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Vitamin C Content of Citrus from Conventional versus Organic Farming Systems
Abstract and Figures
Fertilization in citrus is a cultural practice with great importance as it affects significantly the quality of fruit. In this work we evaluated the effects of organic versus conventional farming systems on internal and external characteristics of citrus, with particular emphasis on vitamin C content. The study was carried out in different orchards of the Algarve region, in the south of Portugal. Fruits of different orchards were harvested at physiological maturity and submitted to physical and chemical analyses. The results showed that mineral fertilization led to fruits with greater weight and diameter, a thicker peel and a more intense colour. Compared with conventional production, fruits from organic farming had more soluble solids and a lower maturation index. The highest concentrations of vitamin C were recorded in fruits from organic farming, but the response depended on species and cultivar.
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... Evidence from several in vitro and in vivo studies has related citrus fruit consumption to a reduced risk of chronic diseases such as cancers, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes [8,9]. These fruits contain a range of highly beneficial bioactive compounds, such as polyphenols, coumarins, limonoids, carotenoids, essential oils, minerals, and vitamins, which alone or in combination show antimicrobial and antioxidant properties and help boost the body's immune system [7,[10][11][12][13]. Due to their high vitamin C concentration and the large per capita consumption volume, citrus fruits are an important source of ascorbic acid in the human diet [14,15]. ...
... Conventional farming systems have focused mainly on yield rather than on the sustainable use of available resources [17]. Technological advances and economies of scale encouraged the use of chemical solutions to control pests and diseases and increase soil productivity [10]. The massive use of chemically synthesized fertilizers, heavy machinery, and intensive agricultural practices contribute to high greenhouse gas emissions [18]. ...
... Fruit quality is the result of complex interactions of genetic factors (plant crop and cultivar), environmental conditions, cultivation practices, harvesting time, and postharvest handling [10,43,44]. Our results suggest that there are considerable differences in various physical, chemical, and nutritional quality parameters in the citrus samples analyzed due to the different production systems. ...
A transition towards an organic food system is taking place around the world. This process is favored by growing consumer demand, who associate organic crops with being healthier, tastier, and safer for the environment than conventional crops. Citrus is one of the most widely produced crops worldwide and has important socio-economic and cultural significance in the Mediterranean area. The aim of this work is twofold; on the one hand, it reveals the variability of a set of physical–chemical and nutritional quality parameters of two citrus fruit varieties, ‘Navelina’ oranges and ‘Clemenules’ mandarins, from organic and conventional production in a long-term study. On the other hand, taking advantage of the large number of results, a model is proposed that allows the successful differentiation of citrus fruits from organic and conventional production and a tool that allows predicting the production system of citrus fruits. The results suggest that organically produced citrus fruits do not generate differences in terms of external aspects, providing fruits that are acceptable to the market. Organic production techniques influenced the lower peel content and higher pulp and juice content in ‘Navelina’ orange and ‘Clemenules’ mandarin fruits and led to a greater ability to synthesize vitamin C in the juice, more essential oils in the skin, and higher seed numbers, although in all cases, the fruits can be classified as having low seed numbers. Two discriminating equations were obtained that use easy-to-measure parameters to successfully classify organic citrus fruits. The classification and prediction models obtained constitute useful tools to help in the control of the purity/authenticity of organic citrus fruits.
... (Rapisarda et al., 2005) [56] suggested higher vitamin C content in citrus produced organically than inorganic ones. Similar results were reported in 'Tarocco' oranges (Tarozzi et al., 2006) [55] , 'Newhall' and 'Navelina oranges (Raigón, 2007) [57] , "Valencia late" and 'Baia' oranges (Duarte et al., 2010) [60] , 'Rio Red' grapefruit (Lester et al., 2007), 'Nules' and 'Okitsu' mandarin (Raigón, 2007) [57] . Elhassan et al., 2011 [58] ; Roussos, 2011 [59] evaluate none of the significant difference versus organic and inorganic way of farming. ...
