No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
The Physiology of Meditation: A Review. A Wakeful Hypometabolic Integrated Response
Abstract
While for centuries a wakeful and tranquil state or experience variously called "samadhi," "pure awareness," or "enlightenment" had been said to be a normal experience and the goal of meditation in Vedic, Buddhist, and Taoist traditions, there was little known about this behavior until recently, when the practice of "transcendental meditation" (TM) became available for study in Western scientific laboratories. Derived from the Vedic tradition, TM is unique because it requires no special circumstances or effort for practice. Based upon a wide spectrum of physiological data on TM, we hypothesize that meditation is an integrated response with peripheral circulatory and metabolic changes subserving increased central nervous activity. Consistent with the subjective description of meditation as a very relaxed but, at the same time, a very alert state, it is likely that such findings during meditation as increased cardiac output, probable increased cerebral blood flow, and findings reminiscent of the "extraordinary" character of classical reports: apparent cessation of CO2 generation by muscle, fivefold plasma AVP elevation, and EEG synchrony play critical roles in this putative response.
... Studies also suggest practice of the technique has beneficial effects in diabetes [47,77]. Evidence for novel effects of the TM technique on energy metabolism was among the earliest findings of research on this technique (see, for review, [78]), and SOCS3 expression provides a possible mechanistic link. ...
... It is also consistent with results from a study in fibroblasts in which cellular allostatic load produced by elevated glucocorticoid level was found to cause a shift from glycolysis to oxidative phosphorylation as the main energy supply [12]. Early research on TM indicates it may foster the reverse shift, i.e., from oxidative phosphorylation to glycolysis during meditation (see, for review, [78]). Results in the parent study suggest that such a shift may pertain outside of meditation as well. ...
Background: Our previous comparison of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from long-term Transcendental Meditation® (TM®) practitioners and matched non-practitioner controls found 200 differentially expressed (DE) genes. Bioinformatics analyses of these DE genes suggested a reduced risk of diseases associated with stress and aging in the TM group. Here we assessed additional signs of reduced stress and aging. Methods: A sample of 15 of the 200 DE genes was studied using qPCR in PBMCs from 40-year TM practitioners (“Old TM”, n = 23) compared to a “Young Control” group (n = 19) and an “Old Control” group (n = 21) of non-meditators. In these three groups, plus a “Young TM”, 12-year practitioner group (n = 26), we also studied EEG-based parameters of cognitive function (the Brain Integration Scale (BIS), and latency of three components of the event-related potential (ERP)). Finally, using LC/MS/MS, we compared persistent levels of cortisol (F) and its inactive congener, cortisone (E), in hair. Results: qPCR analysis showed that 13 of the 15 genes were more highly expressed in Old Controls than in Young Controls. In the Old TM group, 7 of these 13 were lower than in Old Controls. Both TM groups had higher BIS scores than their age-matched controls. The Old TM group had shorter N2, P3a, and P3b latencies than the Old Control group, and latencies in the Old TM group were not longer than in the Young Control group. The Hair F/Hair E ratio was higher in the control subgroups than in their age-matched TM subgroups, and Hair F was higher in the Young Control and combined control groups than in the Young TM and combined TM groups. Conclusions: These results are consistent with reductions in biomarkers of chronic stress and biological age in long-term TM meditators. They are also consistent with results from the previous study suggesting that TM practice lowers energy consumption or leads to more efficient energy metabolism.
... Mindfulness meditation is an ancient and beneficial form of psychological therapy for depression, anxiety and insomnia etc. [26][27][28][29][30][31][32]. A core element of mindfulness meditation is to anchor our attention to a specific object, such as breath [33][34][35]. However, mastering and practising mindfulness meditation can be challenging without guidance from a teacher. ...
... We may further postulate that the more sensory conflicts, the severer car sickness symptoms, and the lower the pre-frontal beta relative power, which has been demonstrated in our EEG data analysis results (Fig. 4). Mindfulness meditation, which emphasizes anchoring attention on the present moment or to a specific object such as breathing, is a typical kind of endogenously driven task [33][34][35]. When users efficiently engage in stable and sustainable mindfulness meditation using the proposed mindfulness BCI, endogenous regulations of their brain are enhanced, which subsequently leads to the increase in the pre-frontal beta relative power, as observed in the mindfulness state runs in our experiments (Fig. 5). ...
