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Faith, Hope and Love as expressions of human transcendence:
Insights from Positive Psychology
(A paper presented at the one-day postgraduate interdisciplinary conference on
Faith, Hope and Love, Heythrop College, 15 May 2010)
by
Sahaya G. Selvam
PhD Student, Heythrop College, University of London
Word count: 2528
Abstract
The aim of this conceptual paper is to explore the meaning of faith, hope and love
from the perspective of positive psychology. Within this theoretical framework, faith,
hope and love can be seen as human expressions of transcendence. Faith is the
acceptance of, and a response to, a greater power. Hope is the expression of
ultimate concerns, and flows from an adequate grasp of the meaning of life and
existence. Love, or altruism, is the choice to enter into relationships with others that
enhance the humanity of those in the relationship. All these presuppose an attitude
of breaking the boundaries of selfhood and going beyond the mundane, in other
words, transcendence. Using the parlance of positive psychology, the paper
examines also the possible relation between these character strengths of
transcendence (faith, hope and love) and human wellbeing.
The objectives of this theoretical paper are twofold. Firstly, to explore the meaning of
faith, hope and love within the domain of psychology. This is achieved by working
within the theoretical framework of positive psychology, which considers faith, hope
and love as character strengths that contribute to human wellbeing and happiness.
The second objective then is to consider how these character strengths might
contribute to well being. This is done by a brief review of literature on positive
psychology.
Virtues and character strengths in positive psychology
In 1998, when Martin Seligman was elected as the president of the American
Psychology Association (APA) he extended a clarion call to psychology to focus on
wellbeing and happiness as it does on pathology and psychological disorder
(Seligman, 1999). The stream of psychological accent that followed is referred to as
‘positive psychology’. This is not a new school of psychology but only a new
approach.
It draws on from the history of psychology; and its interests are similar to that of
humanistic psychology, but it differs sharply from it in that positive psychology
embraces an empirical approach. It is the focus on existential questions with an
empirical grounding that makes positive psychology unique (Seligman &
Csikszentmihalyi, 2000, p. 13). In just over ten years, this movement has now
indisputably become popular. (For instance, in May 2010, Google delivered 461,000
entries on “positive psychology”; while on “humanistic psychology” it delivered
168,000 entries.)
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Positive psychology sees happiness or wellbeing as an outcome of pleasant life:
“pursuit of positive emotions about the present, past and future”, good life: “using
your strengths and virtues to obtain abundant gratification in the main realms of life”,
and meaningful life: “use of your strengths and virtues in the service of something
much larger than you are” (Seligman, 2003, p.127). These three contributing factors
to wellbeing have an internal hierarchy. That is, due to heritability and habituation
pleasures do not consistently contribute to happiness as much as meaningful life
does. Somewhere in the middle is good life marked by a state of ‘flow’
(Csikszentmihalyi, 2002), which is also understood in the Aristotelian sense of
‘eudemonia’- doing and living well. More precisely, happiness is measured in terms
of life satisfaction; and wellbeing, in terms of physiological and mental health.
Research, and even intervention based therapy (PPT; Cf. Seligman, Rashid, &
Parks, 2006), within positive psychology is led by a catalogue of core virtues and
character strengths (Peterson & Seligman, 2004), which are also referred to as
‘Values in Action’ (VIA; Peterson, 2006). This catalogue of sanities lists 6 core
virtues and 24 character strengths that are said to contribute to human wellbeing and
happiness (Table 1). The VIA is meant to be a parallel to the existing catalogues of
mental disorders, DSM-IV or ICD-10.
Virtue here is defined as ‘‘any psychological process that enables a person to think
and act so as to benefit him- or herself and society” (McCullough & Snyder, 2000, p.
1). Peterson and Seligman (2004) explain that virtues “are universal, perhaps
grounded in biology through an evolutionary process that selected for these aspects
of excellence as means of solving the important tasks necessary for survival of the
species” (p.13). Although one of the criteria used to generate the list of virtues is
that “each strength is morally valued in its own right, even in the absence of obvious
Table 1
Core Virtues
Character Strengths
1.