... (Rapisarda et al., 2005) [56] suggested higher vitamin C content in citrus produced organically than inorganic ones. Similar results were reported in 'Tarocco' oranges (Tarozzi et al., 2006) [55] , 'Newhall' and 'Navelina oranges (Raigón, 2007) [57] , "Valencia late" and 'Baia' oranges (Duarte et al., 2010) [60] , 'Rio Red' grapefruit (Lester et al., 2007), 'Nules' and 'Okitsu' mandarin (Raigón, 2007) [57] . Elhassan et al., 2011 [58] ; Roussos, 2011 [59] evaluate none of the significant difference versus organic and inorganic way of farming. ...
Citrus fruits are an important diet for human health by providing some nutritional and antioxidant components, especially ascorbic acid (AsA). As the major antioxidant compound, the concentration of Ascorbic acid is an important nutritional quality indicator for citrus fruit and its derivative products. Although the emphasis is on vitamin C content of harvested citrus fruit, this review of literature focuses on pre harvest and post harvest factors affecting this nutritional quality variable. Preharvest factors including genotype, cultural practices, climatic conditions, fruit maturity and postharvest management treatments such as surface coating, heat treatments, irradiation, and ethylene degreening lead to better vitamin C retention. Vitamin C retention is also improved when citrus fruits are stored in modified atmosphere packaging and controlled atmosphere (CA).
... AA is also naturally present in plants, especially in fruits and vegetables, as the reduced form of vitamin C [10]. The amount of vitamin C in plants depends on many factors, such as the diversity of plants, conditions of soil and climate, duration and storage conditions, and preparation methods [10]. ...
... AA is also naturally present in plants, especially in fruits and vegetables, as the reduced form of vitamin C [10]. The amount of vitamin C in plants depends on many factors, such as the diversity of plants, conditions of soil and climate, duration and storage conditions, and preparation methods [10]. Among the well-known sources of vitamin C are citrus fruits, kiwifruit, tomatoes, broccoli, peppers, strawberries, Brussels sprouts, and cantaloupe [11]. ...
One of the improvers used in breadmaking is ascorbic acid (AA), a chemical compound that strengthens the dough and extends the shelf life of bread. This work investigates the suitability of replacing the synthetic AA with rosehip powder (Rp) rich in this bioactive compound. Thus, a comprehensive study of wheat flour (WF) replaced with 0.5–2.5% w/w Rp regarding the extensographic, amylographic and rheofermentographic properties of dough and sensory attributes of bread was performed. WF without RP or AA addition of 2 mg/100 g was used as a control. A sample with an AA addition of 2 mg/100 g was also used. The Rp addition positively influenced the extensographic, amylographic and rheofermentographic properties of the dough. The dough resistance to extension, R, in Brabender Units (BU), increased from 330 ± 1.41 BU (control) to 995 ± 1.41 BU (2.5% w/w Rp) for a resting time of 90 min. The gelatinization temperature of the dough increased from 61.0 °C (control) to 62.9 °C (2.5% w/w Rp). The volume of gases retained in the dough increased in bread with up to 2.0% w/w Rp and afterwards decreased. The sensory properties of the bread, e.g., external appearance, volume, flavor, and taste, were appreciated by the sensory panel and received higher total scores than the control bread. According to the results presented in this work, the optimum concentration of Rp was 1.5% w/w. However, because the concentration of AA in Rp at the moment of use could vary, it would be better to consider an optimum range, e.g., 1.0–2.0% w/w Rp. The study showed that the Rp is appropriate for breadmaking as an alternative to synthetic AA.
... However, this cultivar has lost acreage, mostly due to alternate bearing and characteristic fruit spots (Maia et al., 2004), which makes the fruits less accepted by the market. Alternate bearing leads to the production of small-sized fruits and may be related to the low content of vitamin C in the juice of this cultivar (Duarte et al., 2010). The epidermal spots are more intense in the fruits more exposed to solar radiation, less covered by the tree's foliage. ...