Car sickness, an enormous vehicular travel challenge, affects a significant proportion of the population. Pharmacological interventions are limited by adverse side effects, and effective nonpharmacological alternatives remain to be identified. Here, we introduce a novel closed-loop, artificial intelligence (AI)-driven, wearable mindfulness brain-computer interface (BCI) to alleviate car sickness. As the user performs mindfulness meditation with a wearable headband, the BCI collects and analyses electroencephalography (EEG) data using a convolutional neural network to assess the user's mindfulness state and provide real-time audiovisual feedback. This approach might efficiently redirect the user's attention from physiological discomfort towards BCI-based mindfulness practices, thereby mitigating car sickness symptoms. The efficacy of the mindfulness BCI was rigorously evaluated in two real world experiments: short and long car rides, with a large cohort of over 100 participants susceptible to car sickness. Remarkably, over 84% of participants rated the mindfulness BCI intervention as effective, with significant reductions in car sickness severity, particularly in individuals with severe symptoms. Furthermore, EEG data analysis revealed pre-frontal beta relative power as a neurobiological signature of car sickness, which provided mechanistic insight into the efficacy of the mindfulness BCI combining attention shift and sensory conflict theory for car sickness. This study proposed the first nonpharmacological, wearable and effective car sickness intervention method and system with potential to transform the travel experience of hundreds of millions suffering from car sickness, also representing a new application of BCI technology.
... In a review on the physiology of yoga, Jevning et al. [9] called the state of mindful awareness a "wakeful hypometabolic integrated response". They suggested that yoga meditation is an integrated signal from the central nervous system that controls circulatory and metabolic functions. ...
... The practice of yoga induces significant alterations in neurohormonal system resulting in improved electrophysiological activity of the brain. Studies using high resolution brain imaging have shown that the activity in the frontal and other cortical brain regions is reduced, while activity in the limbic brain areas increases, especially in the hippocampus, during meditation [9]. The hippocampus is the area associated with the stress hormone cortisol. ...
... Many transcriptomic effects of chronic or extreme stress are known [23][24][25]45], and prior evidence exists for at least partial reversal of some of these effects by mind-body interventions [36], including by other techniques of meditation [32,33]. Furthermore, independent evidence exists showing that the TM program can reverse long-lasting effects of stress such as symptoms of PTSD [11][12][13], risk factors for CVD [15][16][17][18], chronically high levels of stress-related hormones [17,46,47], and low efficiency of energy metabolism [48]. Taken together, these prior studies predict that transcriptomic patterns associated with stress, such as the CTRA and low energy efficiency (see Introduction), should be prevented or reversed after long-term practice of this program. ...
... Recent articles by Picard, McEwen et al. summarize the critical roles that mitochondrial energy production and other mitochondrial functions play in stress and adaptation [27,31]. As reviewed by Jevning et al. [48], evidence that practice of TM programs increases energy efficiency includes decreased oxygen consumption, decreased respiratory rate, and decreased blood lactate levels. Lactate, a product of glycolysis that is produced in the blood mainly by erythrocytes, is increased during anaerobic metabolism and decreases acutely in erythrocytes during practice of TM [52]. ...
Background and Objectives: Stress can overload adaptive mechanisms, leading to epigenetic effects harmful to health. Research on the reversal of these effects is in its infancy. Early results suggest some meditation techniques have health benefits that grow with repeated practice. This study focused on possible transcriptomic effects of 38 years of twice-daily Transcendental Meditation® (TM®) practice. Materials and Methods: First, using Illumina® BeadChip microarray technology, differences in global gene expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were sought between healthy practitioners and tightly matched controls (n = 12, age 65). Second, these microarray results were verified on a subset of genes using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and were validated using qPCR in larger TM and control groups (n = 45, age 63). Bioinformatics investigation employed Ingenuity® Pathway Analysis (IPA®), DAVID, Genomatix, and R packages. Results: The 200 genes and loci found to meet strict criteria for differential expression in the microarray experiment showed contrasting patterns of expression that distinguished the two groups. Differential expression relating to immune function and energy efficiency were most apparent. In the TM group, relative to the control, all 49 genes associated with inflammation were downregulated, while genes associated with antiviral and antibody components of the defense response were upregulated. The largest expression differences were shown by six genes related to erythrocyte function that appeared to reflect a condition of lower energy efficiency in the control group. Results supporting these gene expression differences were obtained with qPCR-measured expression both in the well-matched microarray groups and in the larger, less well-matched groups. Conclusions: These findings are consistent with predictions based on results from earlier randomized trials of meditation and may provide evidence for stress-related molecular mechanisms underlying reductions in anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), cardiovascular disease (CVD), and other chronic disorders and diseases.
