Becoming a Cultural Intermediary

Abstract

Much of the research linking language and discrimination has been concerned with first-language practices. Yet an intergroup perspective supports the possibility that prejudice may be communicated between groups not sharing the same first language. This article explores how factors associated with the acquisition and use of a second language contribute to the development of antidiscriminatory behaviours. Data regarding these issues were collected from 209 Francophone university students attending school in a bilingual environment. Two specific goals were pursued: (a) the development of an appropriate intercultural mediation measure and (b) an examination of how factors associated with second-language acquisition relate to the use of antidiscriminatory behaviours. Results demarcate involvement and noninvolvement dimensions of the mediation measure. Furthermore, a path analysis suggests that antidiscriminatory behaviours are linked to identification with one's own ethnic group. Results are discussed within the context of current approaches to the link between language and discrimination.

Full text

182
Journal of Language
and Social Psychology
Volume 26 Number 2
June 2007 182-203
© 2007 Sage Publications
10.1177/0261927X07300080
http://jls.sagepub.com
hosted at
http://online.sagepub.com
Becoming a Cultural
Intermediary
A Further Social Corollary of
Second-Language Learning
Sara Rubenfeld
Richard Clément
Jessica Vinograd
University of Ottawa
Denise Lussier
Valérie Amireault
McGill University
Réjean Auger
Monique Lebrun
Université du Québec à Montréal
Much of the research linking language and discrimination has been concerned with first-
language practices. Yet an intergroup perspective supports the possibility that prejudice
may be communicated between groups not sharing the same first language. This article
explores how factors associated with the acquisition and use of a second language con-
tribute to the development of antidiscriminatory behaviours. Data regarding these issues
were collected from 209 Francophone university students attending school in a bilingual
environment. Two specific goals were pursued: (a) the development of an appropriate
intercultural mediation measure and (b) an examination of how factors associated with
second-language acquisition relate to the use of antidiscriminatory behaviours. Results
demarcate involvement and noninvolvement dimensions of the mediation measure.
Furthermore, a path analysis suggests that antidiscriminatory behaviours are linked to
identification with one’s own ethnic group. Results are discussed within the context of cur-
rent approaches to the link between language and discrimination.
Keywords: intercultural mediation; second-language learning; antidiscriminatory
behaviours; well-being; social representations
For nearly a century, prejudice and discrimination have been central themes in
social psychology (cf. Harding, Kutner, Proshansky, & Chein, 1954). Many early
Authors’Note: This research was facilitated by grants from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research
Council of Canada to the second and fourth author. Correspondence concerning this article should be
addressed to Sara Rubenfeld at srube043@uottawa.ca.

Rubenfeld et al. / Second-Language Learning 183
conceptualizations of these phenomena focused on the personal characteristics of
prejudiced individuals. Recent developments have, however, steered research and
theorizing toward more group-oriented explanations (e.g., Taylor & Moghaddam,
1994; Turner & Reynolds, 2001), promoting a better understanding of the processes
involved (e.g., Baldwin, 1998; Dovidio, Kawakami, & Beach, 2001) and focusing on
the consequences of prejudice and discrimination for its victims (e.g., Dion, Dion,
& Pak, 1992; Jasinskaja-Lahti, Liebkind, Jaakkola, & Reuter, 2006). In dealing with
these more specific issues, many researchers have referred to aspects of communi-
cation as pivotal explanatory constructs (e.g., Bourhis & Maass, 2001; Fiedler &
Schmid, 2001; Hecht, Jackson, Lindsley, Strauss, & Johnson, 2001; Le Couteur &
Augoustinos, 2001; Reid & Ng, 1999). These contributions, although comprehen-
sive and far reaching in their consequences, have been confined to mother tongue
production in explaining prejudice. Yet the specific intergroup perspective espoused
by the above suggests that the communication of prejudice may cross language
boundaries (cf. Taylor & Wright, 2002; Wright & Tropp, 2005). This article, there-
fore, seeks to explore how acquiring and using a second language (L2) may con-
tribute to the mitigation of language-based discrimination.
Social Psychology and L2 Acquisition
More than 30 years of research has documented the essentially social nature of learn-
ing and using an L2 (e.g., Clément & Gardner, 2001; Clément, Noels, & MacIntyre,
in press; Gardner & Lambert, 1972). Accordingly, L2 learning motivation has been
defined as a function of relations between ethnolinguistic groups. Gardner’s (1985,
2000) socioeducational model of L2 learning essentially holds that motivation to learn
an L2 rests on the individual’s attitudes toward the learning situation and integrative-
ness, referring to positive attitudes toward a language community and toward learning
its language and an accompanying desire to initiate contact and possibly identify with
members of the L2 group. As such, positive attitudes toward the language, the learning
situation, and the language community, held by the L2 learner, are important predictors
of the amount of effort expended in learning the new language.
The notion of integrativeness is also evident in Clément’s (1980; Clément &
Gardner, 2001) sociocontextual model of motivation. Clément (1980; Clément &
Kruidenier, 1985) claims that in multicultural settings, integrativeness promotes pos-
itive contact with members of the other group, which, in turn, prompts the develop-
ment of L2 confidence. The latter corresponds to a relative lack of anxiety when using
the L2 together with the subjective impression of being able to achieve one’s goals in
L2 encounters. In the past, it has been shown to be related to a variety of L2 outcomes,
including L2 competence (Clément & Kruidenier, 1985), facility of oral production
in the L2 (Clément & Beauregard, 1986), degree of acculturation (Clément, 1986),
and willingness to initiate communication in the L2 (Clément, Baker, & MacIntyre,
2003). Of more immediate relevance to the present issue, however, L2 confidence has
been linked to ethnic identity.