Pruning can be used for various purposes in citriculture: to control the size and shape of the trees; improve fruit size and quality; manage alternate bearing and control diseases and pests. However, the physiological response of the tree to heading cuts is not well documented. To supplement the lack of studies on the effect of pruning on branch growth, a trial was conducted on ‘Encore’ mandarin, in the Algarve region, the main citrus-growing area of Portugal. Twenty-five sets of two branches that had completed growth and had similar characteristics in terms of vigor and position on the tree were selected. In July, one branch was left unpruned (control) and the other was pruned to half its length (pruned). New shoot growth (position in the branch, number, length, and type) was recorded from July to December. While control branches grew in the summer months and stopped in September, pruned branches grew more gradually and stopped in November. Pruned branches had a higher percentage of new growth (52%), compared to the control branches (25%). The pruning treatment also had a higher percentage of branches with new shoots (36%), compared to the control treatment (16%). In both treatments, the number of new shoots in the bud was higher at the branch tip and decreased towards the branch base. However, the pruned branches had more new shoots per bud at the tip of the branch than the control branches. There were no significant differences in total length of new shoots between control branches and pruned branches.
... • Active against microbes 11,12,19 . ...
From the European Pharmacopoeia, cold cream is classified as water in oil (W/O) emulsion; it is also called fatty cream. Results of the paper: Uses, composition, preparation, testing, history, and ideal characteristics of cold cream are all covered. Before the first century, druggists frequently blended cream and stored it in the refrigerator to use as a cold cream for the skin. Due to the fact that cold cream causes the water to evaporate and have a cooling effect, the term "refrigeran" from Latin originally meant "making cold, because the water in the emulsion evaporation is slow, the herbal extract including the cold cream has a calming and cooling effect.
... Around 85% of this production was obtained in the Algarve, the southernmost region of Portugal, where citrus is the main crop, occupying an area of 16,000 ha [1]. Furthermore, citrus fruits have great importance in the culture and traditions of the country and the entire Mediterranean basin [2] and are an important contribution to a healthy diet due to their high vitamin C content [3]. ...
Aphids affect citrus by causing leaf deformations and reducing fruit production. Additionally , aphids are a great concern due to their ability to transmit Citrus tristeza virus (CTV), the cause of tristeza, one of the main citrus diseases. In the last four years, citrus orchards in the south of Portugal (Algarve region) were sampled for aphid species identification and counting. Aphis spiraecola was the most abundant species, representing more than 80% of all identified aphids, and the damage (leaf deformation) it causes was directly proportional to its density. A. gossypii was the second most common species, followed by A. aurantii and Macrosiphum euphorbiae. The number of aphids in nymph stages was predominant over the adult stages (both wingless and winged) in all species. A. citricidus, the most efficient CTV vector, was not detected. The largest populations of A. spiraecola were observed in lemon and orange trees during spring (>100 individuals per shoot), with great damage observed in orange, lemon, and mandarin trees. A. gossypii was observed mainly in mandarin and tangor trees. There was a low activity of natural biological control agents, with the parasitism of A. spiraecola by Lysiphlebus spp. and Binodoxys spp. ranging from 0.3 to 1.5%. The numerical ratio ranged from 150 to 440 aphids per predator, and among these, syrphids were the most abundant, followed by lacewings and coccinellids (Scymnus).
... Uses and benefits 1. Anti-aging effects 2. Skin rejuvenation 3. Moisturizing properties 4. Improves skin tone 5. Skin brightening 6. Helps in treating acne 7. Soothes skin irritation 8. Antioxidant effects 9. Anti-inflammatory properties 10. Antimicrobial action [16] . ...
... The combination of T5 with V3 achieved the highest value, which was similar to T4 with V2, and this combination in turn was 100% higher than the lowest value expressed by T4 with V1. These results confirm the findings of Duerte et al. [54], who stated that organic fertilization can help to increase the content of VC in citrus, although this will depend on the species and the cultivar. The lowest value was 110 mg/100 g, while the highest value was 227 mg/100 g of fresh fruit weight under essay conditions. ...
