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Performance of Gel and Paste Bait Products for German Cockroach (Dictyoptera: Blattellidae) Control: Laboratory and Field Studies
Abstract
Gel and paste bait formulations containing boric acid or hydramethylnon were evaluated in field and laboratory experiments with the German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.). Bait formulations contained 14-62% water by weight and lost the most water after 1 d of desiccation. Bait age and water content did not alter the toxicity (LT50) of boric acid-based baits. Toxicity of hydramethylnon (Maxforce) bait, however, increased with bait age. In continuous exposure tests without harborage, boric acid formulations had LT50s of 8.5 and 10.1 d for Blue Diamond and IT WORKS, respectively. Maxforce bait had an LT50 of 4.2 d. LT50s determined with cardboard harborage or in Ebeling choice boxes were 1.5 to 2.2 times lower than those from continuous exposure tests without harborage. Relative repellency, measured as the mean percent of live cockroaches in the light side of the choice box, was greatest for IT WORKS (21.4%) and Maxforce (25.4%) formulations, followed by Blue Diamond (10.9%). A performance index that combined choice box repellency and mortality data indicated that Maxforce had the greatest potential for field effectiveness. Blue Diamond and Maxforce significantly reduced German cockroach populations in the field. Maxforce performed best in field trials when applied at 10 or 20 placements per apartment. Apartments treated with IT WORKS had significantly greater cockroach trap catches. Factors that may affect the predictive power of the performance index are discussed.
... In addition, Wu and Appel (2018) determined these insecticides' repellency and laboratory performance and found that permethrin-treated surfaces repelled most strains. Only fipronil resulted in performance index values of 100 (no repellency and 100% mortality) in Ebeling choice-boxes indicating good potential field effectiveness of this insecticide (Rust & Reierson 1978;Appel 1992Appel , 2004. ...
... The toxicity of the bait formulations to the field-collected and susceptible strains of the German cockroach was evaluated in continuous exposure tests (Appel 1990(Appel , 1992. Groups of 10 cockroaches were confined in 0.95 L wide-mouth glass jars (Ball Corp., Broomfield, Colorado, USA) with a small water jar, a roll of cardboard harborage, a piece of dog chow (as an alternative food source), and a weighing boat with bait. ...
... Toxicity, repellency, and potential performance of the bait formulations were determined in Ebeling choice-boxes as described by Ebeling et al. (1966), Appel (1990Appel ( , 1992, and Wu and Appel (2018). The choice-box assay has been used to evaluate the toxicity and repellency of insecticidal baits, dusts, and sprays, as well as wood paneling and other objects (Ebeling 1995). ...
Toxicity, repellency, and laboratory performance of consumer bait formulations were evaluated for control of 7 insecticide-resistant, field-collected strains of the German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.) (Blattodea: Ectobiidae) in continuous exposure and Ebeling choice box assays. Solid and gel baits contained avermectin, dinotefuran, fipronil, or hydramethylnon as active ingredients, and were active for control of all German cockroach strains. However, the laboratory susceptible strain was generally more sensitive (lower median lethal times or LT50 values) than the field-collected strains. Resistance ratios in continuous exposure tests ranged from 0.37 for 0.01% fipronil (strain H) to 14.23 for 0.05% dinotefuran (strain DCC2). The LT50 values for most baits and strains generally were greater when tested in Ebeling choice boxes compared with continuous exposure tests. Resistance ratios ranged as high as 98.43 for 0.05% dinotefuran for control of strain DCC2. All strains had resistance to 0.05% dinotefuran bait, and the resistance ratios were greatest when tested in Ebeling choice boxes. All bait formulations had some repellency to most strains; however, repellency was never greater than 70% for any treatmentstrain combination. Combining Ebeling choice box mortality and repellency data, maximum estimated performance index values (PIMax) reached 100, i.e., no repellency and complete mortality, for most treatments. There was not complete mortality of the majority of strains exposed to 0.05% dinotefuran bait and therefore the PIMax value did not reach 100. The rate of increase in performance index value over time or tPImax/2 ranged 0.26 and 7.85 d. Our results indicate that although all baits were toxic to multi-resistant strains of German cockroaches, there was significant resistance or tolerance to many formulations that would likely negatively impact field control. Se evalu la toxicidad, repelencia y desempeo en el laboratorio de formulaciones de cebo de consumo para controlar 7 cepas resistentes a insecticidas de la cucaracha alemana, Blattella germanica (L.) (Blattodea: Ectobiidae) y recolectadas en el campo, en exposicin continua y ensayos de cuadro de seleccin de Ebeling. Los cebos slidos y en gel contenan avermectina, dinotefurano, fipronil o hidrametilnon como ingredientes activos y fueron activos para el control de todas las cepas de cucarachas alemanas. Sin embargo, la cepa susceptible de laboratorio fue generalmente ms sensible (tiempos letales medianos o valores TL50 ms bajos) que las cepas recolectadas en el campo. Los ndices de resistencia en las pruebas de exposicin continua oscilaron entre 0,37 para fipronil al 0,01 % (cepa H) y 14,23 para dinotefurano al 0,05 % (cepa DCC2). Los valores LT50 para la mayora de los cebos y cepas generalmente fueron mayores cuando se probaron en cajas de eleccin de Ebeling en comparacin con las pruebas de exposicin continua. Las proporciones de resistencia oscilaron hasta 98,43 para dinotefurano al 0,05 % para el control de la cepa DCC2. Todas las cepas tuvieron resistencia al cebo con dinotefurano al 0,05 %, y las proporciones de resistencia fueron mayores cuando se probaron en las cajas de eleccin de Ebeling. Todas las formulaciones de cebo tenan cierta repelencia a la mayora de las cepas; sin embargo, la repelencia nunca super el 70 % para ninguna combinacin de tratamiento y cepa. Al combinar los datos de mortalidad y repelencia del cuadro de eleccin de Ebeling, los valores mximos del ndice de rendimiento (IRMax) estimado alcanzaron 100, es decir, sin repelencia y mortalidad completa, para la mayora de los tratamientos. No hubo mortalidad completa de la mayora de las cepas expuestas al cebo con dinotefurano al 0,05 % y, por lo tanto, el valor de IRMax no alcanz 100. La tasa de aumento del valor del ndice de rendimiento a lo largo del tiempo (IRTMax/2) vari entre 0,26 y 7,85 dias. Nuestros resultados indican que, aunque todos los cebos fueron txicos para las cepas multiresistentes de cucarachas alemanas, hubo una resistencia o tolerancia significativa a muchas formulaciones que probablemente tendran un impacto negativo en el control de campo.
... Our results showed that an ootheca attached to a dead female can hatch, which is consistent with the results of Abd-Elghafar and Appel (1992). Four of the essential oil components had a significant effect on ootheca hatch (transcinnamaldehyde, (-)-menthone, geraniol, and citronellic acid). ...
... Ootheca hatch. Our results showed that an ootheca attached to a dead female can hatch, which is consistent with the results of Abd-Elghafar and Appel (1992). ...
... The repellency of essential oils to German cockroaches was determined in Ebeling choice boxes (Ebeling et al. 1966) (Fig. 11). As described by Appel (1992), the choice box is a square box divided by a partition into two equal compartments. A hole in the partition allows the cockroaches to move freely between compartments. ...
... Baits contain a toxic insecticide, with generally low repellency, blended into a foodlike matrix containing phagostimulants such as sugars, preservatives, putative attractants, and, in many formulations, water. Gel and paste baits contain relatively large amounts of water (Appel 1992) and are usually applied directly into cracks and crevices by using spatulas, syringes, or bait guns. Moisture-containing baits must be formulated to remain palatable after drying (Appel 1992). ...
... Gel and paste baits contain relatively large amounts of water (Appel 1992) and are usually applied directly into cracks and crevices by using spatulas, syringes, or bait guns. Moisture-containing baits must be formulated to remain palatable after drying (Appel 1992). In contrast, many dry bait formulations are enclosed in child-resistant exposure stations and positioned along edges of structures , in corners, and against vertical surfaces. ...
... Bait deposits must remain available and competitive with other foods and liquids. Therefore, they must remain palatable and not become too hard (Appel 1992) or contaminated with either mold or repellent compounds such as fragrances , spray insecticides, or powders. Imidacloprid is a neurotoxin in the chloronicotinyl nitroguanidine class of insecticides. ...
An experimental 2.15% imidacloprid gel bait containing approximately 44% water was evaluated in laboratory and field studies against the German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L). In continuous exposure tests, toxicity and presumably bait consumption varied with cockroach stage, deprivation of competitive food, and temperature. The LT50 values for cockroaches provided with competitive food ranged from approximately 0.9 h for adult females to 190 h for small nymphs. The LT50s for cockroaches not provided competitive food ranged from approximately 1.7 h for adult females to approximately 31 h for adult males. The LT50s decreased exponentially with temperature between 10 and 30 degrees C. Even though the bait was significantly more repellent (approximately 38%) than an untreated control (approximately 14%) when tested in Ebeling choice boxes, performance index values were positive and increased to nearly 100 (indicating high mortality and low repellency) after 14 d. When applied at 15-45 g per kitchen, the bait significantly reduced German cockroach trap catch in infested homes during a 4-wk period. There was a approximately 50% reduction after 1 wk and approximately 80% reduction 4 wk after treatment.