184 Journal of Language and Social Psychology
Clément and Noels (1992) and Noels and Clément (1996) first established the link
between L2 confidence and identity among Francophone and Anglophone students
attending a bilingual university in Canada. Both groups of students came from set-
tings where they were part of either majority or minority groups. The results showed
that profiles of identification are related to the status of the groups, with majority
Anglophones showing the greatest difference between their French and English iden-
tities and the minority Francophones showing the least difference. Also, results of the
majority Francophones resembled more closely those of the minority Francophones
than those of the majority Anglophones, attesting to the North American prevalence
of English. Furthermore, following Lambert’s (1978) distinction between additive
and subtractive bilingualism, minority group members showed an erosion of their
first-language identity following higher L2 confidence, whereas no such results were
found for the majority group members (see also Noels, Pon, & Clément, 1996). The
dynamics of language identity are, therefore, intimately linked to the relative social
status of the relevant groups.
Beyond Identity
In addition to this dependence on context, there is also the possibility that changes
in identity can affect an individual’s outlook toward members of the L2 out-group.
If the social–psychological causes of L2 learning and use can be traced back to
positive regard toward the L2 community, it could also be expected that L2 learn-
ing would have a further impact on the positive representation of the L2 group.
Indeed, the process of learning an L2 may, therefore, lead to exposure, understanding,
and an accompanying empathic response toward the L2 culture (e.g., Irishnakova,
Röcklinsberg, Ozolina, & Zaharia, 2004; Wright & Tropp, 2005). Lussier’s (1997,
2005; Lussier, Auger, Urbanicová, et al., 2004) educational approach to L2 acquisi-
tion emphasizes these concepts. Borrowing from Bruner (1996), she suggests that
education is in fact an agent of enculturation through which learners are imparted not
only with knowledge but also with beliefs, know-how, and values. That is, L2 learn-
ers likely develop social representations of otherness with regard to the L2 com-
munity. Consequently, schools may become important tools in the development of
awareness and knowledge about other cultures. L2 teaching and learning may there-
fore be viewed as an entry into another culture via positive transformation of the
social representations of the relevant groups. These positive representations are,
however, not only dependent on the development of identification with the L2 group
but also a function of positive identification with the first-language group. In other
words, positive social representations of the L2 group are associated with positive
identification with both groups, that is, additive bilingualism.
An initial study of this conjecture by Rubenfeld, Clément, Lussier, Lebrun, and
Auger (2006) revealed that L2 experience, demonstrated by increases in L2 confi-
dence, contact, and identification, led to more xenophilic representations of the L2
community. Specifically, in a Canadian context, minority Francophones with greater

exposure to the English community also possessed more positive representations of
that community. This relationship, however, was dependent on a strong endorsement
of their first-language identity. Anglophones, on the other hand, endorsed xenophilic
representations of the L2 group, the French community, without the correlate of a
strong first-language identity. These findings suggest that groups experiencing greater
ethnolinguistic vulnerability require the support of a secure first-language identity
prior to demonstrating openness to other language communities (Ting-Toomey, 1993).
These results, although buttressing the proposition of a relation among L2 confi-
dence, identity, and positive social representations, do not cover the full extent of theo-
rizing related to the social consequences of L2 acquisition. As a further extension of this
framework, Lussier, et al. (2004) propose that xenophilic representations are related to
a transcultural interpretation, which includes not only positive attitudes but also the abil-
ity to act as a mediator in intercultural conflict situations. At this level, the individual is
capable of accepting the validity of different viewpoints and using his or her knowledge
of both cultures to find solutions that do justice to both groups (Byram & Fleming,
1998). According to Irishnakova and her colleagues (2004), it is important that cultural
mediators develop intercultural competence, defined as “the ability to ensure a shared
understanding by people of different cultural backgrounds and identities. [Cultural
mediators] should be able to better understand, explain, comment, interpret and negoti-
ate various phenomena in the target language culture” (p. 101). Thus, the ultimate indi-
vidual consequence of L2 mastery would be the emergence of the capacity to transact
between cultures and intervene in conflict situations. Active cultural intermediaries may
be more adept at opposing the forces of language as power, by challenging the status
quo that contributes to the creation, reflection, depoliticization, and routinization of
power through language (e.g., Reid & Ng, 1999). Cultural mediators are in a position
to actively combat discrimination by using antidiscriminatory behaviours.
The ability to act as a cultural mediator would influence not only intergroup har-
mony but also individual adaptation. Noels and Clément (1996; see also Noels et al.,
1996) have already documented the positive impact of increased L2 confidence on
personal adaptation. Likewise, Gaudet and Clément (2005) report results showing
that both identification with the first-language group and a high degree of L2 confi-
dence lead to better psychological adaptation and well-being (see also Masgoret &
Gardner, 1999). Because they partake in both cultural groups, the mediators would
find themselves better able to cope in a multicultural environment, and this would be
reflected in fewer frustrations and irritants in daily interactions. Specifically, they
would report fewer daily hassles and less stress (Abouguendia & Noels, 2001;
Kanner, Coyne, Schaefer, & Lazarus, 1981; Lay & Nguyen, 1998).
The Present Study
This study was conducted as an attempt to assess the validity of the framework
developed above. Given the proposed link between language learning and positive
Rubenfeld et al. / Second-Language Learning 185

