothesis was that species composition, richness and evenness are affected with habitat modification. Trap nests with different diameters were used to capture these insects in forests and in organic fields in Southern Brazil. Species composition in these areas was different, which led to the acceptance of the hypothesis that it is affected with habitat modification. The opposite occurred with alpha diversity because there was no significant difference between the richness of these areas. The most abundant genus, both in the forest areas and in the growing areas, was Trypoxylon, suggesting that the degree of impact on the Araucaria forest fragments is one of the factors that makes the diversity of these areas similar (in addition to the organic fields) since wasps of this genus usually occur in impacted areas.
... Further, our results support the exceptional capacity of old-growth 392 forests to allow the expression of contrasted ecologies at very fine scales, due to natural dynamics 393 of gaps (Fournier et al. 2012). Indeed, in old-growth forests more than any other environment, the the persistence of all stages of wood decay at the scale of forest patches, which in turn allows a 396 continuous beginning of new ecological successions(Wilson 1999).397 The probability of occurrence of X. subpileatus basidiomes on the one hand, and the fruiting 398 patterns of both litter saprobic and ectomycorrhizal macromycetes on the other hand, show opposite 399 patterns during gap closure(Fig. ...
Documenting succession in forest canopy gaps provides insights into the ecological processes governing the temporal dynamics of species within communities. We analyzed the fruiting patterns of a rare but widely distributed saproxylic macromycete, Xylobolus subpileatus, during the ageing of natural canopy gaps in oak forests. In one of the last remaining Quercus ilex L. old-growth forests (on the island of Corsica, western Mediterranean basin), we systematically recorded and conducted molecular analyses of X. subpileatus basidiomes in 80 dated natural canopy gaps representing a 45-year long sequence of residence time of tree logs on the forest floor. Xylobolus subpileatus fruited exclusively on Q. ilex logs. The probability of fruiting of X. subpileatus significantly increases during the process of wood decomposition to reach its maximum in the oldest gaps, approximately 40 years after treefall. In contrast, the abundance and the richness of saprobic and ectomycorrhizal fruitbodies decrease as canopy gaps age. Our results emphasize the high ecological specialization of X. subpileatus. They also highlight the imperative need to conserve the last patches of old-growth Mediterranean forests to secure the persistence of this endangered and functionally unique macromycete whose presence is highly dependent on old wood in advanced stages of decomposition.
... In the literature of deforestation, soil degradation, loss of biodiversity, food scarcity, underdevelopment and global warming, the concern with population pressure is ubiquitous. Scholars mostly focus on overpopulation when it comes to resource use ( Wilson, 1992;Avise, 1994;Nimai and Debnarayan, 2001;Cochet, 2004). Two themes in the literature about overpopulation merit a critical view: the concern with population growth in the developing world and issues with activities of the numerous small producers that exploit land. ...
Recent distressing trends in climate change, population explosion and deforestation have inspired this paper, which completes the existing literature by providing empirical justification to hypothetical initiatives on the impact of population growth on forest sustainability in Africa. Using three instruments of forest exploitation, the study shows how rural, agricultural and national population growths affect forest-area and agricultural-land. In this particular study, the findings indicate that instruments of forest exploitation do not explain changes in forest-area and agricultural-land beyond population growth mechanisms. Hence, population growth channels are a major driving force by which forest-area and agricultural-land are depleted and expanded, respectively. As a policy implication in the process of deforestation, a balanced approach is needed to take account of the interests of both; a green economy promoting sustainable development and the growing population needs.
... Although the large scale effects of human disturbances on forest veget ation have been very much high lighted, yet little literature is available on the smaller scale effe ct s o f dist ur ba nc es o n H imalayan vegetation in general and Kashmir region in particular (Babu et al., 1984). The impact of the increasing biotic factors on the forest d ive r s it y influe nc es t he e co syst em functioning (Wilson, 1992). Shankeracharya forest ecosyst em has been designated as one of the reserved and protected forest ecosystem of the valley in t h e clo s e p r o ximit y o f S r ina ga r cit y, p r o v id in g a r ich var ie t y o f fo r e st bioresources, still it is subjected to some major biotic interferences in the form of varied anthropogenic pressures like forest fires, defo r est at io n, t o urism act ivit ies, fragmentatio n of ecosystem due t o road co ns t r u c t io n mak ing vehic ular t r a ffic po ssible, and inhabit at ion of t he upper reaches by security forces which bring doom to the fragile ecosystem. ...