... The inside lip of the glass jar was coated with petroleum jelly to prevent cockroach escape. Ten sticky and jar traps were placed next to each other in the kitchen of each participant in the following areas: above and below cabinets, under sinks, and around stoves and refrigerators (Appel 1992). Traps were retrieved weekly and brought back to the laboratory, where cockroaches were counted and recorded as adults and nymphs caught per trap per location. ...
... During the first 6 mo of the study, all live cockroaches (adults and nymphs) collected weekly from jar traps from individual homes were shipped to Auburn University, Alabama, where the susceptibility of the population from each home was determined for 5 insecticidal bait formulations. Cockroach mortality was determined in Ebeling choice boxes (Appel 1992). A minimum of 6 replicates with 10 adult male cockroaches each for n = 60 was used. ...
The German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.) (Blattodea: Blattellidae), is a serious pest in residential housing with control administered mainly through application of pesticides. Integrated pest management (IPM) involves a combination of strategies aimed at reducing pest populations. Over a 27 mo study period, we determined levels of German cockroach populations in rural manufactured residential homes: before IPM implementation (Pre-IPM), the period when residents were educated on IPM strategies (IPM-education), and during education and insecticide application (IPM-education plus bait). Sanitation level in the IPM-education phase (2.8) was significantly different from that in the Pre-IPM phase (3.9) and was accompanied by a decrease in trap catch. Sticky and jar traps were deployed in kitchen areas to assess levels of infestation. Trap catch from all participants during the 3 phases was significantly different. Mean cockroach catch per participant per trap was 20.5 ± 4.1 during Pre-IPM, 13.2 ± 2.2 during IPM-education, and 3.9 ± 0.7 during IPM-education plus bait treatment. During the last 3 mo of the study, the population level declined by 86% when compared with that during the Pre-IPM phase. Victor Roach®pheromone sticky traps captured more cockroaches (19.2 ± 1.9) than jar traps (7.2 ± 1.1), accounting for 73% of cockroaches captured. Traps caught more nymphs than adult cockroaches. Trap catch was unevenly distributed, with the highest (34%) catch occurring around refrigerators. We conclude that the inclusion of education of residents in German cockroach IPM programs will make implementation and sustainability of cockroach control more efficient.
... A similar result was reported by Sulaiman et al. [14] for the American cockroach, Periplaneta americana. Appel [12] reported a mean lethal time LT 50 of 57.6 h for the German cockroaches exposed to 25.4% hydramethylnon bait (Maxforce). Appel and Tanley [9] reported a mean lethal time LT 50 of 9−37 h for the German cockroaches exposed to 2.15% imidacloprid bait. ...
... Additionally, Durier and Revault [25] showed hydramethylnon gel had higher feeding stimulation potential than fipronil gel (and abamectin gel). Appel [12] reported that toxicity of hydramethylnon bait increased with bait age. Effectiveness of hydramethylnon gel bait (through field efficacy) in an IPM program and in comparison with insecticidal spraying of German cockroach were substantiated by Shahraki et al. [26]. ...
Background: Gel baits are important for integrated pest management (IPM). The relative efficacy of various baits is unknown. Objectives: To evaluate the efficacy of different gel belts (hydramethylnon 2%, fipronil 0.05%, and imidacloprid 2.15%) for control of Blattella germanica (German cockroach) infestation. Methods: All the tested (field) strains were collected from housing in Yasuj city, Iran. Ten German cockroaches for each developmental stage were placed in separate labeled glass rearing jars of the same size. Mortality was observed at 12 h intervals after exposure to baits. Each study was conducted in triplicate. Results: All gel baits produced 100% mortality of cockroaches within 1 to 5 days. However, imidacloprid killed cockroaches more rapidly (LT50= 13.3 h) than fipronil (LT50= 32.5 h) or hydramethylnon (LT50= 61.6 h). The results showed rapid, quick, and slow action for the three baits respectively. Comparison between the baits showed that the slow action bait is more compatible with IPM, being the most effective in 3 or more days; increased potential for secondary mortality through horizontal transmission of lethal dose and also via residue; decreased risk of food contamination by dead cockroaches; will decrease the chance of behavioral resistance, and it had higher feeding stimulation potential than the others. Conclusions: Hydramethylnon is preferred for IPM. Fipronil is a plausible alternative.
... Uno de los medios más eficientes y tradicionales que se han usado son los cebos tóxicos. Estos han demostrado ser bastante eficientes, pero dependen de su capacidad de atracción para poder llegar hasta los individuos blanco (Appel 1992). ...
... Técnicamente, no importa cuál de los dos cebos se emplee ya que la principal característica que deben poseer es ser atractivo para la especie blanco (Appel 1992). Sin embargo, si se tienen en cuenta características como la estabilidad en el ambiente, el cebo en gel sería el más recomendable. ...
... Lee (1998) reported 80% reduction of German cockroaches in a food outlet in Malaysia after three months of treatment, while Khadri (2000) reported a 64% reduction within two months of treatment. A 70% reduction within three months of treatment was reported in Thailand (Sitthicharoenchai et al., 2006) and a 50% reduction after two months was reported in the USA (Appel, 1992). Earlier, Milio et al. (1986) reported a 78% to 97% reduction of German cockroach infestation, 2 to 4 months after hydramethylnon treatment, respectively. ...
... Thus, the result showed that only the gel treatment had a significant reduction (note the negative slope) in cockroach trap catch during the weeks of treatment. Appel (1990;1992), , Appel & Tanley (2000) and Lee & Yonker (2003) showed field effectiveness of baits' performance on cockroaches by negative slopes for regression analysis of trap catch data. Therefore, this study showed that biorational control approach using hydramethylnon gel bait together with educational programmes and sanitation, successfully managed the German cockroach infestation to reach a clean level of infestation, especially in residential buildings. ...
This study assessed the effectiveness of an Integrated Pest Management control approach using 2% hydramethylnon gel bait on German cockroaches, Blattella germanica (L.) in some residential and hospital buildings in South Western Iran. In total, three buildings consisting of 150 apartment units and 101 hospital units were monitored weekly via sticky trap for German cockroach infestations over a period of eight months. These infested units were randomly subjected to intervention and control treatments. Pamphlets and posters were provided and lectures were given to support the educational programmes as a tactic of the IPM system. Survey on cockroach index for intervention units showed 67-94% recovery to achieve clean level of infestation for intervention units of the residential buildings and 83% for the hospital. Mean percentage reductions for treatment groups throughout the 15-week treatment period were 76.8% for the residential buildings and 88.1% for the hospital, showing significant differences compared to the control groups. Linear regression of infestation rates were recorded weekly after treatment and their negative slope for treatment groups substantiated significant reductions for interventions. The results of this study showed that IPM control method, using gel bait, educational programs and sanitation, is an effective way to manage German cockroach infestation.
... Continuous Exposure Test. Six adult males were conÞned in a 0.95-liter glass jar with Ϸ3 g of dog food, a 75 ml vial of water with a cotton wick inserted through the cap, and a 140 cm 2 cardboard harborage (Appel 1992). Petroleum jelly was used to lightly coat the upper inside surface of the jar, and Þlter paper covers secured with metal bands prevented cockroach escape. ...
... Choice Box Tests. Lack of preference, or apparent repellency, and mortality were determined in Ebeling choice boxes (Ebeling et al. 1966) as described by Appel (1990Appel ( , 1992. Food and water were placed in the lighted compartment of the choice box. ...
Mulch preferences of the Asian cockroach, Blattella asahinai Mizukubo, were determined in a series of laboratory experiments. Because this species is a peridomestic pest, mulch preferences may be a key part of an integrated pest management program for homeowners. Five mulches were used: cypress, oak leaf litter, pine straw, rubber, and topsoil. Large arena experiments showed that adult male Asian cockroaches preferred oak leaf litter and pine straw, while adult females preferred oak leaf litter and rubber mulches. Nymphal stages preferred rubber (48.3-62.5% for small and medium instars, respectively) to all other mulches. All stages of the Asian cockroach showed very little preference to topsoil (0%) and cypress mulch (6.3%). Ebeling choice box tests confirmed lack of preference or repellency of adult males to topsoil (17.8 +/- 3.6%) and rubber mulch (15.7 +/- 3.6%). Continuous exposure experiments indicated that pine straw was significantly more toxic to adult males than other mulches (66.7 +/- 18.4% mortality at 7 d). Mulch preferences of the Asian cockroach may be mediated by characteristics of the interstitial spaces in the different mulches. Rubber mulch afforded smaller, more humid spaces that were inaccessible to adults. Because cypress mulch was least preferred by nymphs and adults, use of cypress mulch in an integrated pest management program around homes may help to reduce Asian cockroach populations and limit insecticide exposure to humans, animals, and the environment.