Habanero chili pepper has great economic importance in Mexico, but its production is limited due to different factors that affect quality. Given the high demand and prices of the fruit, the production of this crop is spreading to other regions in search of new production systems. The aim of this research work was to assess the yield and antioxidant components of the fruit by supplementing potassium from organic sources. The “Campeche”, “Palenque”, and “Jaguar” varieties were studied in five NPK treatments; replacing the % of potassium with humus and compost: (T1) 240-200-120+50% of K from liquid earthworm humus; (T2) 240-200-180+25% of K from liquid earthworm humus; (T3) 240-200-120+50% of K from vermicompost; (T4) 240-200-180+25% of K from vermicompost; and (T5) 240-200-240 (control, 100% chemical nutrition). For yield components, there were significant differences, highlighting the importance of the nutrition source for the yield and weight of fruits per plant. The control (T5) presented a value of 39 t·ha⁻¹ and was similar to treatments T2 and T3 with a supplement of 25 and 50% organic K. For the polar and equatorial diameter of fruit, as well as for plant height and leaf area, treatments supplemented with 50% organic K (T1 and T3) were more effective. For the varieties evaluated, no differences in yield and fruit weight were found; however, Campeche produced more fruits per plant with a greater equatorial diameter, while Palenque obtained fruits with a greater polar diameter and taller plants. The results of antioxidant compounds show that organic K supplementation improves the quality of total carotenoids, β-carotenes, and xanthophylls compared to 100% chemical fertilization, since total carotenoid content is improved by 54.2%, β-carotenes by 46.4%, and xanthophylls by 37.8%, respectively. The Campeche variety was the one that presented the best fruits with the highest antioxidant quality. These results indicate a positive effect of the combined application of chemical fertilizer with worm humus on yield and its components in pepper and other crops and show an economic, ecological, and sustainable alternative to the production of habanero chili pepper.
... As with other citrus species and varieties, both C. x sinensis and C. reticulata are powerful sources of vitamin C and natural antioxidants [3]. Nevertheless, the vitamin C content of mandarins is different (lower) than oranges [4]. Their juice contains higher quantities of polyphenols, flavanones, anthocyanins, hydroxycinnamic acids, alcohols, and other health-beneficial compounds [5], which offer enormous biological potential in the pharmaceutical and food industries [6]. ...
Oranges and mandarins in Chongqing, China, are mostly processed for juice and their peels are wasted or landfilled. To add value, it is essential to utilize the peels and extract useful materials, such as citrus essential oils (CEOs). Here, we report the metabolome analysis of the peels of Citrus x sinensis (CS) and Citrus reticulata (CR). In total, 793 metabolites were detected in the CS and CR peels, of which 242 were differentially accumulated. The metabolites were grouped into 12 compound classes. Terpenoids were the highest accumulated class of compounds followed by phenols and alcohols in both fruit peels. CR peels were rich in all types of compounds, whereas CS showed a relatively lower content of the detected compounds. The highest accumulated compounds were β-phellandrene, beta-ocimene, 1,3,6-octatriene,3,7-dimethyl, and d-limonene. Overall, CR showed higher compound diversity than CS. The CS and CR peel extracts showed antibacterial effects against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Bacillus subtilis. The peel extracts from CR and CS showed similar antibacterial effects against E. coli and B. subtilis, while CS peel extracts were more effective against S. aureus. Overall, our study concludes that both CS and CR peels should not be wasted owing to the CEOs and respective antibacterial activities.
The application of organic citrus cultivation in Dau District, Malang, Indonesia can be an alternative to the sustainability of this commodity, given the longstanding use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in this area. Farmers could fully, partially accept, postpone or even reject organic farming, according to their knowledge, perception and evaluation results. Therefore, a study was conducted to determine the factors that influence the application of citrus organic farming in Dau district, which is one of the centers of citrus production in East Java, Indonesia. The results hopefully can provide an initial overview of the important factors that need to be improved and become a consideration for farmers to adopt, so that sustainability can be achieved. A total of 44 farmers participated as respondents, representing 19 existing farmer groups. The survey was conducted in 2020, with the assistance of local extension workers. Data analysis used a Structural Equation Model (SEM), with the concept of theory of planned behavior (TPB). The results showed that the main factor that influenced respondent farmers interest in implementing organic citrus cultivation, which in turn applicated it, was government support. The factor emphasizes the importance of the presence of demonstration farm. This situation can be understood, referring to the characteristics of respondent farmer who have their own obstacles to apply citrus organic farming, including limited land, used high density planting, and once a year harvested pattern. Further studies involving more farmers and incorporating the influence of respondent farmers characteristics need to be carried out to provide a clearer picture.