An unfavorable alteration in the condition and composition of Dal lake due to nutrient loading has made it less suitable in its natural state. Enhanced nutrient loading is most clearly reflected by increased macrophytic growth. Macrophytes form an important part of a Lake Ecosystem, but when these grow in excess the lake activities get hampered. The present study deals with Nymphoides peltatum as the indicator of excessive nutrient loading in the anthropogenically impacted waters of Dal lake – Kashmir. The entire study period was divided into two phases i.e. peak growth phase and senescence phase. The concentration of biomolecules was found maximum in the Nymphoides peltatum of site 1 which was most polluted or nutritionally rich, also the concentration decreased from peak growth phase to senescence phase. The study has shown a positive correlation between nutrient load in form of N and P and concentration of various biomolecules resulting in the increased biomass development.
... In the first instance, we can say that in the absence of scientific understanding of a system or potential impact of human activity, the way forward should assume that ecosystem injury will result. In essence, we repeat Wilson's (1992) recommendation that the default position should be to assume that natural systems have unmeasured value and that they deserve protection lest we risk losing these benefits. If the theory-application gap is caused by the lag in testing theory, or a lack of data availability, then we should adopt the precautionary principle and act now to minimize environmental harm while the science catches up with the applied concern. ...
... La perte de biodiversité est aujourd'hui une évidence qui attire de plus en plus l'attention des scientifiques et depuis plus récemment, également celle du grand public (Wilson, 1992). Tous les taxons sont concernés par la crise d'extinction en cours, mais les reptiles et les amphibiens font actuellement partie des espèces les plus menacées à l'échelle mondiale (Baillie & Groombridge, 1996;Baillie et al., 2004), et leur diminution, rapide, est observée depuis les années 1980 (Stuart et al., 2004). ...
MÉMOIRE présenté par PRIOL Pauline pour l'obtention du Diplôme de l'École Pratique des Hautes Études Suivi d'une espèce rare en vue de sa conservation: dynamique spatiale et temporelle de populations de Pélobate cultripède (Pelobates cultripes) en Aquitaine soutenu le 27/11/2015 devant le jury suivant : M. DELESALLE Bruno – Président M. BESNARD Aurélien – Tuteur scientifique et pédagogique M. EGGERT Christophe – Rapporteur M. CROCHET Pierre-André – Examinateur Mme JOURDAN Hélène – Examinateur Mémoire préparé sous la direction de : M. BESNARD Aurélien Laboratoire de Biogéographie et Ecologie des Vertébrés, directeur: M. MIAUD Claude Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes UMR 5175-Centre d'Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive 1919, Route de Mende 34293 Montpellier cedex 5-France
... They have a strong interaction with environmental conditions [5,11,12] thus; this faunal component has been frequently used in environmental quality assessment [6]. Invertebrates are functionally important in many terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems [4,[13][14][15][16]. Aquatic invertebrates play important roles within their ecosystems, while also providing valuable data for humans to use. ...
This study assessed the diversity of aquatic invertebrates in Wazo Hill quarry ponds that are formed during
extraction of raw materials for cement production. The study used invertebrates as important indicator species so as
to reveal the importance of the ponds to biodiversity and ecosystem. Temperatures (°C), pH, conductivity (µS.cm-1)
and dissolved oxygen (mg.L-1) were taken at each sampling site during biological sampling. Generally the
abundance and diversity of invertebrates at Wazo Hill ponds was found to be good. This indicates that the ponds are
very important for biodiversity and ecosystem conservation, but also can provide business and education
opportunities
... tree, shrub or grass) with birds may enable more accurate predictions of bird species abundance and distributions. Despite the importance of these measures, no study has yet examined the relationship between them within the tropical forest in Indian sub-continent, which holds both highest species richness and the highest numbers of threatened taxa (Wilson 1992, Anon 2000). The species diversity and ecosystem resilience have been found positively correlated in many studies (Khan and Pant 2016). ...