... Lee (1998) reported 80% reduction of German cockroaches in a food outlet in Malaysia after three months of treatment, while Khadri (2000) reported a 64% reduction within two months of treatment. A 70% reduction within three months of treatment was reported in Thailand (Sitthicharoenchai et al., 2006) and a 50% reduction after two months was reported in the USA (Appel, 1992). Earlier, Milio et al. (1986) reported a 78% to 97% reduction of German cockroach infestation, 2 to 4 months after hydramethylnon treatment, respectively. ...
... Thus, the result showed that only the gel treatment had a significant reduction (note the negative slope) in cockroach trap catch during the weeks of treatment. Appel (1990;1992), , Appel & Tanley (2000) and Lee & Yonker (2003) showed field effectiveness of baits' performance on cockroaches by negative slopes for regression analysis of trap catch data. Therefore, this study showed that biorational control approach using hydramethylnon gel bait together with educational programmes and sanitation, successfully managed the German cockroach infestation to reach a clean level of infestation, especially in residential buildings. ...
This study assessed the effectiveness of a biorational control approach using 2% hydramethylnon gel bait on German cockroaches, Blattella germanica (L.) in some residential and hospital buildings in South Western Iran. In total, three buildings consisting of 150 apartment units and 101 hospital units were monitored weekly via sticky trap for German cockroach infestations over a period of eight months. These infested units were randomly subjected to intervention and control treatments. Pamphlets and posters were provided and lectures were given to support the educational programmes as a tactic of the biorational system. Survey on cockroach index for intervention units showed 67-94% recovery to achieve clean level of infestation for intervention units of the residential buildings and 83% for the hospital. Mean percentage reductions for treatment groups throughout the 15-week treatment period were 76.8% for the residential buildings and 88.1% for the hospital, showing significant differences compared to the control groups. Linear regression of infestation rates were recorded weekly after treatment and their negative slope for treatment groups substantiated significant reductions for interventions. The results of this study showed that biorational control method, using gel bait, educational programmes and sanitation, is an effective way to manage German cockroach infestation.
... Organophosphate-and carbamate-based bait formulations offered greater stability, safety, and much faster mortality than earlier baits, but insecticide resistance and repellency precluded their widespread adoption in cockroach control. The discovery of hydramethylnon in the early 1980s and subsequent improvements in the formulation, its delivery, and deployment have ushered in a new era of pest control technology offering greater efÞcacy, safety, reduced nontarget exposure to insecticides, long residual activity, low odor, and utility in "insecticide-sensitive" areas (Milio et al. 1986;Koehler and Patterson 1989;Appel and Abd-Elghafar 1990;Appel 1990Appel , 1992Cochran 1990;Ross 1993;Appel and Benson 1995;Koehler et al. 1996;Kaakeh et al. 1997). ...
... These data demonstrate that the bait formulation is responsible, in large part, for the level of secondary kill. Cockroaches generally prefer gel baits over dry baits (Appel and Benson 1995), and Maxforce gel was more toxic to the German cockroach than dryer paste formulations (Appel 1992). Cockroaches that ate gel baits also tended to defecate sooner and produced more feces than those ingesting the drier baits (G.B., unpublished data). ...
Foraging cockroaches ingest insecticide baits, translocate them, and can cause mortality in untreated cockroaches that contact the foragers or ingest their excretions. Translocation of eight ingested baits by adult male Blattella germanica (L.) was examined in relation to the type of the active ingredient, formulation, and foraging area. Ingested boric acid, chlorpyrifos, fipronil, and hydramethylnon that were excreted by adults in small dishes killed 100% of first instars within 10 d and >50% of second instars within 14 d. Residues from these ingested baits were also highly effective on nymphs in larger arenas and killed 16-100% of the adults. However, when the baits and dead cockroaches were removed from the large arenas and replaced with new cockroaches, only residues of the slow-acting hydramethylnon killed most of the nymphs and adults, whereas residues of fast acting insecticides (chlorpyrifos and fipronil) killed fewer nymphs and adults. Excretions from cockroaches that ingested abamectin baits failed to cause significant mortality in cockroaches that contacted the residues. These results suggest that hydramethylnon is highly effective in these assays because cockroaches that feed on the bait have ample time to return to their shelter and defecate insecticide-laden feces. The relatively high concentration of hydramethylnon in the bait (2.15%) and its apparent stability in the digestive tract and feces probably contribute to the efficacy of hydramethylnon. To control for differences among baits in inert ingredients and the amount of active ingredient, we compared 1% chlorpyrifos with 1% hydramethylnon in identical baits. Again, hydramethylnon residues provided greater secondary kill, but the results highlighted the importance of the inert ingredients. We conclude that, in the absence of cannibalism and necrophagy, translocation of baits and secondary kill are most effective with slow acting insecticides in palatable baits that can traverse the digestive tract and be deposited within and around the cockroach aggregation.
... Hydramethylnon, an inhibitor of mitochondrial respiration that blocks the electron transport chain (Hollingshaus 1987), works as ingestion toxicant against a range of insects (Koehler and Patterson 1991). Hydramethylnon bait has been shown to provide excellent performance against German cockroach (Appel 1992, Lee 1998, especially managing pyrethroid-resistant German cockroaches (Lee 1998, Sitthicharoenchai et al. 2006. In 1990s, the incidence of hydramethylnon associated resistance was rare (Koehler and Patterson 1991) but the resistance has more recently been documented and likely is more common than presently believed. ...
Insecticide resistance in the German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.), is a significant challenge to the pest management professionals worldwide. We collected 24 field populations of B. germanica from different localities in Taiwan island, reared them for one to two generations, and evaluated them for their resistance to deltamethrin, propoxur, and fipronil using the surface-contact method. Results showed that deltamethrin resistance ratio ranged from 1.5 to 817.5×. Among the strains, TC Supermarket, TC Sanshang Logistics, TC THSR, and TC 1Taichungsteak strains showed very high resistance to deltamethrin, which mortality ranged between 0 and 33% at 7-d post-treatment. On the other hand, resistance to propoxur and fipronil RR were 0.70-7.13× and 1.67-3.72×, respectively. Synergism studies using piperonyl butoxide (PBO) and S,S,S-tributylphosphorotrithioate (DEF) suggested the major involvement of cytochrome P450 monooxygenase and minor involvement of esterases. However, deltamethrin resistance in two strains (i.e., TC Supermarket and TC THSR) was not affected by both PBO and DEF, indicating that other mechanisms are involved in the resistance, including kdr resistance. Evaluation of the field strains using commercial gel baits containing fipronil, imidacloprid, hydramethylnon, and indoxacarb for up to 7 d resulted in 24.4-100%, 11.3-78.5%, 15.8-75.5%, and 63.3-100% mortality, respectively. We found that high deltamethrin resistance in some strains could affect the performance of fipronil, imidacloprid, and indoxacarb baits, indicating the potential involvement of cytochrome P450 monooxygenase in reducing the effectiveness of the bait toxicants.
... BA residues accumulate in the cockroach body and show a positive correlation with the initial doses at application and the exposure time (Kilani-Morakchi et al., 2009;Habes et al., 2006). Similarly, Appel (1992) stated that a higher percentage of BA bait was more effective than the bait containing 33.33% of BA. ...
The German cockroach, Blatella germanica, is a pest of human habitats distributed throughout the world. Boric acid (BA; H3BO3), in the form of powder, pellets, or blocks, has been used to control German cockroaches. Gel baits are also considered highly effective for controlling German cockroach populations. However, BA is not currently available as a gel bait. Thus, the present study was carried out to determine the best concentration of BA to formulate as a gel bait, and measure its direct effectiveness and the horizontal transfer of the active ingredient (AI) through cannibalism in adult German cockroaches (domino effect). Effectiveness of laboratory-prepared BA gel baits (lab baits) was analysed, and the efficacy and horizontal transfer of the most effective lab bait was compared to four commercial baits. Among three tested lab baits, the bait prepared with 40% BA (lab bait A) resulted in significantly greater cockroach mortality and a lower lethal time (LT50) value than other lab baits. When compared with commercial baits, there was no significant difference between lab bait A and BA baits in the amount of bait consumed and the detection time. Similarly, mortality of cockroaches caused by lab bait A was equal to mortality caused by the commercial BA bait. Percentage of bait unfed adult cockroaches killed by transferred BA from lab bait A fed and dead adult cockroaches (secondary mortality) was significantly greater than that caused by both commercial BA bait and fipronil bait.