Consumers demand organic products because they believe that the organic products are more flavorful and respectful to the
environment and human health. The effects of organic farming on the minerals contents and aroma composition of Clemenules
mandarin juices were studied. Minerals (Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Ca, Mg, K, and Na) were quantified using atomic absorption-emission
spectroscopy, while volatile compounds were extracted using the dynamic headspace technique and were identified and quantified
by GC–MS. In general, organic farming produced a mandarin juice with a higher quality than that produced by conventional agricultural
practices. Higher concentrations of both minerals and positive volatile compounds were found in the organic juice, while the
formation of off-flavors was higher in the conventional juice, although threshold values were not reached.
The effects of postharvest treatment and storage at 5°C on changes in the organic acid content in the juice of 'Assaria' and 'Mollar' pomegranate were monitored. The fruit was chill stored after the following treatments: covering boxes with a 25-μ thick low-density polyethylene film and spraying with 1.5% CaCl2; untreated fruit was used as the control. The results showed that citric acid is the main organic acid in the 'Mollar' cultivar, followed by tartaric acid, whereas three organic acids were present at similar levels in 'Assaria' pomegranate: citric, oxalic and tartaric acids. Differences in the main organic acid contents were detected when fruit was submitted to different treatments prior to cold storage. The different pretreatments did not significantly interfere with the accumulation of organic acids in either cultivar. There were two exceptions. The ascorbic acid content was significantly higher in the 'Mollar' cultivar when the fruit was treated with calcium, while the pyruvic acid content was significantly higher in the 'Assaria' cultivar in the untreated fruit.
Some of the most exciting research in the last decade has been the discovery of a group of nutrients which have protective effects against cell oxidation. These naturally occurring compounds impart bright colour to fruits and vegetables and act as antioxidants in the body by scavenging harmful free radicals, which are implicated in most degenerative diseases. Epidemiological studies have established a positive correlation between the intake of fruits and vegetables and prevention of diseases like atherosclerosis, cancer, diabetes, arthritis and also ageing. So pronounced has been their effect on ageing that they have been called 'fountains of youth'. Fruits and vegetables have thus had conferred on them the status of 'functional foods', capable of promoting good health and preventing or alleviating diseases. Phenolic flavonoids, lycopene, carotenoids and glucosinolates are among the most thoroughly studied antioxidants. The present review highlights the potential of fruits and vegetables rich in antioxidants, their health benefits and the effect of processing on the bioavailability of these nutrients. The paper also reviews some of the important methods used to determine the antioxidant activity.
A series of studies, conducted over the period 1989 to 1993, based
on actual purchasing patterns, seeks to quantify the extent of purchase
of organic food and the consumer's commitment. The most commonly
expressed motives for purchasing organic food have become consideration
for the environment and health reasons. Availability and price are the
chief factors which inhibit the purchase of organic food. A profile of
actual purchasers of organic produce shows them to be female aged 30-45,
with children and having a higher level of disposable income. This
research has demonstrated that the primary factor in organic food
purchase is the consumer's level of personal disposable income. There
would appear to be a distinction between those who claim to be
interested in the environment and those who regularly buy organic
products.
The possible differences between organic and conventional plant products are examined from the view of possible effects on human health. It is concluded that nutritionally important differences relating to contents of minerals, vitamins, proteins and carbohydrates are not likely, primarily since none of these are deficient in typical First World diets, nor are present levels of pesticide residues in conventional products a cause for concern. However, there is reason to believe that contents of many defence‐related secondary metabolites in the diet are lower than optimal for human health, even for those where too high levels are known to be harmful. High biological activity resulting in adverse effects on growth of animals and children may be directly linked with promotion of longevity. There is ample, but circumstantial, evidence that, on average, organic vegetables and fruits most likely contain more of these compounds than conventional ones, allowing for the possibility that organic plant foods may in fact benefit human health more than corresponding conventional ones. The authors define testable scientific hypotheses which should be further investigated to provide more definitive answers to the question.