... During mindfulness meditation, there is a physiological change in the "wakeful hypometabolic state" [22]. The activity of the sympathetic nervous system decreases and the activity of the parasympathetic nervous system, which is important for relaxation and rest, increases, but this state is known to be one that is clearly different from the state of simply resting or sleeping qualitatively and quantitatively [23]. ...
... In other words, in addition to relaxing the body, it aims to reduce mental activity by relaxing the mind, thereby providing feedback to the body, leading to deeper physical relaxation. This has been proven in studies that measure physiological changes in the body while practicing mindfulness meditation [22,23]. Body relaxation, such as simple muscle relaxation, is associated with the activation of primary and secondary motor regions. ...
Medication alone is not sufficient to treat insomnia. In addition, the side effects of sleep medications themselves cannot be ignored during treatment. Insomnia begins with poor sleep quality and discomfort, but as it continues, patients fall into a vicious circle of insomnia with negative thoughts and dysfunctional and distorted perceptions related to sleep. Mindfulness-based intervention for insomnia corrects these sequential cognitive and behavioral processes. The mindfulness technique basically recognizes all the thoughts, feelings, and experiences that occur to us as they are, nonjudgmentally, and then trains them to return to the senses of our body. In this way, while noticing all the processes of the sequential vicious cycle and training them to return to our bodies (e.g., breathing), mindfulness determines whether we are really sleepy or just fatigued. This mindfulness-based intervention can be a useful nonpharmaceutical intervention for insomnia, and its stability and efficacy has been proven by many studies.
... Meditation is defined as a stylized mental relaxation technique repetitively practiced for the purpose of attaining a subjective experience that is frequently described as very restful, silent, and of heightened alertness [4]. Therefore, this study was conducted to determine the effect of relaxation techniques on hypertensive postmenopausal women. ...
... Meditation (which is one of the relaxation techniques) is defined as a stylized mental technique repetitively practiced for the purpose of attaining a subjective experience that is frequently described as very restful, silent, and of heightened alertness, often characterized as blissful [4]. ...
Context Hypertension after menopause sets women up for an increased risk of negative cardiovascular outcomes. A variety of relaxation techniques exist, which aim to relieve stress and reduce blood pressure. Several studies have been conducted to demonstrate the role of several relaxation techniques in lowering the blood pressure in hypertensive patients. Aim The aim of this study was to determine the effect of relaxation techniques on postmenopausal hypertension. Participants and methods Forty postmenopausal hypertensive women were selected randomly from the outpatient clinic at El Agouza Hospital. They were divided randomly into two groups (A, B): group A was treated with antihypertensive drugs (captopril 25 mg twice daily) and relaxation technique sessions (each session 20 min, three times per week for 3 months), whereas group B was treated with antihypertensive drugs (captopril 25 mg twice daily) only. Blood pressure was evaluated before and after performing the program for both groups. Variables were compared using the unpaired t-test, whereas pairwise comparison (pretreatment vs. post-treatment) within the same group was performed using paired t-test. Results Group A, which was treated with antihypertensive drugs and relaxation techniques, showed a statistically highly significant difference (P<0.01) in both diastolic blood pressure and systolic blood pressure compared with group B, as the mean difference was 12.5 and 3.5, respectively, in the diastolic blood pressure of groups A and B and 15.25 and 6.75 in the systolic blood pressure in groups A and B before and after performing the program, respectively. Conclusion The practice of relaxation techniques was a very effective method in reducing blood pressure in postmenopausal women.
... Afterwards, the growing body of literature showed importance of these techniques in dealing with extreme emotions by providing supporting empirical evidence [12,13,19]. These techniques include for example the so-called mindfulnessbased stress reduction (MBSR) program as described by Kabat-Zinn et al. [24] and also various yoga and meditation techniques [22,23]. The term mindfulness means essentially the self-regulation of ones' attention, including concentration and attention switching. ...
... It helps us to express our positive emotions such as feeling of happiness, excitement and joy. Quantitative research is available on the subject of humor and laughter, related to its effects on human both psychologically and physiologically [4,5,17,22]. The same research also shows how humor is used in communication between health care professionals and patients in hospitals to subdue anxiety, fear, anger, embarrassment and other feelings associated with stress. ...