... This may have to do with the high cockroach infestation rates and frequent re-infestations in apartment buildings. Cockroach baits have existed in the U.S. market for over 25 yr and are proven to be very effective for eliminating cockroach infestations (Appel 1992, Nalyanya et al. 2001, Appel 2003, Wang and Bennett 2006, Wang et al. 2013. However, 55% of the surveyed residents purchased insecticide sprays for control rather than baits in an effort to control cockroaches themselves. ...
The German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.), is a common pest found in apartment buildings. Prevalence of cockroach infestations is affected by both environmental conditions and building occupant behavior, but their relationships are not well studied. The objective of this study was to analyze the presence of German cockroaches in relation to environmental conditions, resident demographics, and residents' tolerance of cockroaches. We conducted resident interviews, placed sticky traps to detect the presence of German cockroaches, and assessed apartment conditions. A total of 388 apartments from seven low-income apartment buildings, occupied by senior citizens in New Jersey, United States, were included. Among the 344 apartments where trap count data were obtained, 30% had German cockroaches. Among interviewed residents whose apartments had existing cockroach infestations, 36% were unaware of the presence of cockroaches. The odds of having cockroaches in apartments with a 'poor' sanitation rating in kitchens and bathrooms was 2.7 times greater than that in apartments with better sanitation conditions. Residents' tolerance to cockroaches is significantly associated with presence of cockroaches and cockroach population size. The median cockroach count when residents were bothered by cockroaches was ≥3, based on deployment of 4 sticky traps per apartment, over a 2-wk period. Assessing and reducing cockroach tolerance thresholds and improving housekeeping through resident education and assistance from community and housing management should be incorporated in future cockroach management programs in order to reduce high cockroach infestation rates found in similar communities.
... As a result of continuous use of insecticides to control flies, the problem of resistance began to appeal. House fly insecticides resistance is global problem [6][7][8][9] and has specifically been documented in Egypt [10][11][12][13][14]. Historically house flies have shown great propensity to develop insecticide resistance, new methods need to be evaluated to prevent future control failures. Toxic baits have been an important tool in fly management program. ...
The efficiency of boric acid, borax and imidacloprid is evaluated for inhibition of adult house fly emergence (IC values) as dry and liquid baits. In the two cases, imidacloprid has the greatest fatal effect at both IC50 and IC90 levels followed by boric acid and then borax. In the liquid formulation, IC50 and IC90 values are (0.083 and 2.6%), (0.19 and 2.48%) and (2.6 and 16.9%) for three tested compounds respectively. The relative efficiency for imidacloprid and boric acid compared to borax (the least potent one), imidacloprid and boric acid achieved 31.3 and 13.7 times more suppression of adult emergence than borax. In the solid formulation, IC50 and IC90 values are (0.083 - 0.67%) followed by boric acid (3.7-11.6%) and borax (5.74-21.1%) respectively. It’s clear that imidacloprid 68.8 times and boric acid 1.5 times as toxic as borax. Reasons for differences in manifestation of mortality and possibilities for practical application are discussed. We conclude that the efficiency of tested compounds as liquid baits is higher than it as dry baits.
... Bait formulations (gel bait and bait stations) replaced pyrethroid sprays and became the dominant German cockroach treatment material after 1990s, which provided much higher efficacy compared to pyrethroid sprays (Appel 1990(Appel , 1992Buczkowski et al. 2001;Gondhalekar et al. 2011). Although behavioral and physiological resistance against gel bait has been reported in some German cockroach populations (Silverman andRoss 1994, Wang et al. 2004), baiting is still an effective method to control German cockroach infestations. ...
Pest infestations in residential buildings are common, but community-wide pest survey data are lacking. Frequent insecticide applications for controlling indoor pests leave insecticide residues and pose potential health risks to residents. In this study, a community-wide pest survey was carried out in a housing complex consisting of 258 units in 40 buildings in New Brunswick, New Jersey. It was immediately followed by implementation of an integrated pest management (IPM) program in all the cockroach-infested apartments and two bed bug apartments with the goal of eliminating pest infestations, reducing pyrethroid residues, and increasing resident satisfaction with pest control services. The IPM-treated apartments were revisited and treated biweekly or monthly for 7 mo. Initial inspection found the top three pests and their infestation rates to be as follows: German cockroaches (Blattella germanica L. [Blattodea: Blattellidae]), 28%; rodents, 11%; and bed bugs (Cimex lectularius L. [Hemiptera: Cimicidae]), 8%. Floor wipe samples were collected in the kitchens and bedrooms of 20 apartments for pyrethroid residue analysis before the IPM implementation; 17 of the 20 apartments were resampled again at 7 mo. The IPM program reduced cockroach counts per apartment by 88% at 7 wk after initial treatment. At 7 mo, 85% of the cockroach infestations found in the initial survey were eliminated. The average number of pyrethroids detected decreased significantly from 6 ± 1 (mean ± SEM) and 5 ± 1 to 2 ± 1 and 3 ± 1 in the kitchens and bedrooms, respectively. The average concentrations of targeted pyrethroids residue also decreased significantly in the kitchens and bedrooms.
... Gel baits have been the main method for German cockroach control in the United States for at least 5-8 yr (Harbison et al. 2003). Gel baits are proven to be convenient to use and highly effective to German cockroach control (Appel 1992, Ross 1993, Appel and Benson 1995, Kaakeh et al. 1997, Appel and Tanley 2000. When the active ingredient is incorporated into palatable bait, cockroaches readily consume a lethal dose from a single meal. ...
... Gel baits have been the main method for German cockroach control in the United States for at least 5-8 year (Harbison et al. 2003). Gel baits are proven to be convenient to use and highly effective (Appel 1992, Ross 1993, Appel and Benson 1995, Kaakeh et al. 1997, Appel and Tanley, 2000. They are also safer and more 42 environmentally friendly than insecticide sprays due to their targeted application. ...
The current study was conducted to investigate the duration of fipronil and imidacloprid gel baits toxicity against German cockroach strains in Iran during 2003-2004. In order to conduct this study, nine German cockroach strains were used. Newly emerged adult male German cockroaches starved for one scotophase (12 h), and ingested fipronil and imidacloprid gel baits for 2 h. After the given time was over, the bait was removed and replaced with mouse pellet. Mortality was recorded at 12 intervals for 144 h (6 days). Mortality data of the replicates were pooled and was tested using probit analysis. Both gel baits were toxic to adult male German cockroaches. In the ingested bait method, the susceptible strain showed LT(50) of 47.1 and 11.3 h for fipronil and imidacloprid gel baits, respectively, and the average LT(90) was 74.2 and 19.3 h, respectively. LT(5)0 of the feral German cockroach strains varied 14.9 h from 30.5 to 45.4 h and 4.4 h from 12.4 to 16.8 h for fipronil and imidacloprid gel baits, respectively. All German cockroach strains showed a similar susceptibility to fipronil and imidacloprid gel baits, compared with the susceptible laboratory strain. The steep slopes of ingested bait mortality curves indicated that the feral German cockroach strains were homogenous to fipronil and imidacloprid ingested get baits. These results suggest that fipronil and imidacloprid gel baits appear to have considerable potential as a bait for insecticide-resistant strains of German cockroach.
... Studies carried out so far and some tests that we conducted showed that commercial gel bait has some drawbacks: it is effective only if the drops are applied very close (about 10 cm) to the shelters of cockroaches (Appel, 1992;Ajjan et al., 1997;Durier and Rivault, 2002); moreover, as it is not particularly attractive or appealing, its efficiency is strongly influenced by the presence of alternative food and water sources (Appel and Tanley, 2000;Nalyanya et al., 2001) and by some behavioural aspects of the cockroach species or stage of development (Kaakeh and Bennett, 1999;Appel and Tanley, 2000;Durier and Rivault, 2000a;2000b). Many gel formulations are also subject to rapid drying that affects their consistency and durability (Appel and Benson, 1995). ...
The attraction behaviour of four synanthropic species of Blattaria (Blattella germanica, Supella longipalpa, Blatta orientalis and Periplaneta americana) was investigated. Methanol faecal extracts always showed a higher intraspecific attractivity than aqueous extracts in "Y" olfactometer bioassays. A gel with resistance to dehydration was prepared, and then methanol faecal extracts were added. Arena bioassays showed that the new gel containing faecal extracts was always more attractive than commercial gel for-mulations.
... Boric acid baits are generally toxic but have moderate performance in field trials (37,38). Dry or wet bait containing boric acid and disodium octaborate tetrahydrate is repellent to German cockroaches (39). ...
German cockroach resistance development, chronic infestations, and the health impact of insecticide applications have prompted increased interest in least toxic technologies and integrated pest management strategies (IPM) for managing German cockroaches to minimize insecticide use, increase long-term efficacy, and slow down insecticide resistance development. New research data on the relative efficacy of attractants, cockroach pheromones, sticky traps, inorganic insecticides, insect growth regulators, and IPM programs have assisted in the adoption of alternative cockroach management methods. Yet, challenges remain in voluntary adoption of IPM programs and least toxic technologies. Education and coordinated efforts among residents, management staff, pest management professionals, and policy makers will be needed for greater acceptance of least toxic strategies.