Wisdom and
Knowledge
Creativity (originality, ingenuity), Curiosity (interest, novelty-
seeking, openness to experience), Open-mindedness
(judgement, critical thinking), Love of Learning, Perspective
(wisdom)
2.
Courage
Bravery (valour), Persistence (perseverance,
industriousness), Integrity (authenticity, honesty), Vitality
(zest, enthusiasm, vigour, energy)
3.
Humanity
Love, Kindness (generosity, nurturance, care, compassion,
altruistic love, “niceness”), Social Intelligence (emotional
intelligence, personal intelligence)
4.
Justice
Citizenship (social responsibility, loyalty, teamwork),
Fairness, Leadership
5.
Temperance
Forgiveness and Mercy, Humility (modesty), Prudence,
Self-regulation (self-control)
6.
Transcendence
Appreciation of beauty and excellence (awe, wonder,
elevation), Gratitude, Hope (optimism, future-mindedness,
future-orientation), Humour (playfulness), Spirituality
(religiousness, faith, purpose)
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beneficial outcomes” (p.19), in positive psychology ‘virtue’ is not to be understood to
carry moral implications in a philosophical or religious sense.
Virtues are expressed in character strengths. “Character strengths are the
psychological ingredients – processes or mechanisms – that define the virtues. Said
another way, they are distinguishable routes to displaying one or another of the
virtues” (Peterson & Seligman, 2004, p.14). Character strengths are trait-like and
are measurable in terms of individual’s behaviour that includes thoughts, feelings
and actions. The universal occurrence of these virtues and character strengths,
especially in cultural and religious traditions of the world, has been duly
acknowledged (Peterson & Seligman, 2004, pp.40-50; Dahlsgaard, Peterson, &
Seligman, 2005; Snyder &. Lopez, 2007, pp.23-50).
Faith, Hope and Love as character strengths of transcendence
Our main concern in the present paper is the set of character strengths that form the
core virtue of transcendence. Transcendence is classified as consisting of
“strengths that forge connections to the larger universe and thereby provide
meaning” (Peterson & Seligman, 2004, p.30). Transcendence is expressed in
character strengths (Peterson, 2006b, p.33) that include appreciation of beauty,
gratitude, hope, humour and spirituality (that includes religiousness and faith). Love
is listed under the core virtue of humanity. I would like to suggest that we consider
love as a character-strength of transcendence. Love, as defined by positive
psychology (Peterson & Seligman, 2004, p.304) presupposes the ability of a human
person to forge connections beyond oneself in altruism. How are faith, hope and love
defined within positive psychology?
Faith
Positive psychology groups faith, religiousness and purpose, under the character
strength of spirituality. “Spirituality and religiousness refer to beliefs and practices
that are grounded in the conviction that there is a transcendental (non-physical)
dimension of life” (Peterson & Seligman, 2004, p.600). These beliefs and practices
may be expressed in having coherent positions about the higher purpose and
meaning of the universe; knowing where one fits in the larger scheme; having beliefs
about meaning of life that shape and provide comfort (Peterson, 2006b, p.33).
In simple terms, it is an acceptance of the existence of, and a meaningful response
to, a greater power. The greater power could be understood in a myriad of ways, but
often, as that which provides a larger scheme for the universe. Individuals may
express this acceptance and response to the greater power in a variety of ways, in
many cases, as surrender to an awe-inspiring reality. In most religions, this greater
power is identified as a person – God – worthy of relationship and worship.
Hope
“Hope, optimism, future-mindedness, future-orientation represent a cognitive,
emotional, and motivational stance towards the future” (Peterson & Seligman, 2004,
p.570). In more precise terms, this stance consists in “expecting the best in the
future and working to achieve it; believing that a good future is something that can be
brought about” (Peterson, 2006b, p.33). Thus, hope is expressed in ‘agency
thinking’: “I am not going to be stopped” (Synder, Lapointe, Crowson, & Early, 1998).