© 2001 Society of Chemical Industry
Some of the most exciting research in the last decade has been the discovery of a group of nutrients, which have protective effects against cell oxidation. These naturally occurring compounds impart bright colour to fruits and vegetables and act as antioxidants in the body by scavenging harmful free radicals, which are implicated in most degenerative diseases. Epidemiological studies have established a positive correlation between the intake of fruits and vegetables and prevention of diseases like atheroscelerosis, cancer, diabetes, arthritis and also ageing. So pronounced has been their effect on ageing that they have been called ‘fountains of youth’. Fruits and vegetables have thus had conferred on them the status of ‘functional foods’, capable of promoting good health and preventing or alleviating diseases. Phenolic flavonoids, lycopene, carotenoids and glucosinolates are among the most thoroughly studied antioxidants. The present review highlights the potential of fruits and vegetables rich in antioxidants, their health benefits and the effect of processing on the bioavailability of these nutrients. The paper also reviews some of the important methods used to determine the antioxidant activity.
BACKGROUND: Frequent consumption of fruits and vegetables is associated with a lowered risk of cancer, hypertension and heart disease, due, among other factors such as modulation of gene expression and improvement of gap junctional communication, to the presence of various forms of antioxidants present in the foods as carotenoids. Otherwise, consumers demand organic products which they believe have more flavour and are of greater benefit to the environment and human health. The effects of organic farming on CIE L*a*b* colour, mineral content, carotenoid composition and sensory quality of Hernandina mandarin juices were studied.
RESULTS: Organic farming of mandarin oranges resulted in juices with higher contents of minerals and carotenoids, and of better sensory quality. For instance, organic juice contained a total concentration of carotenoids of 14.4 mg L−1 compared to 10.2 mg L−1 of conventional juice.
CONCLUSION: Mandarin orange juices can be considered as a good source of some important nutrients, such as potassium and antioxidant chemicals, e.g. β-cryptoxanthin. Copyright
This review is concerned with the summary and evaluation of the results from more than 150 investigations comparing the quality of conventionally and organically produced food or of foods produced with the aid of different fertilisation systems. Cereals, potatoes, vegetables, fruits, wine, beer, bread, cakes and pastries, milk, meat, eggs and honey, as well as products made from them, have been included in the review. Most of the studies evaluated are physico-chemical investigations of concentrations of desirable and undesirable ingredients, pesticide residues, contaminants, sensory analyses and feed experiments with animals. Nutritional studies in humans and experiments which used holistic methods of analysis are also included. Since different methods of sampling were used in the investigations, a summary evaluation of individual results is extremely difficult. Even when the sampling methods are of the same type, a great many factors have to be taken into consideration which are not directly related to the production system but which do influence food quality to a large degree. Despite the heterogeneity of the sample material, some differences in quality between products from conventional and organic farming or foods produced with the aid of different fertilisation systems have been identified. © 1997 SCI
The effect of time and temperature on the content of vitamin C, total polyphenols and individual phenolic compounds as well as on the antioxidant activity of two commercial orange juices was studied. The polyphenol content was determined using Folin–Ciocalteu and HPLC methods. The two methods, SPE versus direct injection following a simple treatment of samples, were compared to assess two techniques of sample preparation. For antioxidant capacity determination, DPPH and FRAP assays were used. All analyses were carried out for fresh juices and after storage at 18, 28 and 38 °C for 2, 4 and 6 months. It was found that vitamin C and free and conjugated hydroxycinnamic acids were the most affected by both duration and temperature of storage. The decrease in the content of polyphenols and vitamin C upon storage was reflected by the decrease in the antioxidant capacity of orange juices. Small changes in flavanone content were observed, indicating high stability of these compounds upon storage.