Khan MS. 2017. Effect of forest composition on bird species abundance in tropical dry deciduous forest: A case of Bhimbandh Wildlife Sanctuary, India. Biodiversitas 18: 78-85. The tropical dry deciduous forest (TDDF) with 38.2% of total forest cover in India forms the largest forest type of India. TDDF have been managed for centuries in the Indian subcontinent. However, so far it is not clear how different forest compositions and structures influence the abundance and the distribution patterns of faunal species vice versa. To provide further insights in this respect, we analysed how different habitat variables influence the abundance and diversity of forest birds. The difference in relative species abundances and habitat separation between forest specialist and generalist birds was also investigated. Different classes of bird density were discriminated with habitat variables. In general, it was found that higher bird densities were concentrated in the lower tree and shrub densities and diversities, however, high grass density and diversity with low tree density and diversity favoured the overall high bird density. Results further indicate the positive association of relative density of specialist bird species with the high grass density and diversity and low tree density and diversity. Specialists occurred in the lower relative densities (0.75±0.68) than that of generalists (0.86±0.69) and were found restricted to dense, pristine woody forest patches with high tree diversity.
Keywords: Bhimbandh Wildlife Sanctuary, birds, Forest Composition, India, Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest
... The impact of exotic species has been reported as one of the most important factors, together with habitat destruction, contributing to declines in native species abundance (Wilson 1992). Invasions by nonnative ants are ecologically destructive, affecting both continental and island ecosystems throughout the world. ...
The pharaoh ant, Monomorium pharaonis (L.), is a well-known adventive and invasive indoor pest species. Although this species is very common in temperate Europe, it has been previously recorded in Romania only in Bucharest. We present new records of this species from four additional sites in Romania: Cluj-Napoca, Miercurea Ciuc, Oradea, and Sibiu. This species poses potential public health risks in Romania.
... La diversité biologique a connu cinq grandes vagues d'extinction depuis l'apparition de la vie sur terre, résultats d'évènements naturels (Wilson, 1992). Une sixième vague d'extinction est actuellement en cours avec un rythme de disparition de 50 à 560 fois supérieur aux précédentes (Smith et al., 1993;Harrison et Pearce, 2000;Teyssèdre, 2004) (Blondel, 2002). ...
Neolitsea sericea is acclimated to arid islands, but few studies have examined its responses to water stress. To look into the defending responses that assist N. sericea seedlings to survive drought, physiological and transcriptomic analysis of leaves was conducted after drought was induced. Over 17,768,244 reads for each sample were generated, totalling over 4400 million base pairs (bp). Among 129,239 unigenes that were assembly yielded with an average length of 816 bp, 51,137 of them (39.6%) were annotated successfully. Under severe drought, physiological inhibition was strengthened and abscisic acid content was significantly upregulated. The responses were strongly accompanied by transcriptional regulation of genes participating in stress perception, protective signalling, hormone metabolism, transcription factors, abiotic stress, transport, and degradation. In total, 61, 65, and 67 differentially expressed genes were identified after 12, 24, and 72 h exposure to severe drought stress, respectively. Gene Ontology and MapMan functional enrichment analysis revealed that the most upregulated genes were involved in protein transport, the regulation of transcription, and miscellaneous enzyme families. In addition, genes that encode glycosyl transferase and UDP-glycosyltransferases may modulate the drought-stress responses of N. sericea. Multiple hormones were active in N. sericea leaves during drought stress, including those associated with auxins, abscisic acid, brassinosteroid, and cytokinins. Transcription factors, including AtbHLH112, AtCOL4, AtZFP3, AtCIR1, and AtCCA1, may participate in ABA signal transduction in drought-treated N. sericea. The present study elucidates how N. sericea make transcriptomic responses to drought stress, helping to reveal the molecular mechanisms connected to drought adaptation.