cultural representations, it is hypothesized (see Figure 1) that positive interrelations
between aspects of the sociocontextual model, namely, contact with the L2 commu-
nity, confidence when speaking the L2, and identification with the L1 and L2 com-
munities, will lead to more positive representations. Similarly, it is expected that
identification with both L1 and L2 communities will also contribute to the tendency
to intervene in intercultural conflict situations. More frequent intercultural mediation
should, in turn, be related to better well-being. In addition, one research question for
which no hypothesis was formulated, given the early stages of this research, was
explored. Although conceptual definitions of the cultural mediator clearly define its
motivational profile, specific characteristics of the cultural mediator’s interventions
remain elusive. This research will, therefore, attempt to delineate dimensions of
these interventions and link them to cultural representations and L2 confidence.
This research was conducted with the participation of Francophone students
attending a bilingual (French–English) university, situated in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
Francophones constitute only 4.5% of the population of Ontario, but they represent
17.0% of the population of the city itself and approximately 30% of university enrol-
ment (Statistics Canada, 2002). Francophone students from Ontario share university
grounds with another Francophone group originating from the province of Québec,
a few kilometres away. French is spoken in Québec by 81% of the population. The
Franco-Ontarian students are, therefore, members of a minority group, whereas the
Québécois students are from a majority group. This distinction entails important dif-
ferences related to the ethnolinguistic vitality of the two groups; specifically, the
possibility of contact with the L2 group and the development of L2 confidence.
Ethnolinguistic vitality was, therefore, included in the model represented in Figure
1 as a precursor of L2 confidence. Specifically, given the relatively low status of
Francophones in Ontario, it is expected that they will have more experience using
the majority language than would Francophones from Québec. It should be noted,
however, that this differential status is quite relative and that both groups evolve in a
majority Anglophone environment. Taken together, the vitality of Francophones in
Canada and the bilingual nature of the university environment require Francophone
students to engage in intergroup contact. The issue of cultural mediation is, there-
fore, very relevant to this context.
Method
Participants
The original sample was composed of 209 Francophone students enrolled in 1st-
year courses at the University of Ottawa. We excluded participants if their mother
tongue was not French and if they had not lived in Canada most of their lives. This
resulted in the elimination of 48 questionnaires. Furthermore, three multivariate outliers
186 Journal of Language and Social Psychology

187
Figure 1
Theoretical Model
+
+
−
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Ethnolinguistic
Status
Confidence
with English
Contact with
Anglophones
Francophone
Identity
Anglophone
Identity
Inter-cultural
Mediation
Anglophone
Cultural
Representations
Well-being

were detected, leaving 158 Francophone students. The majority of respondents were
female (80.4%) and ranged in age from 17 to 50 years (M= 19.99, SD = 4.66).
Materials
Participants completed a number of questionnaires in French examining their per-
sonal experiences in relation to the Anglophone language community. Specifically,
the following scales were administered.
Ethnolinguistic status. Ethnolinguistic status was assessed by asking participants,
“What province do you consider home?” The response options included Québec,
Ontario, or another province. Those who reported feeling most at home in Québec
were considered part of the majority ethnolinguistic group and were recoded as
Group 1, whereas those who indicated Ontario or another province were considered
to be part of the minority ethnolinguistic group and were recoded as Group 2. This
form of assessment taps into two aspects of objective ethnolinguistic vitality: demo-
graphic representation and institutional support (for further discussion, see Giles,
Bourhis, & Taylor, 1977).
Confidence with English. Subjective assessment of one’s confidence in the L2 was
evaluated by a series of 7-point scales (Clément & Kruidenier, 1985) related to four
aspects of English ability: (a) writing, (b) reading, (c) oral comprehension, and (d)
speaking. Participants indicated their perceived competence in all four language abil-
ities, ranging from 1 (not at all fluent) to 7 (completely fluent). Higher scores indicate
greater confidence in English. The reliability coefficient for this scale was .91.
Contact with Anglophones. Participants’ contact with the Anglophone language
community was assessed by means of an abridged version of the Media Exposure
Scale. Clément, Baker, Josephson, and Noels (2005) have shown that media expo-
sure was related to language confidence and identity change. The scale used here
assessed exposure to four media domains, television, radio, magazines, and mail
outs (e.g., flyers), on a 7-point scale from 1 (mostly French) to 7 (mostly English).
Cronbach’s alpha for this scale was .78.
Francophone and Anglophone identity. The degree of participants’ identification
with their own language community and the Anglophone language community was
assessed using the 10-item Situated Ethnic Identity Measure (Clément & Noels,
1992), which describes a number of daily situations (e.g., at home, listening to
music, cooking, thinking about politics). For each of these situations, the participants
were asked to rate their degree of identification on two 7-point Likert-type scales
ranging from 1 (not at all like a Francophone) to 7 (very much like a Francophone)
in the case of Francophone identity and from 1 (not at all like an Anglophone) to 7
188 Journal of Language and Social Psychology