... Ebeling Choice Box Tests. Cockroach repellency and mortality were determined in Ebeling choice boxes (Ebeling et al. 1966) as described by Appel (1990Appel ( , 1992. Food and water were placed in the lighted compartment of the choice box. ...
Toxicity, repellency, and performance of three insecticides, beta-cyfluthrin EC, fipronil granules, and an essential oil EC formulation, were evaluated against the Asian cockroach, Blattella asahinai Mizukubo, in field and laboratory experiments. The beta-cyfluthrin EC and fipronil granules were significantly more toxic than the essential oil EC formulation under continuous exposure conditions, with LT50 values of 0.014, 0.45, and 11.45 d, respectively. The beta-cyfluthrin EC and fipronil granules were also significantly more toxic than the essential oil EC formulation in an Ebeling choice box test with LT50 values of 0.64, 1.98, and 59.64 d, respectively. Field applications of insecticides at label rates to Asian cockroach populations in Dothan, AL, showed that beta-cyfluthrin EC and fipronil granules reduced populations by 100% at 7 and 30 d after treatment. The essential oil EC formulation initially reduced populations by 68% at 7 d, but control diminished to 2% by 30 d. Results of the field applications and laboratory experiments demonstrate that the beta-cyfluthrin EC and fipronil granules provide excellent control of Asian cockroach populations.
... Water is also a component of cockroach baits and represents ca. 40-60% of bait mass (Appel, 1992(Appel, , 2003. Despite general similarities of gel bait matrices, cockroach consumption of bait and subsequent control can be complex. ...
Consumption was measured of three commercially available cockroach gel baits (0.01 and 0.05% fipronil and 0.6% indoxacarb) by two pest blattellid (German cockroach, Blattella germanica L., and brownbanded cockroach, Supella longipalpa Fabricius) and three pest blattid [oriental cockroach, Blatta orientalis L., American cockroach, Periplaneta americana L., and smokybrown cockroach, Periplaneta fuliginosa (Serville)] species (Dictyoptera), and direct and secondary effects were quantified. All three baits were greatly preferred for consumption over dog food; however, virtually all consumption (ca. 98%) by pest blattids was gel baits containing sugar feeding stimulants and water. Pest blattid greater preference for gel baits was probably due to their greater need for nutrients in baits due to their greater cuticular water permeability and higher metabolism than the pest blattellids. Brownbanded cockroaches had lowest percentage gel bait selection. Pest blattellids consumed greater amounts of bait per g body weight than pest blattids. Cockroaches consumed more active ingredient than needed to cause mortality; however, based on bait consumption, a 30-g tube of gel bait potentially killed from 394 to 6 966 adult cockroaches, depending on species. Mortality for all cockroach species was faster for adults (≥3 days) than for nymphs (≥7 days); however, most brownbanded cockroaches exposed to indoxacarb survived despite consuming 1.5- to >3-fold more than other baits, suggesting low enzyme production by brownbanded cockroaches and consequently lower conversion of indoxacarb into its toxic form. Besides direct mortality, German cockroaches died from indirect effects: exposure to debris from other cockroaches that had direct access to the gel baits or bait contact without ingestion. Although maximization of bait consumption is important, factors that enhance secondary mortality and contact toxicity should also be considered.
... Non-repellent toxic baits are widely used insecticides for cockroach pest management in the United States (Reierson, 1995; Robinson and Zungoli, 1995). Among bait types, gel baits are the preferred formulation among pest management professionals (PMPs) (Mileo et al., 1986; Appel, 1992; Reierson, 1995; Appel and Tanley, 2000; Morrison et al., 2003). However, there have been reports of insecticide resistance (Schal, 1992) and bait aversion (Silverman and Bieman, 1993; Silverman and Ross, 1994; Wang et al., 2004) in the German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L). ...
Bait aversion has recently resurfaced, approximately six to ten years after the first known case of bait aversion (glucose aversion) was corrected. Anecdotal reports from Pest Management Professionals have indicated poor acceptance and control failures on commercial cockroach gel baits since late 1999. We initiated a program to collect and evaluate cockroaches from accounts reporting control failures with Maxforce FC and other commercial gel baits. Laboratory studies confirmed that gel baits were significantly less effective in control of the field-collected strains than the susceptible laboratory strains and that bait aversion was evident. Since Maxforce FC is not formulated with glucose, the scattered declines in efficacy across the United States were due to other factors. Rotations between major commercially available gel baits did not reverse control failures. After several years of lab and field trials of 50 experimental gel formulations, Bayer Environmental Science developed Maxforce FC, which has been effective against all bait aversive German cockroach strains. We provide recommendations for effective cockroach management program in the presence of potential bait aversion.
... Pooled over all test days, moist baits were significantly (x2 = 7.82, df = 1; P> 0.01) preferred to dry baits in all boxes. Appel(1992) ...
Commercial formulations of avermectin based baits were evaluated in laboratory and field studies against the German cockroach, Blartella germanica (L.). In continuous exposure tests with adult males, LTd ranged from ca. 2.5 to >200d for Roach Endermand an experimental aerosol gel formulation, respectively; dry formulations had lower LT& than water containing formulations. Moist formulations were preferred, however, by mixed populations in large arena tests. A powder formulation (Avertm) reduced cockroach trap catch in infested apartments more rapidly when applied at 50, rather than 12 sites, even when the same total bait was applied. When applied at ca. 50 sites, an aerosol formulation of Avert gel provided nearly an 80% reduction in trap catch. Other avermectin formulations provided significant, but not outstanding reductions in trap catch. Avermectin based baits can reduce German cockroach populations when properly applied.
... When cockroach baits are placed close to harborage, they are usually in direct competition with other food and water resources. Therefore, baits, which are often gels with 40-60% moisture [7, 8], need to out-compete other sources of dry food as well as other moisture sources so cockroaches will consume them. Although cockroach control by baits is primarily due to bait consumption, not all insects within a population are actively seeking food, so not all individuals may consume a bait. ...
... (such as the American cockroach, Periplaneta americana [L.]) and other large peridomestic cockroach species (Cheng & Campbell, 1940;Lofgren & Burden, 1958), but the more prevalent German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.), was not successfully controlled with these products. Varying levels of control in the use of baits in the control of B. germanica and P. americana have been reported with chlorpyrifos, sulfluramid, abamectin, boric acid, hydramethylnon, and other baits (Lund & Bennett, 1978;Rust & Reierson, 1981;Reierson et al., 1983;Reierson et al., 1983;Milio et al., 1986;Hagenbuch et al., 1988;Appel, 1990Appel, , 1992Reid et al., 1990;Brenner & Pierce, 1991;Koehler et al., 1991;Appel & Benson, 1995;Kaakeh & Bennett, 1996). Use of baits results in less environmental contamination and greater ease of application than other insecticide products (Rust, 1986). ...
Topical and oral toxicity of fipronil, compared to chlorpyrifos, was determined for the German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.), and American cockroach, Periplaneta americana (L.). Fipronil and Combat bait matrices were evaluated for their attractancies to both species. In the topical toxicity tests, LD50's of fipronil, at 72 h after topical application, were 0.03 and 0.02 g/g for adult B. germanica and P. americana, respectively. Fipronil was significantly more toxic than topically applied chlorpyrifos (LD50's were 0.06 and 0.16 g/g for B. germanica and P. americana, respectively). The oral toxicity of fipronil and chlorpyrifos in Petri dish experiments, against both species, was affected by stage (for B. germanica), diet concentration, and feeding assay. Fipronil caused higher mortality of B. germanica than chlorpyrifos in two feeding assays (continuous and abbreviated). Both compounds were equally toxic to adult males of P. americana at all rates. Fipronil caused higher nymphal mortality than chlorpyrifos 48–72 h after exposure in both feeding assays. In large population chamber tests, fipronil bait was more effective and faster in killing P. americana than Raid and Combat. LT50's were 0.8, 2.4, and 7.6 d for fipronil, Raid (a.i. = chlorpyrifos), and Combat (a.i. = hydramethylnon) baits, respectively. Mortality reached 96.5, 93.4, and 84.6%, respectively, at the end of the 14 d test. In the bait attractancy tests, both strains of B. germanica were attracted similarly to fipronil and Combat bait matrices. P. americana were attracted more to fipronil than to Combat bait matrix or to other alternative foods.
... Thus, implementation of an effective cockroach management program may have additional beneÞts besides cockroach infestation reduction. Since the late 1990s, highly effective gel bait has been the dominant formulation for managing cockroach infestations in inner cities in the United States (Appel 1992, Reierson 1995) and resulted in signiÞcant decline in both pesticide use and cockroach infestations (Greene and Breisch 2002). Unfortunately, chronic cockroach infestations continue to plague low-income housing in the United States. ...