Fogel and North, both of them old radicals in the 1950s, received the Nobel Memorial Prize in 1993 for their advocacy—and practice—during the 1960s and 1970s of quantitative methods and especially of basic economic thinking in the study of the economic past. Both were scientific giants, and great teachers and advocates. But even giants make mistakes, and in both cases the mistakes became more evident in the decades after they received the glittering prize. Fogel’s late-career studies of health and welfare, though admirably serious examples of applied economics right to the end, were less scientifically pioneering than his work on railways or slavery. North’s much more influential advocacy—and very much less his practice—of neo-institutionalism, by contrast, was probably a scientific error. Fogel realized more and more the salience of ethics in the economy, and even taught (philosophically unsophisticated) courses on business ethics. North drifted further and further from the essentially ethical underpinnings of an innovative economy, speaking of “brain science” rather than the mind-scanning equipment of the humanities, and led his many followers in the drift.
Some materials may have more agency than we might imagine or wish. This was the radical proposal of E.O. Wilson more than three decades ago in Biophilia (1984). Evolutionary biologists have long speculated about the genetic roots of both our affinity with and our acrimony to nature, and ecocritics have been quick to fix on biophilia as a tenet of environmental salvation. The obverse side has won less favor. But the cheerful picture of a world run by biophilic impulses is as fanciful and inaccurate as utopic visions of a world without anger or evil. Irrational fears of snakes and darkness, for starters, are evolution-based ecophobia at play. I will review in this article what sorts of attempts ecocritics have made to reconcile our material animality and genetic inheritance with the production of literature. Such work has been described by Judith Heerwagen and Gordon H. Orians as “both futile and ideologically dangerous,” and sometimes with good reason (which I will get into in detail in the article). One of the things that quickly becomes apparent is that without verifiable data, virtually every ecocritical reading or theory we do amounts to little more than what Richard Lewontin calls “an exercise in plausible story telling rather than a science of testable hypotheses.” One of the ways to avoid this without becoming a mouthpiece for the sciences is to recognize that behavioral traits, though often shared, are contextual and individual, meaning that any kind of empirical or systemic analysis must also be case-by-case and not reducible to the kind of templates that are, perhaps, more pleasing to literary critics. Maybe we can plop deconstruction or new historicism down on any old text, but material ecocriticism of the sort I am proposing here is a much more painstaking endeavor. With a keen eye trained on the dangers of “literary Darwinism” (and all that it both entails and promises), I will argue that studying the genetic roots of ecophobia offers to explain (consonant with evolutionary psychology) how adaptive behaviors to a material world in which we no longer live function. This work is crucial if we are to understand how we got into our current environmental crisis, why we seem unable to get out of it, and why biophilic theorizing alone hasn’t answered and never will answer these questions.
When considering the topic of biobanking, it is natural to think first about the collection, storage and use of human biomaterials, a process now considered essential for addressing many diseases and medical conditions. But for more than 25 years, systematic gathering and cryo-storage of biomaterials from diverse wild species have been ongoing to save gene diversity and improve captive (ex situ) and wild (in situ) animal management. Whereas repositories for humans generally are highly specialized toward a targeted medical issue, cryo-storage of non-human biomaterials offers broader opportunities—from helping understand the fundamental biology of unstudied species to enhanced conservation breeding, genomics and veterinary medicine. While promoted for decades, the banking of germplasm, tissue, blood and DNA from wildlife species only recently has been considered by some to be a core function of animal conservation programs. There are commonalities between human and wildlife biobanking programs, including similar needs to harmonize sample and data collection, management and most effective use as well as finding ways to be financially sustainable. We argue here for the need to build bridges between these two ‘repository worlds’, sharing what we do, addressing the substantial remaining challenges and considering the advantages of a bigger, more integrated field of global biobanking science to benefit humans, diverse species and the planet.