Rubenfeld et al. / Second-Language Learning 189
(very much like an Anglophone) in the case of Anglophone identity. Cronbach’s reli-
ability coefficient was .86 in the case of Francophone identity and .89 in the case of
Anglophone identity.
Anglophone cultural representations were assessed using two types of scales:
semantic differential scales and feelings toward Anglophones.
Semantic differential scales. First, the participants expressed their impressions of
the L2 community by rating Anglophones on a series of bipolar semantic differen-
tial scales, defined at each end by an adjective and its antonym (e.g., Osgood, Suci,
& Tannenbaum, 1957). A total of 22 antonymous adjectives (e.g., polite–impolite,
hardworking–lazy,gentle–violent) were listed at extremes of a scale ranging from 1
to 7. Scale items were presented such that positive and negative antonyms were ran-
domly alternated and found at each pole. After reversing negative items, high scores
represented positive impressions of the L2 community.
Originally, participants were asked to respond to adjectives about the L2 com-
munity in both Ontario and Québec. For instance, Francophones were asked to sep-
arately provide responses regarding Ontario Anglophones and Québec Anglophones.
However, results indicated a strong correlation between Francophones’ views of
both Ontario and Québec Anglophones (r= .73); a total score that combined the two
provinces was therefore computed. The combined scale demonstrated high reliabil-
ity (α= .96).
Feelings toward Anglophones. Second,participants were asked to report their
personal feelings on five dimensions about members of the Anglophone community:
(a) mistrust, (b) friendship, (c) exasperation, (d) rejection, and (e) criticism. This
scale was constructed such that participants separately indicated their subjective
feelings toward Ontario Anglophones and Québec Anglophones. However, results of
a correlation analysis indicated that the Francophone participants in this study hold
similar views regarding Anglophones living in both Québec and Ontario (r= .69).
As such, a single score was computed to reflect participants’ subjective feelings
toward Anglophones living in both provinces. For the combined scale, Cronbach’s
reliability coefficient was high (α= .88). High scores represented positive feelings
about members of the Anglophone community.
Intercultural mediation. The extent to which participants are likely to engage as a
mediator in intercultural conflict scenarios was assessed using four distinct interper-
sonal interaction scenarios. The four scenarios were (a) two culturally different friends
arguing about a controversial subject, (b) a Canadian store clerk denigrating a visible
minority customer, (c) Anglophone students insisting that a Francophone professor
teaching an English course communicate with Francophone students in English, and
(d) three in-group members mocking a group of culturally different people of the
same age group. Participants were asked to indicate their own probability of engaging
in a number of different reaction strategies by responding to 11 items across each

scenario (e.g., interrupting the conversation, acting as a mediator to reduce the tension,
attempting to de-escalate the situation). A 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1
(totally improbable) to 5 (extremely probable) was used to assess the likelihood of
intercultural mediation (Lussier, Auger, Lebrun, & Clément, 2004).
Two scales were used to assess well-being: Daily Hassles and Stress.
Daily Hassles. First, participants answered the 13-item Daily Hassles scale
(Kanner et al., 1981). A list of problematic daily situations (e.g., fatigue, solitude,
financial strain, difficulty in understanding or applying the English language) were
evaluated with respect to the extent to which they have caused concern during the
past month. Response options were presented using a 5-point Likert-type scale rang-
ing from 1 (absence of conflict or problems) to 5 (major source of conflict or prob-
lems). Higher scores indicate a greater number of daily hassles and, therefore, lower
levels of well-being. Cronbach’s alpha for this scale was .78.
Stress. The second well-being scale was an abridged version of Lemyre and
Tessier’s (1988) Measure of Psychological Stress. The amount of stress experienced
by participants during the past 4 to 5 days was measured through a 10-item scale.
Participants indicated the extent to which they had experienced symptoms of stress
(e.g., lack of time, feeling preoccupied, forgetfulness, anxiety) using an 8-point scale
ranging from 1 (not at all) to 8 (extreme). Cronbach’s alpha for this scale was .87.
Procedure
On receiving permission from the professors, introductory university classes were
visited by two to three researchers who informed students of the general topic of the
research. Students were asked to volunteer by completing a questionnaire outside of
class time. Prospective participants were informed that their participation was optional,
that all responses were confidential, and that nonparticipation would not affect their
grade in the class. To further protect confidentiality, participants returned completed
surveys to the researchers in self-addressed, postage-paid return envelopes.
Results
This study was meant to delineate dimensions of mediational behaviours and to
examine their relation to social–psychological aspects of L2 acquisition. These
aspects will be explored in separate subsections.
Dimensions of Mediation
Prior to factor analyzing the data, total scores were computed across the four con-
flict scenarios pertaining to each of the 11 reactions submitted by the participants.
190 Journal of Language and Social Psychology