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In other words, ‘hope’ is articulated in optimism and positive outlook about life and
people around. According to Seligman (1991) optimistic people are so highly goal-
oriented that they are able to distance themselves from negative outcomes. Being
goal-oriented is often related to the adequate grasp of the meaning of life and
existence. Therefore, Emmons (1999b) has associated hope to “ultimate concerns.”
Hope is linked to the human ability to imagine, that is, to see what is not here and
now. This is referred to as trait-hope. From this ability flows an outlook that all is
going to be well even here and now. This is referred to as state-hope (Snyder, Rand
& Sigmon, 2005). This sense of hope could often emanate from one’s belief in the
existence of a greater power, and/or from a humanistic acceptance of the goodness
of humanity. In any case, hope calls for an attitude of transcendence.
Love
Positive psychology has a more restrictive understanding of ‘love’ that is distinct from
‘kindness’. Love is a specific way of relating to individuals with whom there is a long
term relationship. This relationship is generally mutual, but always enhancing the
growth and humanity (human life and dignity) of those in that relationship. It could be
expressed in physical and emotional intimacy (Peterson, 2006, p.32), but also with
the freedom for choice. Peterson and Seligman (2004) distinguish three types of
love: affection, care and passionate love:
Love represents a cognitive, behavioural, and emotional stance toward others
that takes three prototypical forms. One is love for the individuals who are our
primary sources of affection, protection, and care… [like] a child’s love for a
parent. Another form is love for the individuals who depend on us to make
them feel safe and cared for... [for instance,] a parent’s love for a child. The
third form is love that involves passionate desire for sexual, physical, and
emotional closeness with an individual whom we consider special and who
makes us feel special (p.304).
Love is also related to two other character strengths that are associated with
interpersonal relationships: Kindness and forgiveness. Kindness is different from
love, in that, it is the attitude of compassion, generosity, care to any human person,
even to strangers. It is an ability to reach out to another person without expecting
anything in particular, except the joy of relating itself. Compassion becomes
significant when the troubles of the other person are serious, not self-inflicted, and
the agent of compassion is able to picture oneself in the same predicament as the
one in trouble (Cassell, 2005, p.435).
Forgiveness is a growth-promoting way of handling relationships that are strained. At
a deeper level, it is an expression of transcendence, because, in forgiveness the
individuals wish to go beyond their immediate reactions to hurt, that is, anger and
wanting revenge. At one level, forgiveness could be expressed in a dialogical
request for redress; on another plane, it could also be a gratuitous offer of mercy and
openness to reconciliation. Forgiveness has an intra-psychic consequence within the
individual who forgives, in terms of healing of the hurt, and an inter-psychic
consequence between the individuals, in terms of their willingness to re-establish the
relationship (Baumeister et al, 1998).
The role of Faith, Hope and love in human wellbeing
The core mission of positive psychology is to proactively promote research
and come up with preventive techniques that will contribute to health, wellbeing and
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happiness (Seligman, 1998, p.2). Health is considered in a comprehensive
perspective, inclusive of physical, mental, and emotional wellbeing. And health and
wellbeing are perceived as correlates of happiness (Seligman, 2002). Here, we will
briefly review some literature to examine to what extent faith, hope and love may
play a significant role in human wellbeing.
Faith and Wellbeing
There is a growing body of empirical studies that has identified significant
links between religion, spirituality and health (reviewed in Hill & Pargament, 2003).
For example, Cook (2004) identified 265 published books and papers that had
studied relationship between spirituality and addiction. Another area where there is
convergence between religious transcendence and issues of health and wellbeing is
in discussions on coping (Pargament, 1997). Religious coping examines how people
seek significance in times of stress; “that significance may be material (e.g., a
house), physical (e.g., health), social (e.g., intimate relationships), psychological
(e.g., meaning), or spiritual (e.g., closeness with God)” (Pargament, 1997, p.216).