Improved understanding of the mechanisms that drive the generation, maintenance, and loss of species diversity is among the primary objectives of ecology. The niche-partitioning concept provided an early explanation for species coexistence and diversity. A growing body of theoretical research has demonstrated that dynamic processes operating across a range of (i) biological levels of organization (individuals, species, and communities) and (ii) spatio-temporal scales create the “niches” that permit species coexistence in structured environments. These theoretical considerations require corroboration through empirical experimentation, but practical logistical difficulties often restrict experiments to limited scales of space and time that are much smaller than those embodied in theoretical simulations. In this review, I argue that natural microcosms can be used to resolve this issue by incorporating spatial heterogeneity, spatio-temporal scaling and dispersal in patchy environments. Using case studies with different types of natural microcosms ([i] carrion flies on rats, [ii] spore-feeding beetles on bracket fungi, and [iii] protozoans in pitcher plant leaves), I identified three key mechanisms driving species diversity: probabilistic spatial aggregation, competition-colonization dynamics, and assembly-history dynamics; I also reviewed associated schematic models to test the putative mechanisms. My analyses demonstrated that natural microcosm experiments were able to reveal the linkages between the maintenance of species diversity, spatio-temporal scaling and environmental heterogeneity in natural systems.
This chapter examines how many species there are in the world from the known number of species on limited areas. Nucleated organisms or eukaryotes almost succeed in superimposing the different species concepts on one another and integrating them into one single synthetic structure. Reproductive barriers and diagnosable differences in the morphology, ecology and behaviour of each species were weighed against one other according to new quantifiable benchmarks, and that led to a different kind of species classification. Ongoing discoveries and the use of modern genetic test methods are currently resulting in a steadily increasing number of species. The breathtaking speed at which the present plant and animal species are dying out is nourishing the fear that the sixth great species apocalypse is indeed starting on the Earth. The extinction of species is a natural process of evolution.
Nel 1992 la Convenzione sulla Diversità Biologica delle Nazioni Unite ha dato voce all’impegno della comunità internazionale per la salvaguardia della biodiversità.
Nel 2002, a distanza di dieci anni, nel corso del Summit di Johannesburg sullo Sviluppo Sostenibile, la stessa comunità internazionale ha ribadito la necessità urgente di intensificare e coordinare gli sforzi per arrestare, o perlomeno ridurre in misura significativa, la perdita di biodiversità al più tardi entro il 2010.
Tale iniziativa globale, che è stata divulgata con il nome di “Countdown 2010”, fa riferimento all’impegno siglato nel lontano 1987 con il “Rapporto Brundtland”, che rappresenta l’eredità che le generazioni presenti intendono
lasciare a quelle future.
L'Italia ha aderito formalmente al “Countdown 2010” durante la riunione del gruppo di lavoro sulle aree protette della Convenzione sulla Diversità Biologica, che si è svolto a Montecatini nel giugno 2005. La più recente “Carta
di Siracusa”, firmata al G8 Ambiente nell’aprile 2009, riafferma l’importanza della biodiversità e la volontà italiana di porre le basi per uno sviluppo dell’economia compatibile con la tutela dell'ambiente.
A tale proposito sono lieto di presentare nella collana Focus il volume Biodiversità – risorse per lo sviluppo, nel quale sono raccolte definizioni, conoscenze, storia, stato, proposte e problemi della diversità biologica, con
particolare attenzione al quadro nazionale e mediterraneo, mettendo a frutto l’esperienza professionale ed interdisciplinare dagli autori.
Questo volume vuole, inoltre, rappresentare il contributo ENEA alla celebrazione dell’Anno Internazionale della Biodiversità”, proclamato dalle Nazioni Unite per il 2010.