Rubenfeld et al. / Second-Language Learning 191
An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was then conducted to delineate the dimen-
sions underlying these 11 items. Factor extraction was achieved via principal axis,
and, given the probable correlation between factors, a direct oblimin rotation was
applied to the solution.
Examination of the scree plot (Costello & Osborne, 2005) revealed that two fac-
tors, accounting for 59.9% of the variance, best depicted the underlying dimensions.
As can be seen in Table 1, the first factor receives preponderant loadings from Items
2, 6, and 7 describing passive and noninvolved tactics of mediation. It is therefore
labelled as a Noninvolved Mediation Tactics factor. Factor 2 receives appreciable
loadings from Items 1, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, and 10. It is therefore labelled as an Involved
Mediation Tactics factor. Item 11 was related to neither factor. As expected, however,
there was a moderate correlation between the two factors (r= –.27) suggesting an
opposition between the two types of tactics.
Path Analysis
Prior to computing the path analysis, scores were computed for each of the two
mediation factors by averaging the scores obtained on the items defining them
respectively. To examine the hypothesized interrelations among ethnolinguistic status,
confidence with English, contact with Anglophones, Francophone and Anglophone
identity, cultural representations (semantic differential scales and feelings toward
Anglophones), mediation tactics (involved and noninvolved), and well-being (daily
hassles and stress), as presented in Figure 1, a path analysis was applied to the data
using EQS 6.1 (Bentler & Wu, 2004; correlations, means, and standard deviations are
presented in the appendix).
Table 1
Means, Standard Deviations, and Oblimin Rotated Factor Matrix:
Antidiscrimination Behaviour Items
Item MSD III
1. I interrupt the conversation. 2.48 0.80 –.37 .67
2. I ignore the conversation. 2.15 0.81 .61 –.39
3. I ask them to apologize. 2.06 0.77 –.26 .68
4. I decide to act as a mediator to reduce the tension. 2.52 0.85 –.24 .75
5. I join the conversation to express my own views. 2.89 0.85 –.35 .68
6. I let them argue and I prefer not to intervene. 2.50 0.84 .79 –.40
7. I distance myself from the conversation. 2.47 0.81 .97 –.42
8. I ask them to qualify their remarks. 2.28 0.83 .01 .78
9. I observe the differences in their remarks before I intervene. 2.77 0.87 –.20 .80
10. I attempt to de-escalate the situation. 2.60 0.91 –.13 .69
11. I laugh about the situation. 1.73 0.82 .11 .01

On testing the theoretical model, it became evident that minor post hoc modifi-
cations would not provide a good fit of the data to the model. An examination of the
correlation matrix suggested that stress may be more relevant to Anglophone iden-
tity than issues of involved or noninvolved mediation strategies. An empirical model
(Figure 2) was therefore rerun with this adaptation.
Table 2 summarizes the results of the path analyses. The initial test of the empirical
model (Model 0) did not produce a good fit of the model to the data. The Satorra-
Bentler chi-square, which takes the model, estimation method, and kurtosis into account
(Byrne, 1994a), was significant. As well, the robust comparative fit index was below
the lower-limit cutoff point of .90 (Byrne, 1994b), and the root mean square error of
approximation was higher than the upper-range cutoff of .05 that indicates a good fit
(Byrne & Campbell, 1999). Following this, respecifications were applied in the forms
of path addition (Lagrange multiplier, LM test) and path subtraction, resulting in a less
restricted model (Wald test; see Bentler, 1990).
The LM test indicated that the first respecification required a correlation of the errors
associated with the two cultural mediation dimensions, noninvolvement and involve-
ment. Given that these two dimensions are both tapping into tactics of mediation and
the correlation between the two factors, presented earlier, this post hoc adaptation is
acceptable. The LM test also suggested the addition of a correlated error between the
feelings toward Anglophones measure and the semantic differential scale measure.
These measures are intended to examine the same construct, cultural representations of
the L2 group. This post hoc adaptation is, therefore, acceptable. Together, these two
additions resulted in a good fit of the data to the model (Model 1). To ensure the sig-
nificance of all paths, a Wald test for the removal of paths was conducted. This test sug-
gested the removal of six paths. Both paths leading from Anglophone identity to the two
cultural mediation dimensions, involvement and noninvolvement, were not significant.
As well, both paths leading from Francophone identity to the two Anglophone cultural
representation measures, semantic differential scale and feelings toward Anglophones,
were not significant. The path from noninvolved mediation tactics to daily hassles was
not significant. Last, the hypothesized negative path from contact with Anglophones to
Francophone identity was not significant. After these respecifications, the fit of the
model to the data reached acceptable levels (Model 2).
In consideration of the impact of ethnolinguistic vitality, our final model (Figure 3)
commenced with ethnolinguistic status. Ethnolinguistic status was positively associ-
ated with confidence with English, suggesting that participants living in a minority
context were more confident in their L2 skills than were those living in a majority con-
text. Consistent with Rubenfeld et al. (2006), we found that higher levels of confi-
dence with English were related to greater amounts of contact with Anglophones.
Contact with Anglophones was subsequently associated with higher levels of
Anglophone identity. In turn, as predicted, Anglophone identity was positively related
to decreased levels of stress and more positive cultural representations of the English
community (semantic differential scale and feelings toward Anglophones). Although
192 Journal of Language and Social Psychology