Many low-income housing units in the United States continue to have chronic German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.), infestations and high prevalence of cockroach allergens despite the availability of highly effective cockroach control products. Several studies have demonstrated the greater effectiveness of integrated pest management (IPM) compared with routine chemical interventions in apartment buildings and the benefit of cockroach allergen reduction using IPM. Yet, there has been little information on the cost and benefit of community-wide cockroach IPM, which is critical for voluntary adoption of IPM programs. We evaluated a community-wide IPM program in two low-income apartment complexes in Gary, IN. The program included education of staff and residents, monthly monitoring, and nonchemical (laying sticky traps) and chemical treatment based on monitoring results. One complex of 191 apartments was treated with cockroach gel bait, boric acid dust, and sticky traps by state licensed entomologists from Purdue University (E-IPM group). The other complex of 251 apartments was treated by pest management professionals (PMPs) from a contractor (C-IPM group) following the same protocol as the E-IPM group. Purdue University researchers trained Gary Housing Authority (GHA) staff on cockroach biology and management and cockroach allergen reduction techniques. GHA staff educated all residents in the two complexes on cockroach control and allergen reduction through printed materials, demonstrations, or both. Purdue University entomologists conducted the initial and monthly monitoring in both complexes (laying six sticky traps per apartment and retrieving them the next day) with the assistance from GHA to evaluate program effectiveness, guide insecticide applications, and identify apartments with poor sanitation conditions. Dust samples were collected from kitchen floors of 72 cockroach-infested apartments at the beginning, and again at 6 and 12 mo to evaluate changes in cockroach allergen Bla g 1 concentration. E-IPM resulted in significantly faster cockroach trap count reduction than C-IPM. At 12 mo, the number of cockroach-infested apartments decreased by 74% in both treatment groups. Geometric mean cockroach trap counts decreased from 99.7 at baseline to 0.4 (99.6% reduction) by E-IPM and from 76.0 at baseline to 1.3 (98.3% reduction) by C-IPM. From the first quarter to the fourth quarter, cockroach bait use decreased by 88.5 and 92.7% for E-IPM and C-IPM group, respectively. From month 0 to month 12, geometric mean Bla g 1 concentrations decreased from 27.8 to 2.2 U per gram of dust (U/g) in the E-IPM group and from 5.8 to 2.4 U/g in the C-IPM group. Assuming salary rates at $60/h for PMPs and $19/h for housing authority staff, the mean monthly cockroach management (material and labor expenses) cost was $7.5 USD/apartment for both groups excluding education cost. The cost for subsequent years service is expected to be lower due to reduced cockroach infestations. The effectiveness of both IPM programs was affected by the lack of assistance from housing authority with periodic inspections of the apartments, lack of proper maintenance of the properties, and inadequate cooperation from residents.
... 25 Its control includes a combination of chemical and non-chemical methods. 14,26 Currently, the prevailing chemical control methods include targeted administration of spray residual insecticides and baits. 27,28 Residual insecticides are much more sensitive to exposure time and to interaction with the treated surface than ready-to-use baits. ...
Background:
The authors explored how microcapsule size and brief exposure affected the bioavailability of five microencapsulated insecticide formulations, chlorpyrifos 23.1 g L(-1) CS (Detmol-PRO), chlorpyrifos 20 g L(-1) CS (Empire 20), fenitrothion 20 g L(-1) CS (Detmol-Mic), cyphenothrin 10 g L(-1) CS (Detmol-CAP) and diazinon 30 g L(-1) CS (Diacap), to Blattella germanica L. on porous and non-porous surfaces. The hypothesis was tested that microencapsulated (CS) insecticides comprising larger microcapsules show higher efficacy on porous surfaces than formulations with smaller microcapsules.
Results:
Brief exposure was accomplished by allowing B. germanica to cross a 0.3 m insecticide barrier in 30 s (1.01 cm s(-1)). Such short exposure did not lead to 100% mortality in any formulation or surface tested. Significant differences in bioavailability on the porous and the non-porous surfaces were found: the largest difference was observed in Empire 20 and Detmol CAP, while bioavailability of Detmol MIC did not differ on porous and non-porous surfaces. Comparison of their microcapsule size spectra revealed that formulations containing larger microcapsules had higher efficacy on porous surfaces than formulations with smaller microcapsules. In order to explain the difference in efficacy, the variance of microcapsule sizes was regressed on the efficacy ratio on porous versus non-porous surfaces. Although negative correlation was evident between size of capsules and the efficacy ratio on porous and non-porous surfaces, the difference in the slope parameter was not statistically significant.
Conclusion:
Brief contact of B. germanica with insecticide spray residues, which is common in barrier treatment, may lead to low efficacy, especially on porous surfaces. The latter should be preferably treated with CS insecticides containing a fraction with large capsules. In addition to the size of the microcapsules, the role of other factors, such as wall capsule thickness and chemical composition, on CS insecticide activity on various surfaces should be examined in future work.
... Compared with residual and direct treatment methods, baiting is a better option because it can achieve a similar level of control with a reduced likelihood of pesticide misapplication (Robinson 1988). Cockroach baiting with gel or bait stations is an effective method of control, and had been reported to perform well against field populations of the German cockroach (Reierson et al. 1983, Milio et al. 1986, Appel 1990, Appel 1992, Ogg and Gold 1993, Lee 1998. Baits also provided good control against the smokybrown cockroach, Periplaneta fuliginosa (Smith et al. 1993(Smith et al. , 1995(Smith et al. , 1997(Smith et al. , 1998. ...
The role of sanitation in performance of insecticidal bait stations containing 0.5% chlorpyrifos against the American cockroach, Periplaneta americana (L.), was investigated in residential premises. Test sites were chosen from three locations in Penang Island, Malaysia, and clustered according to their sanitary conditions. Results indicated that at 1-week post-treatment, houses with good sanitary conditions showed a significantly faster reduction (P > 0.05) in the number of cockroaches trapped (> 95%) than those with moderate and poor conditions. At 6 weeks post-treatment, all houses treated with insecticidal baits showed no significant difference in terms of reduction rate of cockroach numbers (P > 0.05), irrespective of sanitary condition. However, the bait performance in houses with poor sanitary conditions could not be sustained up to 12-week post-treatment.
... It is possible that excess water may diminish the release of odorants or that other formulation ingredients, possibly repellents, interfere with the attractiveness of baits. The latter is evident in Raid Max station which failed to attract either B. germanica in the Þeld (Fig. 1) and in olfactometer assays (Fig. 2) or S. longipalpa in the Þeld (Fig. 5), possibly due to repellency of the active ingredient chlorpyrifos (Rauscher et al. 1985, Appel 1990). The physico-chemical properties of baits determine the rate at which odorants are released (Darling et al. 1986). ...
Several insecticide bait formulations were evaluated for their attractiveness to cockroaches in olfactometer assays in the laboratory and in trapping experiments in the field. Included in the assays were bait stations, gels, pastes, and a powder that contained one of the following active ingredients: abamectin, boric acid, chlorpyrifos, or hydramethylnon. There were significant differences among the baits in their attractiveness to the German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.). In trapping experiments, Avert powder (abamectin), Maxforce station and gel, and Siege gel (all hydramethylnon) were consistently attractive to B. germanica adults and nymphs. Laboratory olfactometer assays with adult males confirmed these results and showed that nymphs were as responsive as males whereas females were less responsive. Our bioassays also demonstrate that attractiveness of bait can be dramatically affected by the age of the bait. One week of aging significantly reduced the attractiveness of Avert powder in both laboratory and field assays. Aging, however did not diminish the attractiveness of Maxforce gel, indicating that the formulation may be critical for retention of attractiveness of baits. Baits that were most attractive to the German cockroach were also the most attractive to nymphs and adults of the brownbanded cockroach, Supella longipalpa (F.).
... Furthermore, the fact that the presence of Þpronil in gel did not inßuence its level of attractiveness indicates that Þpronil is not repellent to cockroaches (Durier and Rivault 2000b). Several authors have suggested that too few bait placements could lead to poor control, and that small quantities of bait in many locations provide better control than large quantities in few locations (Appel 1992, Appel and Benson 1995, Reierson 1995. They explained the lack of efÞciency by the fact that too few cockroaches died because they did not Þnd the baits. ...
The aim of this study was to test the efficiency of gels in relation to fragmentation of baits and population density against the German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.). We hypothesized that the efficiency of cockroach control could be improved by fragmentation of gel baits, i.e., by distributing the same amount of bait in several small drops instead of one large one. Our results show that bait fragmentation increased the number of cockroaches gaining access to the gel. However, bait fragmentation increased cockroach mortality only at high population densities. Our results allow us to recommend modulation of bait application in relation to cockroach population density. At low population densities (42 individuals/m2), the recommended dose, one single 30-mg drop/m2, can be applied. At high population densities (> or = 208 individuals/m2), the same recommended dose would be more efficient if applied as several 3-mg drops.