Giovanni Lelli
Commissario ENEA
We construct a dynamic system model of a web of A N animal species interacting with P N plant species using a system of coupled differential equations. The model has a parameter which represents the effect of animal on plant species that can be positive (mutualistic interaction) or negative (anta-gonistic interaction). We work a Multispecies Mean Field Model MMFM in which the full set of A N and P N variables are reduced to a couple of an average animal and plant species. We study the conditions for existence of the MMFM and relate the result to the difference between animal and plant species in the network. We compare our results with empirical data from polli-nators (mutualistic) and herbivorous insect (antagonistic) networks. We conclude by combining analytical and empirical work that antagonistic networks present fewer animal species in relation to plant species than mutualistic ones.
This chapter examines the interlinkages between economic systems and ecosystems. It maintains that the functioning of economic systems has not reflected adequately the role of nature’s categories, ecosystems. While both natural and socio-economic systems can be viewed as complex adaptive systems, there is an urgent need to manage better the disparate movement between them. Two approaches are postulated for doing this. In the first, independently generated scientific knowledge is used in the framework of risk analysis and management to set limits on the domain of economic systems. In the second, economic decision-making is strengthened by attempting to put a value on hitherto unvalued ecosystem services provided to humans. We argue that the two approaches can be used in different contexts and also complement each other in some. However, underlying both is an ethical concern with services and well-being in the future, both of the human and non-human species. Whichever approach we adopt, a stable co-evolution between economic and ecosystems will take place only when such a concern is reached in the form of accepted social norms reflected in policy.
A short review is presented on the major factors contributing to recent precipitous declines in populations of wild Atlantic Salmon Salmo salar, with the approach of describing the major needs for stabilizing or enhancing factors to conserve and reverse the decline of salmon populations and incidentally of other salmonid species. Some aspects of physiology and required habitat characteristics through the life history of Atlantic Salmon are reviewed that determine responses to degradation of habitats. Anthropogenic developments, including obstructions to migration and degradation of freshwater habitats, are major reasons for declines in the resource. Thus, habitat is a primary factor to be considered in conservation and restoration. Socioeconomic considerations may override ecological and public interest concerns, and examples are given from Canada, where environmental regulations have been relaxed in favor of economic interests. Public education and awareness and advocacy in order for political “will” for better conservation of the resource are required to slow, and eventually stop, the decline in Atlantic Salmon populations.
My aim is to show that even consequentialists must recognize that some acts are intrinsically wrong, and that there is therefore no good reason to reject other examples of intrinsic wrongness than those they, typically, acknowledge. So many ethicists assume the opposite that I must devote some time to showing the error of their ways, before pointing out some objections that can be seriously mounted against genetic engineering. First, I shall show that even consequentialists must be rule-consequentialists, and hence determine the rightness or wrongness of particular acts apart from the expected consequences of those acts themselves. Second, I shall make clear the unacceptable consequences for ordinary moral judgment of adopting even that rule-consequentialist outlook. An alternative approach is suggested by the example of genetic engineering: those who oppose such manipulation bear witness to ‘natural integrity’ or ‘beauty’ as vital factors in moral decency.
Envisioning wholesome, fulfilling lifestyles full of excitement even in the face of the severe environmental constraints of 2030, then searching in nature for the technologies required to make with vision come true—this is the new approach to manufacturing: Nature Technology. Why search for answers in nature? The reason is twofold: one is that nature, through a continuous process of natural selection, has achieved the optimum form of evolution adapted to the various local and global environments through time and has done this in a system of perfect cycles driven with a minimal input of energy. This is indeed the “sustainable society” which humanity, despite lofty ideals, is still far from achieving—created by nature with the use of solar energy and the abundance of things found on Earth’s surface. We, humans, need to re-learn the mechanisms and systems—as well as the social process of creative destruction—found in nature. A second reason is that the modern technology created as a result of the industrial revolution starting in Great Britain succeeded only by removing itself and thus humans from nature, and as a result thereof is intricately linked to the emergence of global environmental problems.