193
Figure 2
Empirical Model
Contact with
Anglophones
Anglophone
Identity
Semantic
Differential
Scales
Involved
Mediation
Tactics
Non-
involved
Mediation
Tactics
-
-
-
Stress
Ethnolinguistic
Vitality
+Confidence
with
English
Francophone
Identity
Feelings toward
Anglophones
Daily
Hassles
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
+
+
-

194 Journal of Language and Social Psychology
French identity was not associated with confidence with English, it was a significant
predictor of both involved and noninvolved mediation tactics. Specifically, greater
identification to the first-language community was associated with a tendency to medi-
ate in more involved ways and a decreased likelihood of using noninvolved mediation
tactics. Finally, contrary to our expectation, more involved mediation tactics lead to
increased daily hassles.
Discussion
The goals of the current study were twofold. First, to examine specific character-
istics of cultural mediators, an EFA was employed to delineate dimensions of inter-
vention strategies. The results suggest that with the exception of the 11th item, all
items could be classified along two dimensions: involved or noninvolved mediation
tactics. When faced with intergroup conflict situations, individuals, therefore, have
the option to engage in some degree of active mediation in an effort to reduce the
conflict or choose the extent to which they will avoid the conflict situation.
With this understanding, the second goal of the current research was to examine
how aspects of the sociocontextual model, namely, confidence, contact, and iden-
tity, were related to ethnolinguistic vitality, representations of the L2 community,
and mediation strategies. Given that issues of ethnolinguistic vitality (e.g., minor-
ity or majority group status) precede individual language-learning experiences (e.g.,
Sachdev & Bourhis, 2001), our model commenced with a consideration of French
vitality in the participants’ home provinces. As expected, participants in minority
Francophone contexts displayed greater confidence in their L2 skills relative to the
majority Francophones from the province of Québec. Although Clément’s (1980)
sociocontextual model originally conceptualized L2 contact as a precursor to confi-
dence, more recent research (Rubenfeld et al., 2006) and the current study suggest
that minority language groups may already possess the language confidence that
is necessary to actively seek out situations of contact with the L2 group. The initial
Table 2
Summary of the Path Analysis Fit Indices
Model S-Bχ2a df CFIcRMSEAbCId
0. Hypothesized 77.57 40 .76 .08 .05-.10
1. Model 1 40.29 38 .98 .02 .00-.61
2. Model 2 49.28 44 .97 .03 .00-.63
a. Satorra-Bentler corrected χ2.
b. Root mean square error of approximation.
c. Comparative fit index (computed from S-Bχ2).
d. Confidence interval based on RMSEA.

195
Figure 3
Final Model
Anglophone
Identity
Francophone
Identity
Stress
Non-
involved
Mediation
Tactics
Involved
Mediation
Tactics
Feelings toward
Anglophones
.18
.35
.20
.31
.41.49
.15
.32 Daily
Hassles
Ethnolinguistic
Status
Contact with
Anglophones
−.16
Confidence
with
English
Semantic
Differential
Scales

aspects of our model are, therefore, clearly affected by the vitality of French-
Canadian communities.
Contrary to the hypothesis, however, despite being a low vitality group, the par-
ticipants’ responses did not demonstrate a subtractive profile. Specifically, although
exposure to English media did lead to greater identification with the English com-
munity, this exposure did not have deleterious effects on French identity. At the same
time, greater identification with the L2 community led to more positive representa-
tions of that community. This research, therefore, supports the positive influence of
language learning, the participants having developed an additive bilingual profile. On
the other hand, the benefits may be tempered by a realistic examination of potential
threats related to greater L2 identification. Specifically, higher levels of stress were
found in the presence of greater L2 identification. Although a negative relationship
was originally anticipated, the findings reveal that Francophones, as national minori-
ties, may be required to balance the positive and negative correlates of identifying
with Anglophones.
In a similar fashion, our results suggest that the two dimensions of mediation,
involved and noninvolved strategies, are influenced by issues of identity. Specifically,
greater identification with the French community led to increased and decreased
endorsement of involved and noninvolved mediation strategies, respectively. Contrary
to the original hypothesis, English identity did not play a significant role in influencing
intercultural mediation. However, the significant relationship between French identity
and mediational strategies suggests that venturing into intercultural conflict situations
may require the assurance or existence of a strong first-language identity. As national
minorities who risk assimilation to the English culture, Francophones may be hesitant
to involve themselves in unfamiliar conflict situations if their own identity is vulnerable
(Ting-Toomey, 1993). If future research were to examine majority groups’tendencies to
intervene in conflicts involving discrimination, the results may indicate a greater influ-
ence of the L2 identity. That is, with fewer risks to the first-language identity, the impor-
tance of its reassurance and influence on mediation may be attenuated and the skills
attained in the process of L2 learning may play a stronger role.
Given that L2 acquisition has the potential to influence mediation behaviours, the
language skills of bilingual mediators may make them particularly adept at mediat-
ing in situations of language-based discrimination. Specifically, Ng (2001, 2007
[this issue]) argues that language can be used to exert control and enact discrimina-
tion. A bicultural mediator may, therefore, have the language skills necessary to rec-
ognize the potentially manipulative power of language. For example, individuals
attempting to wield control, through use of complicated language, and thereby limit
the power of minorities less familiar with the language may be recognized and
deterred by biculturally competent individuals.
Interestingly, the use of four diverse intergroup scenarios, which extend to con-
flicts beyond the first language and L2 groups, suggests that bilingual identity may
be beneficial for mediating in diverse cultural contexts. According to Alred and
196 Journal of Language and Social Psychology