Gel bait formulations of insecticides have been shown to be highly effective in managing German cockroach (Blattella germanica L. [Blattodea: Ectobiidae]) populations. Three potential reasons for this are high palatability of baits, the use of slow-acting insecticides, and their horizontal transfer within aggregations, a phenomenon known as 'secondary mortality'. Our objective was to determine whether horizontal transfer can go beyond secondary, to tertiary and quaternary effects, and to compare various gel baits with different active ingredients. We fed adult females a bait and recorded their bait consumption, moribundity, and mortality. Groups of first instars were then exposed to the dead females and their feces, secondary mortality was quantified, and a new cohort of nymphs was then exposed to the feces and dead nymphs (for tertiary mortality); this process was repeated for quaternary mortality. This design did not distinguish among the major mechanisms of horizontal transfer of insecticides, namely coprophagy and contact with feces, exposure to regurgitated fluids, and cannibalism and necrophagy of nymphs. All the tested baits caused 100% mortality of the adult females that directly fed on the bait and high secondary mortality (average of >85%) within 48 hr. Baits containing either dinotefuran, emamectin benzoate, fipronil, or indoxacarb caused tertiary mortality (average of 15-70%), but only the fipronil and indoxacarb baits caused some quaternary mortality. The relative importance of secondary, tertiary, and quaternary transfer of the active ingredient remains to be determined in field populations of the German cockroach.
Insecticide application for vector control is the most controversial component of a public health program due to concerns about environmental and human health safety. One approach to overcome this challenge is the use of environmentally benign active ingredients. Among the most promising emerging strategies are attractive toxic sugar baits. Sugar alcohols—naturally occurring molecules safe for human consumption but potentially toxic to insects when ingested, have received increased attention for use with this approach. For this study, we screened the toxicity of four different sugar alcohols on several mosquito species, a biting midge, and a filth fly. Sugar alcohol mortalities exceeded those in the sucrose (positive control) only group. However, only erythritol and highly concentrated xylitol induced mortalities exceeding those in the water only (negative control) treatment ranging from approximately 40–75%. Formulations containing erythritol and xylitol should be further investigated under field conditions for efficacy in reducing populations of biting flies and for assessing potential non-target impacts.
Introduction and Objectives: Cockroaches cause food spoilage, mechanical transmission of pathogens, psychological anxiety, and allergic respiratory reactions in humans due to their high adaptation and rapid reproduction. This study aimed to introduce principled and efficient methods for the proper management of cockroach control in human dowelling and present the efficiency of these methods. "Attractive toxic bait", and "Cockroach resistance". Afterward, duplicate and non-efficient articles were removed and, finally, 66 articles published within 1977-2021 were selected to describe the objectives of this study. Results: Based on the results of published articles in recent years, the best approach to cockroach control is the implementation of programs based on an integrated cockroach control strategy. In this strategy, raising the awareness level of personnel and service forces through training aids and holding training courses has a significant impact on the prevention of cockroach infestation. Among the control methods, the use of formulations with the least toxicity has shown significant efficiency in the control of cockroaches. The use of poisonous sorbent bait, especially in the form of gel, could reduce the cockroach population to zero in less than a week. One of the advantages of this formulation is the targeted use of insecticides, reduction of resistance to insecticides, and minimization of environmental pollution and hazards caused by insecticide residues, which has been considered in the integrated control strategy. Conclusions: Integrated cockroach control-based programs in the form of an "integrated management tactics pyramid" can provide the best performance in controlling cockroach infestation in human habitats.
Over the last several decades, low-income public housing facilities have been known to be infested with particularly large German cockroach populations. These populations persist even though the housing pest control contracts often require, and pay for, IPM practices to be used in their facilities. When Virginia Tech researchers began reviewing public housing contracts in Virginia and North Carolina, it was easy to see why these 'IPM programs' were not successful. Many of these 'low-bidder' contracts do not allow the technician enough time in each apartment to assess the size of the pest population. In addition, these pest management contracts did not require German cockroach population monitoring, even though all IPM programs are based on assessments of the pest population. There was a clear need for an effective, easy to apply cockroach management program in U.S. public housing authorities. This study determined the long-term efficacy of an Assessment-based Pest Management (APM) program for German cockroach control in U.S. public housing facilities. Specifically, we evaluated an APM program where the residents were not asked to clean or prepare for treatment, and where overnight cockroach trap counts were used to determine the volume of gel bait that would be applied. The APM baiting program was conducted for 15 mo in three housing authorities. In all three housing authorities, cockroach populations in test units were typically reduced by >90%. German cockroach infestations were even eliminated from 49 of the 65 (75%) test units during this study.
The results indicated the effectiveness of Aggregation pheromone to reducing the amount of toxic substance to environment by mixing the pesticides with pheromone and less than recommended rates and gave effective results. The results indicated that the treatment of adult foods with Maxforce,insect growth regulator( Applaud)and Neem oil in different concentrations had an inverse relation between the concentrations used and the time duration needed to adult mortality. The results confirmed that the addition of the Pheromone Extract to the Pesticides had the effect of reducing the amount of the toxic substance entering the environment as well as reducing the time required for killing. The results indicate the adult mortality percentage of american cockroches when using 1 g of Maxforce reached to 100% after 12 days compare with two days when added 0.5ml.aggregation pheromone with pesticide that used.
German cockroaches, Blattella germanica (L.) (Blattodea: Ectobiidae), are important indoor insect pests and remain difficult to control because of their ability to develop resistance to insecticides. The toxicity, resistance levels, repellency, and performance index (PI) value of five formulated insecticides (permethrin, chlorpyrifos, propoxur, imidacloprid, and fipronil) were determined for adult males of seven strains of the German cockroach: a laboratory-reared susceptible strain (S) and six field-collected strains (B, D, E, G, H, and I). Propoxur was generally the most toxic insecticide to all strains using continuous exposure methods; however, using Ebeling choice box methods, chlorpyrifos, and fipronil were most toxic. In both continuous exposure and Ebeling choice box tests, the field-collected strains were generally most resistant to permethrin among the five insecticides. The greatest increase in resistance ratios between the two exposure methods was for permethrin and propoxur. Permethrin was the most repellent insecticide against all but two strains (D and H). PI values reached 100 (no repellency and complete mortality) for the susceptible strain against only chlorpyrifos and fipronil. Only fipronil resulted in a PI value of 100 for any of the field-collected strains. Continuous exposure and Ebeling choice box resistance ratios were correlated, and both were correlated with previously reported resistance ratios (based on LD50 values). Choice box repellency, however, was only correlated with LD50 resistance ratios. PIMax was negatively correlated with all measures of resistance ratios.
German cockroaches, Blattella germanica (L.), remain one of the most difficult indoor insect species to control because of its ability to develop resistance to insecticides. The toxicity and resistance levels of five technical-grade insecticides (permethrin, chlorpyrifos, propoxur, imidacloprid, and fipronil) were determined for adult males of seven strains of the German cockroach, a laboratory-reared susceptible strain (S) and six field-collected strains (B, D, E, G, H, and I). Using topical application methods, fipronil was the most toxic insecticide to all seven strains. The LD50 values of fipronil in the susceptible strain (S) and the field-collected strains B, D, E, G, H, and I were 1.33, 2.62, 11.53, 5.07, 7.66, 5.15, and 10.15 ng/insect, respectively. The field-collected strains were most resistant to permethrin among the five insecticides, except for strain H. The resistance ratios of strains B, D, E, G, and I to permethrin were 31.8, 37.3, 51.9, 34.9, and 37.5, respectively. With a resistance ratio of 6.4, the field-collected strain H was most resistant to chlorpyrifos. The field-collected strains were not significantly resistant to propoxur. Strains B, H, and I were not significantly resistant to imidacloprid when compared with the susceptible strain. Based on the different resistance ratios for each insecticide, we conclude that there are high rates of insecticide resistance in German cockroaches from Franklin County, NC, and that the field-collected strains most likely had different treatment histories.
Laboratory and field performance of a bait toxicant, lithium perfluorooctane sulfonate (Sulfotine^ ) [LPOS] in bait station (1% LPOS) in comparison with a commercially available bait station (containing 0.5% chlorpyrifos) were tested against the American cockroach,Periplaneta americana (Linnaeus) and other peridomestic cockroach species in lowincome houses and apartments in Penang Island, Malaysia. Laboratory evaluation indicated that there was minimal difference between the performance of LPOS baits and that of the chlorpyrifos bait, when tested against P. americana, P. brunnea and P. australasiae. In field studies, LPOS- and chlorpyrifosbased bait stations reduced trapped domiciliary and peridomestic cockroaches by 95% and >85% within the first two weeks following treatment, respectively. At the 12th week post-treatment, LPOS still provided >99% reduction in cockroach trap counts. Further studies were executed to evaluate the effects of bait numbers on the performance of LPOS baits against the American cockroach in suburban apartments (35.8 m^2). It was demonstrated that 4-8 baits were needed to achieve good control of the cockroach population (i. e. about 90% reduction within 1 week post-treatment). Sanitation levels were positively correlated with percentage reduction in trap counts in houses treated with lower bait numbers ; however, when higher number of baits were used, the role of sanitation on reduction of cockroach numbers was lessened.