Water catchments meet a vital need for water in our society. Good catchment management is a first protection method; others are dam storage, water treatment, and good distribution networks. Catchment management is usually a compromise strategy between many difficult issues. In general, forested catchments yield less water than agricultural catchments, but the water is of higher quality. Simple runoff relations such as “Zhang Curves” can be used in planning the water supply capacity of new, forested catchments. The attitude of the public to active forest management on water supply catchments appears to be dependent on their past exposure to managed catchments. Thus if the catchment has had a long history of forest harvesting and there are few perceived problems, then the harvesting will be uncontroversial. However if there is no such history then harvesting is likely to be controversial. The aim of modern forest management in catchments is to generate “resilience” in the forests. Most catchments of the world have little latitude in how they can be managed because of population pressures.
Nestled within 48,000 acres of privately owned conservation lands in the Florida Panhandle is an oasis for environmental learning – The E.O. Wilson Biophilia Center at Nokuse Plantation. The Center is the capstone to an ambitious environmental stewardship project, Nokuse Plantation, conceived and implemented by M.C. Davis, with the mission to create a model that connects the large-scale preservation of lands with experiential learning. The center serves as a catalyst for the preservation of nature’s biodiversity. Davis believes that the future of biodiversity lies in the combined resources of multiple actors and is best accomplished “by joining the passion of individuals with the resources of the entrepreneur and the power of government, all guided by science” (http:// www. nokuse. org/ ).
In the creation myths with which we opened this book, humans are portrayed as if they were a race of aliens that have arrived out of nowhere to be planted in the natural world, just as proud home-owners place figurines of gnomes in their gardens. Like the gnomes, human beings in myths and in many religions are an artifact, completely out of context with the rest of creation. The human-nature schism is especially pronounced in Judeo-Christian mythology. Adam and Eve have no genealogical relationship whatsoever to any of the creatures in the Garden of Eden, and upon their expulsion are commanded to subjugate the natural world. The first couple and their descendants interpreted the command as a license to enslave, and even eradicate, species as they deemed necessary. Prehistorical and historical records document how willingly they obeyed the command. The records show that whenever humans appeared in a region, a variety of species, especially the large ones, began to disappear. The giant kangaroo, ostrich-like flightless birds, and big reptiles in Australia and New Guinea 40,000 to 30,000 years ago; the wooly mammoth and the wooly rhinoceros in Eurasia 20,000 to io,000 years ago; elephants, horses, and giant sloths in North America 14,000 years ago; on Mauritius the dodo; on Madagascar the giant lemurs; and on Hawaii the big flightless geese: they all bowed out as humans entered the stage. It is hard to believe that in all these instances, humans were mere bystanders, spectators to the extinction.
The management and maintenance of nature are complicated because both nature and human nature are themselves quite complex. While traditional explanations based on human population growth combined with increasing resource demands offer some perspective on an ever-worsening situation, they seem somewhat separated from root causes as well as potential solutions.
67 meadowsweet, 283 mea surement of species 238, 313; diversity and, 150; categories of clas si fi ca tion, 152-157, 317-319; by clusters, 157; by biological or ga ni za tion, 157-162; by option value, 309-310; for conservation programs