Byram (2002), learning an L2 offers the cultural awareness required to mediate in
situations of discord between the two cultures shared by the mediator. Perhaps more
critical to individuals’ willingness to involve themselves in intercultural conflicts is
a general awareness of other. That is, the fact that bilingual individuals are exposed
to more than one language, belief system, and lifestyle could provide them with an
awareness of cultural differences. This sensitization to diversity could come into
play in a range of intercultural conflict situations. For example, a French–English
bilingual could actively mediate in a conflict between a recent migrant and a
Canadian by bringing attention to the fact that the conflict may stem from cultural
differences. Despite not possessing the same cultural competencies as the ethnic
minority and Canadian, an individual with an awareness of other could still involve
himself or herself in the promotion of nondiscriminatory behaviour. In future
research, it would be interesting to examine if and to what extent the effectiveness
of this mediation depends on awareness of the specific cultures in conflict.
The relevance of mediation is further realized by the significant relationship
between involved mediation strategies and well-being. It was originally hypothe-
sized that both stress and daily hassles would be negatively related to representations
and mediation. The results diverge in two ways. First, only daily hassles were asso-
ciated with mediation, whereas stress was associated with Anglophone identity. It
may be the case that hassles being, by definition, represented by behavioural occur-
rences would naturally be more related to instances of behavioural interventions of
the type depicted as “involved mediation tactics,” whereas stress, as a subjective
affective state, would be related to L2 identity, as are the affective representation
measures. These patterns may, therefore, be related to assessing common dimen-
sions of the phenomenon.
In addition to this methodological phenomenon, a second inconsistency would
have a more theoretical bearing. Although involved strategies may be required for
the promotion of antidiscriminatory behaviours, the use of these strategies may also
be accompanied by an increase in day-to-day irritants. Would this necessarily be a
deterrent to future involved mediation? We would suggest that the relationship
between involved strategies and well-being implies that there is a give-and-take
occurring. Offering one’s mediation skills to a conflict can in turn pose a risk to the
mediator. However, Ting-Toomey (1993) suggests that it is because of this type of
“push and pull factor that identity evolves, stabilizes, and develops” (p. 81; see also
Kim, 2004). It is, therefore, possible that future research would find a negative rela-
tionship between well-being and identity such that challenges to the self, resulting
from mediation, could subsequently strengthen one’s identity.
Limitations to this study, including a small sample size, drawbacks in the mea-
surement of linguistic status and intergroup contact, and the post hoc fitting of the
final solution, call for further research on this topic. In addition, given the correla-
tions between the two mediation factors (involvement and noninvolvement), it may
be important for future research to gauge whether a separation of these aspects is
Rubenfeld et al. / Second-Language Learning 197

198 Journal of Language and Social Psychology
worth the information it provides. Besides methodological improvements, given the
tenuity of the relations between aspects of model (see the appendix), this field of
research would benefit from examining longer-term consequences of mediation, cor-
relates of mediation behaviours among majority groups, and how specific cultural
competencies influence the effectiveness of mediation. Furthermore, it is necessary
to generalize and distinguish beyond Canadian populations, where attitudes toward
mediation and discrimination differ.
Within the scope of its original goal, our results nevertheless support a conjecture
extending social aspects of L2 acquisition to the development of antiprejudicial atti-
tudes and antidiscriminatory behaviour. Given the correlational nature of this
research, however, it may also be that more positive intergroup attitudes and behav-
iours act as motivators for the learning and acquisition of an L2. This research also
introduces the issue of relative linguistic status as an influential factor determining
the exact nature of the mechanism coming in to play. For minority groups, the medi-
ating role may come only pending a strong first identity and at the cost of tensions
associated with L2 identity.
Conclusion
In keeping with the educational approach to L2 acquisition put forward by
Lussier, et al. (2004), the present study proposes that academic environments may
indeed provide an appropriate climate for enculturation, that is, the development of
intergroup understanding, empathy, and respect. From another perspective, Wright
and Tropp (2005) assert that classroom composition can influence an individual’s
cognitions and affect regarding out-group peers. Specifically, students learning in
bilingual classrooms, where lessons are communicated in both English and Spanish,
are more likely to endorse friendships and to acknowledge similarities between
themselves and their out-group peers than are those students learning in English-
only classrooms. Although previous literature has commented on the positive cogni-
tive and affective outcomes of educational settings characterized by human diversity,
Wright and Tropp’s findings and ours suggest that non-discriminatory behaviours
are associated with aspects of language learning. Thus, elements of language not
only enhance knowledge and skill in intercultural interactions, they also influence a
learner’s willingness to intervene when another’s dignity, identity, or rights are
unjustly threatened. In essence, this study provides insight into the processes and
mechanisms underlying intergroup relations in a multilingual context. The implica-
tions of this research extend to the enhancement of intergroup harmony within both
multilingual and multicultural societies.