In this work, we present our results on the use of potassium alum as an environmentally friendly insecticide. This compound has the potential to rid our homes, schools, hotels, restaurants, and ships of cockroach infestations. This compound is environmentally friendly and has no hazardous effects on plant, animal, or human ecosystems. Alum was approved for medical use a long time ago. In our laboratory, we developed a novel method using potassium alum as an environmentally friendly insecticide to kill the most common cockroach in the subtropical region, Periplaneta americana (L.). Adult and nymph-staged cockroaches were left to feed on potassium alum per individual insect after a period of food deprivation. The mortality was recorded as LT50. The younger nymphs the third and early fourth instars died within 4 d of feeding after consuming an average of 0.3 mg per individual insect. Gravid females were highly susceptible to alum toxicity and experienced a higher mortality rate, with an average of 3 mg per individual female. The oothecae of the normal untreated females were 8.1 mm long and 4.13 mm wide and weighed 94 mg. The eggs laid by the treated gravid females were underweight and exhibited a dwarfism shape, and these eggs did not hatched if the females consumed the potassium alum before laying eggs. The results revealed that the adult male and female cockroaches have to consume 1 mg and 2.7 mg, respectively, of potassium alum to kill 100% of them after 1 month of ingestion. The potassium alum had to be ingested by the cockroaches to affect mortality. The effect of potassium alum was attributed to chronic toxicity and not acute toxicity. The potential applications of this novel technique will be discussed.
Cockroaches are one of most common urban and food industry pests (Stejskal, Verner 1996). We performed laboratory tests on the speed of action against German cockroaches of 10 commercial gel baits containing the major classes of active ingredients currently used (Stejskal, et al., 2004). The following three main groups of baits differing in speed of their action were recognized:
I. Rapid action baits (NT50 < 2 hours): imidacloprid – PROFICID ACTIVE, (chlorpyrifos) – KARATOX TURBO (1.2%), beta-cypermethrin - SCHABEN- GEL),
II. Quick action baits (NT50 2- 12 hours): chlorpyrifos - SWAT GEL (0.6) and ZEL (0.4 %), fenitrothion- SCHVABEX GEL, fipronil - GOLIATH.
III. Slow action baits (NT50 12-72 hours): abamectin - AVERT, hydrametylnon –MAXFORCE, boric acid –PROXICOL- N.
Our work showed the different behavioral potential of an intoxicated cockroach to return back an defecate into harborage after the ingestion of a particular bait. Buczkowski, Schal, 2001 found that some slowly acting insecticides have low physiological potential (e.g. boric acid, abamectin) to cause secondary kill. Although not all slow acting baits have the capacity to cause secondary kill they may possess two advantages over rapid and quick action baits: (i) slowly killed cockroaches inside harborages potentially represent a lower risk of contamination of food products (ii) slow acting active ingredients (i.e. hydrametylnon or abamectin) are used solely in baits and are thus less endangered by occurrence of cross-resistance than the quickly acting neurotoxic active ingredients (e.g. chlorpyrifos) that have been used in sprays for decades.
ABSTRACT The laboratory studies were carried out for evaluating control effects of four commercial insecticidal baits such as two different hydramethylnon [2.0%(AI)] products (DBK® and Combat-Gold®), fipronil [0.05 %(AI)] (Combat-Power®) and (0.6% chlorpyrifos [0.6%(AI)] (Raid-Roachbait®) against German cockroaches (Blattella germanica). The control rates of four kinds of toxic baits were all 100.0% mortality of German cockroaches in 5 days after treatment. The results of chlorpyrifos and fipronil brought 100.0% mortalities in 2 to 3 days after treatment, respectively. After 3 day treatment, there was no significant difference of control effect among the four toxic baits. As a result of this study, fipnonil and chlorpyrifos showed faster killing action against German cockroaches than the two hydramethylnon formulation products. In the choice test, DBK® (hydramethylnon) (average 17.0 ind.) significantly attracted more German cockroaches than Combat-Gold® (hydramethylnon) (avg. 7.0 ind.), Combat-Power® (fipronil) (avg. 5.3 ind.) and Raid-Roachbait® (chlorpyrifos) (avg. 3.3 ind.). The difference in attraction effects came 10 minutes after treatment. In order to evaluate the secondary killing effect of toxic baits by coprophagy against adult Blattella germanica, the comparative test was carried out. The adult mortality rates were significantly different among the four toxic baits showing 86.7% mortality for fipronil, 60.0% for hydramethylnon (DBK®), 30.0% for chlorpyrifos, and below 13.3% for hydramethylnon (Combat-Gold®) in 6 days. During the first 12 days, fipronil showed the highest mortality rate (90.0%), followed by hydramethylnon (DBK®) (60.0%). The secondary killing effect of toxic baits by coprophagy appeared in all of the baits against adult Blattella germanica.
Rates of water loss and desiccation tolerance of German cockroaches, Blattella germanica (L.), exposed to moving air were determined in continuous exposure experiments using modified Ebeling choice boxes. Rates of water loss (g/g · d), based on changing wet mass, of each cockroach over time were modeled using an exponential equation, the coefficients of which were further analyzed to determine the effects of air velocity and body water composition. Water loss rates of all B. germanica stages examined increased with increasing air velocity. Median mortality times for cockroaches decreased exponentially with increasing air velocity. Adult males had the shortest median mortality times (63 and 26 hr at 0 and 4.75 m/sec) while large nymphs had the longest (293 and 120 hr at 0 and 4.75 m/sec). Percentages of total body water lost at the median mortality times decreases with increasing air velocity, therefore cockroaches can withstand greater %TBW. loss when desiccated more slowly.
Responses of German cockroaches, Blattella germanica (L.) (Dictyoptera: Blattellidae), to microencapsulated (ME) formulations of six insecticides (bifenthrin, chlorpyrifos, cyfluthrin, deltamethrin, lambda-cyhalothrin, and permethrin) were compared with emulsifiable concentrates (EC) (chlorpyrifos, cyfluthrin, deltamethrin, and permethrin) or ready-to-use (RTU) formulations (bifenthin and lambda-cyhalothrin). Two rates were tested per comparison. Baseline toxicity (LT50 value) was determined by continuous exposure to residual deposits. Repellency, toxicity (LT50), and performance index (PI) values were determined using Ebeling choice boxes. Baseline toxicity of the permethrin formulations was similar, but all other active ingredients had significant toxicity differences at one or both formulation x dose comparisons. Baseline toxicity and repellency were negatively correlated. Choice box LT50 and the time to reach 50% of the maximum PI were positively correlated. The maximum PI was positively correlated (P < 0.06) with baseline LT50 and negatively correlated (P < 0.07) with repellency. Chlorpyrifos had the lowest repellency except for the EC at 0.25%. Bifenthrin ME and lambda-cyhalothrin ME had greater PI values than comparative RTU formulations. Cyfluthrin EC at 0.03% and deltamethrin ME at 0.01% had significantly lower PI values than comparison treatments. Permethrin PI value for the EC at 0.03% exceeded that for the ME, but at 0.05% the ME had a significantly greater PI. These data demonstrate the difficulty in making generalizations about the relative performance of ME compared with EC or RTU formulations. Variable results observed within, and between, formulations may be influenced by application rate, formulation type, other formulation components, and the toxicity-repellency of the active ingredient.
Experimental indoxacarb powder and gel baits were evaluated in the laboratory, and a gel bait was evaluated in subsequent field studies against the German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.). In continuous exposure tests, LT50 values were 1.90 and 1.10 d for 0.25 and 1% indoxacarb powder baits, respectively. However, 0.25% indoxacarb gel bait had an LT50 value of 0.68 d, similar to a 0.05% abamectin gel bait formulated with the same bait base. There was no difference in toxicity between fresh and 7-d-old gel bait deposits. A pyrethroid-resistant strain of German cockroaches was significantly resistant to both abamectin and indoxacarb gel baits. Gel bait contained approximately 40% water, desiccated rapidly at 25-28 degrees C and 30-45% RH, but did not rehydrate when held at 56.7% RH for 3 d. Powder indoxacarb baits contained <1% water and did not desiccate or gain water. Indoxacarb gel bait (0.25%) was relatively nonrepellent (approximately 30%) and had positive maximum performance index values (approximately 100) in Ebeling choice box experiments. In field experiments in cockroach-infested kitchens, the 0.25% indoxacarb gel bait significantly reduced visual counts of German cockroaches approximately 74% at 3 d and >95% at 14 d. Indoxacarb baits are toxic, relatively nonrepellent, and can significantly reduce German cockroach populations.
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