- Ernst Mayr
Mayr, Ernst, 42-43, 67
meadowsweet, 283
mea surement of species, 132-133, 137140, 141, 151, 173, 238, 313; diversity
and, 150; categories of clas si fi ca tion,
152-157, 317-319; by clusters, 157; by
biological or ga ni za tion, 157-162; by
option value, 309-310; for conservation
programs, 312-319
medicine from plants and animals, 283287, 320-322
187-188; marine, 184, 188; coral bleaching and, 270-271 phyla, animal, 191-194 phytoplankton, 37 pigeons, fruit, 253 piggyback organisms
- Philippines
Philippines, 268-269, 277, 338, 346
photosynthesis, 36-37, 137, 187-188;
marine, 184, 188; coral bleaching
and, 270-271
phyla, animal, 191-194
phytoplankton, 37
pigeons, fruit, 253
piggyback organisms, 203-204
pigs, 278, 298, 341
176-177; blood, 44, 78, 79, 201; sympatric speciation of, 73; sharks as, 114, 117; on human be ings, 177; on birds
- Pangaea
Pangaea, 31, 194
panthers, 68, 153
parakeet, Carolina, 210, 341
parasites, 21, 36, 93, 176-177; blood, 44,
78, 79, 201; sympatric speciation of,
73; sharks as, 114, 117; on human be
ings, 177; on birds, 210
parrotbills, 98
parrots, 210, 341
mussels, 256, 257 mutation 88, 345; de fined, 76; kinds of, 76-77, 81; pro cess of, 80; genetic drift, 81; ran dom nature of
- John Muir
Muir, John, 317
mussels, 256, 257
mutation, 69, 74, 75, 76-79, 80, 84, 88,
345; de fined, 76; kinds of, 76-77, 81;
pro cess of, 80; genetic drift, 81; ran
dom nature of, 156
mutualism, 178-179
300, 323; Mishana plot, 303-304, 305; conservation efforts
- Peru
Peru, 150, 197, 300, 323; Mishana plot,
303-304, 305; conservation efforts, 326
246 moas (bird), 249-250 mockingbirds, 106 mollusks, 216, 234, 256; extinction rates, 27, 29, 257; dispersal ability, 91, 92; as food for fishes
- Russell Mittermeier
Mittermeier, Russell, 148
moanalos (bird), 246
moas (bird), 249-250
mockingbirds, 106
mollusks, 216, 234, 256; extinction rates,
27, 29, 257; dispersal ability, 91, 92; as
food for fishes, 109, 111
monkeys, 9, 126, 128, 226
258 mosquitoes, 49, 182; as carriers of ma laria
- Moorea
Moorea, 257, 258
mosquitoes, 49, 182; as carriers of ma
laria, 44, 44-45
mosses, 178, 179, 208
moths, 14, 27, 347; giant silkworm, 53,
54-55, 57; promethea, 57; cecropia, 58;
polyphemus, 58; leafroller, 69
128 microbial mats 90, 92, 100 microorganisms See bacteria; protozoans migration, 21; fish, 119; mammal, 123124, 125-129; bird, 200, 256; butterfly, 200. See also Great American Inter change Minimum Critical Size of Ecosystems Project (MCS), 225-226 mistletoe
- Axel Meyer
Meyer, Axel, 109, 110
mice, 76-77, 120, 128
microbial mats, 183-186, 185
microevolution, 88, 89, 90, 92, 100
microorganisms. See bacteria; protozoans
migration, 21; fish, 119; mammal, 123124, 125-129; bird, 200, 256; butterfly,
200. See also Great American Inter
change
Minimum Critical Size of Ecosystems
Project (MCS), 225-226
mistletoe, New Zealand, 215-216, 217,
278
mites, 177-178, 225, 345; oribatid, 208,
318; feather, 210; carnivorous, 226227
320 natural his tory, de fined, 219-220 natural selection 186, 187; mutations favorable to, 79, 80, 156; vs. genetic drift, 81; biodiver sity and, 88
- Costa Rica
National Institute of Biodiversity (INBio),
Costa Rica, 314-315, 320
natural his tory, de fined, 219-220
natural selection, 55-56, 74, 80, 84, 105,
162, 345; evolution by, 75-76, 80-81, 84,
89, 186, 187; mutations favorable to, 79,
80, 156; vs. genetic drift, 81; biodiver
sity and, 88; specieslevel, 89-91, 92,
156; organismlevel, 90, 91, 92; individ
uallevel, 91, 92; populationlevel, 91;
pressures, 92-93; specialization and,
230-231
natural units, 37-38, 42, 62-63
309-310 nucleotide substitutions/sequences
- Bryan Norton
Norton, Bryan, 309-310
nucleotide substitutions/sequences, 76,
78, 80, 84, 156, 161-162, 345
nukupuu (bird), 98, 100
oaks, 47
133, 219; hybridization and
- Poland
Poland, 338
pollen, 28, 133, 219; hybridization and,
47, 58
pollution, 254, 258, 270, 271, 275, 281,
346
polymorphism, 160-161