199
Appendix
Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations Among Study Variables
Variables 1 2 345 67891011
1. Ethnolinguistic status
2. Confidence with English .349**
3. Contact with Anglophones .336** .439**
4. Francophone identity –.068 –.137 –.128
5. Anglophone identity .066 .178* .426** .074
6. Semantic differential scales .016 .130 .046 .125 .323**
7. Feelings toward Anglophones –.046 –.033 .030 .153 .351** .351**
8. Involved mediation tactics –.061 .002 –.054 .103 .066 .160* .038
9. Noninvolved mediation tactics .067 –.007 –.004 –.078 .019 .014 –.035 –.455**
10. Daily hassles –.061 –.202* –.138 .033 –.009 .068 –.054 .154 .076
11. Stress –.038 –.018 .031 –.044 .176* –.001 .031 .111 .113 .289**
M6.20 4.63 5.59 4.22 4.52 3.87 2.52 2.37 2.30 4.11
SD 0.880 1.36 0.918 1.35 0.842 1.07 0.643 0.717 0.597 1.39
*p<.05, two-tailed. **p<.01, two-tailed.

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Sara Rubenfeld is a PhD candidate at the University of Ottawa under the supervision of Dr. Richard
Clément. She has been a member of the Cross Cultural Communication Laboratory since September
2003. She completed her bachelor of arts (honours) at the University of Winnipeg. Her research interests
include acculturation, second-language learning, and cross-cultural communication.
202 Journal of Language and Social Psychology

Richard Clément is a professor of psychology at the University of Ottawa. His current research interests
include issues related to bilingualism, second-language acquisition, and identity change and adjustment
in the acculturative process. In 2001, he was awarded the Otto Klineberg Intercultural & International
Relations Prize by the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues, and in 2002, he received the
Robert C. Gardner Award from the International Association of Language & Social Psychology. He is a
fellow of both the Canadian and the American Psychological Association and is currently president of the
International Association of Language and Social Psychology.
Jessica Vinograd is a doctoral candidate in clinical psychology at the University of Ottawa, under the
supervision of Dr. Richard Clément. Her research interests are grounded in language and social psychol-
ogy, with a goal of producing research to enhance the quality of life for underprivileged groups. Her doc-
toral research will investigate the production and transmission of biased language within teacher-to-student
interactions.
Denise Lussier, PhD, is a specialist in measurement and evaluation and a psycholinguist. She is a profes-
sor/ researcher at the Faculty of Education, McGill University, Montreal, Canada. She is also coordinator
of research on education and teachers’ training at the Canadian Inter-University Research Centre on
Immigration and Metropolis. She co-coordinated the European Centre for Modern Languages/Council of
Europe project on Cultural Mediation and Language Teaching. She is now co-coordinating another pro-
ject on Guidelines for Assessing Intercultural Communicative Competence. She is currently directing a
Canadian research project on Cultural Representations, Ethnic Identity, and Intercultural Communication
linked to a framework of reference for the development of intercultural communicative competence.
Valérie Amireault is a PhD candidate in the Department of Integrated Studies in Education at McGill
University. Her research interests include the development of cultural representations in the language-
learning process, the identity redefinition involved in the immigration context, and the integration of new-
comers to Quebec as it relates to their learning of French. She has been involved in various research
projects, notably with the Centre de recherche interuniversitaire immigration et métropoles and the Office
québécois de la langue française in Montreal. Moreover, she has been teaching French as a second lan-
guage at the Continuing Education Department of McGill University for the past 3 years.
Réjean Auger has been a professor in the Department of Education and Pedagogy of the Université du
Québec à Montréal since 1990. He is also director of the international journal Mesure et Évaluation and
founding director of the Research Methodology and Educational Measurement and Evaluation Laboratory
(LABFORM). He has also acted as a measurement and evaluation consultant with school boards, depart-
ments of education, and international organizations.
Monique Lebrun has been a professor of linguistics and language teaching at the Université du Québec
à Montréal since 1987. In this role, she oversees the initial and continued training of French teachers at
three levels of instruction. The recipient of a federal government grant, she leads a research team investi-
gating the history of French-language teaching in Québec. Recently, she has published “Les pratiques de
lecture des adolescents québécois” in Multimondes, and several of her articles have appeared in Cahiers
de la recherche en éducation,Enjeux (Université de Namur), Dialogues et cultures, and Études ethniques
au Canada/Canadian Ethnic Studies. She has also published in Québec français and in Canadian, Belgian,
and French collections.
Rubenfeld et al. / Second-Language Learning 203