Research works on mindfulness also bring together spirituality and wellbeing.
Mindfulness, which is the age-old process of cultivating awareness in Buddhist
traditions, is seen in positive psychology as a means to facilitate novelty, flow and
optimal experiences. Its relation to spirituality is duly acknowledged (Snyder &
Lopez, 2007, pp. 243-261). Mindfulness is increasingly used in clinical contexts.
Although “empirical literature supporting its efficacy is small,” there is a growing
support for the claim that “mindfulness-based intervention can be rigorously
operationalized, conceptualized, and empirically evaluated” in the context of health
and wellbeing (Baer, 2003, p.140; see also Kabat-Zinn, 2003).
Hope and wellbeing
The insight of positive psychology is that happiness and wellbeing are seen
as being clearly associated with goal, purpose and meaning-making.
Not surprisingly, to a great degree, depression and suicidal behaviour, and to
a lesser degree, alcoholic abuse, are correlated to hopelessness (Schotte & Clum,
1982). This hopelessness is understood as the absence of purpose in life, and more
precisely, the lack of self-efficacy and problem-solving abilities (Heppner & Lee,
2005). Similarly, optimism is seen to be highly correlated with ‘social interest’
(Barlow, Tobin, & Schmidt, 2009). Social interest (originally from Adler) is the
disposition to spontaneously build a sense of connectedness with humankind. This
in turn is said to have a positive impact on mental wellbeing.
Love, kindness, forgiveness and wellbeing
In medical profession, compassion is taken to be an inherent aspect (Barber, 1976).
In a lighter vein, a large dose of TLC (‘Tender, loving, care’) could cure most
ailments! Rather than evaluating the effect of love and its related character
strengths on the one who is on the receiving end, our focus here, however, is on the
one who practices these character strengths.
There is enough empirical evidence to show that people who are altruistic, sociable
and display empathy are consistently happier than others. On the other hand, people
suffering from depression are generally self-absorbed, distrustful and focus
defensively on their own needs (Seligman, 2002).
Research evidence on the correlation between forgiveness and mental health and
wellbeing is also abundant (McCullogh & Witvliet, 2005). On the one hand, the
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experience of forgiving others is associated with mental wellbeing (Reed & Enright,
2006) and physical health (Thoresen, Harris, & Luskin, 2000). On the other hand,
the experience of being forgiven by God was related to fewer depressive and
anxious symptoms (Exline, Yali, & Lobel, 1999). Interventions to facilitate
forgiveness also show significant decrease in grief, anger, and anxiety after
treatment (Coyle & Enright, 1997).
Conclusion
This paper has looked at faith, hope and love from the perspective of psychology.
Working within the theoretical framework of positive psychology, it has considered
faith, hope and love as expressions of human transcendence. As character strengths
they contribute to ‘good life’, and as expressions of transcendence they pave the
path towards ‘meaningful life’. In the living of good life and meaningful life, people
realise their life satisfaction and wellbeing.
This psychological treatment of ‘virtues’ that have hitherto been subjects of theology
and philosophy might seem rather odd in the ears of the experts of these latter
intellectual endeavours. To consider these human realities as the sole property of
some intellectual endeavours and not others would be to impoverish their
understanding. In this sense, the psychological treatment of faith, hope and love,
remains a necessary approach even if not sufficient. On the other hand, to avoid the
risk of reductionism, psychology needs to develop deeper conceptual framework on
these virtues with the help of other disciplines even before they are operationalised
as measurements. Positive psychology has done a lot of work in grounding the
concept of character strengths in the philosophical, cultural and religious traditions
(Dahlsgaard, Peterson, & Seligman, 2005). Therefore, positive psychology lends
itself for dialogue with philosophical and theological traditions.
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