Stress is often seen as a negative factor which affects every individ-ual's life quality and decision making. To help avoid or deal with extreme emotions caused by an external stressor, a number of practices have been introduced. In the scope of this paper, we take three kinds of therapy into account: mindful-ness, humor, and music therapy. This paper aims to see how various practices help people to cope with stress, using mathematical modelling. We present practical implementations in the form of client-server software, incorporating the computational model which describes therapy effects for overcoming stress based on quantitative neuropsychological research. The underlying network model simulates the elicitation of an extremely stressful emotion due to a strong stress-inducing event as an external stimulus, followed by a therapy practice simulation leading to a reduction of the stress level. Each simulation is based on user input and preferences, integrating a parameter tuning process; it fits a simulation for a particular user. The client-server architecture software which has been designed and developed completely fulfills this objective. It includes server part with embedded MATLAB interaction and API for client communication.
... TM is described as a simple, natural technique practiced for 20 min twice a day while sitting comfortably with the eyes closed (36,37). It is reported that the ordinary thinking process settles down, leading to a distinctive wakeful hypometabolic state characterized by neural coherence and physiological rest (38)(39)(40)(41)(42). ...
Introduction
Black Americans suffer from disproportionately high rates of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Psychosocial stress contributes to this disparity. Previous studies reported that the Transcendental Meditation (TM) technique reduced CVD risk factors, surrogate endpoints, and clinical events in high-risk populations. However, no study has evaluated the effects of stress reduction with meditation on surrogate CVD markers such as carotid intima-media thickness (cIMT) along with CVD clinical events. Therefore, this randomized clinical trial evaluated the long-term effects of meditation and health education (HE) on cIMT and CVD events in high-risk Black adults.
Materials and methods
Participants were Black women and men with CVD or at high risk who were randomized to either TM or HE. The primary outcome was a change in cIMT measured using B-mode ultrasound at baseline and 12 months. The main secondary outcome was major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) at 5 years (maximum) of follow-up. Other secondary outcomes were MACE at 1 and 10 years of follow-up, blood pressure, and serum lipids after 1 year. Exploratory variables were a comparison of cIMT changes to historical controls and MACE after 14 years.
Results
There were 197 randomized participants, of whom 136 completed posttest for cIMT. After 1 year, the TM and HE groups showed average cIMT changes of −0.0004 and −0.0003 mm, respectively, with no significant difference between the groups. Additionally, there were no significant differences between the groups in lipid levels or BP. However, both TM and HE groups showed prevention of progression of cIMT compared to historical controls at 12 months. In the survival analysis of MACE, there was a 65% relative risk reduction in the TM group after 5 (maximum) years of follow-up (HR = 0.346; 95% CI = 0.134–0.893; p = 0.017). At 1 and 10 years of follow-up, there were significant risk reductions in the TM vs. HE group, which was not significant at 14 years (all yearly maximums).
Discussion
Both treatment groups demonstrated prevention of progression of cIMT over 12 months compared to historical controls. However, the TM group showed a relative risk reduction for MACE of 65% at 5 years. Therefore, as a lifestyle modification method, TM may be useful in the secondary prevention of CVD in this and possibly other high-risk groups.
Clinical trial registration
ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT05642936.
... Activation of the right amygdala triggers the ventromedial hypothalamus, stimulating the parasympathetic nervous system [60]. This activation decreases heart rate and blood pressure [61], relaxing baroreceptors. The resulting reduction in baroreceptor inhibition of the supraoptic nucleus by the caudal ventral medulla allows the release of arginine vasopressin, which helps restore blood pressure and maintain homeostasis [62]. ...
With its unparalleled complexity and profound capabilities, the human mind remains a pinnacle of natural design and a central subject of scientific inquiry throughout history. Motivated by an enduring curiosity, researchers have sought to unravel and harness the full potential of the human mind. Over time, numerous theories and frameworks have emerged to elucidate various facets of mental processes and their interplay with the body. Modern scientific exploration has delved into the mind-body relationship at cellular and molecular levels, employing evidence-based approaches to uncover its intricate mechanisms. Understanding how mental training influences neurophysiological and biochemical pathways could significantly advance this field. This review focuses on cellular signaling pathways—including the NMDA-mediated, ERK, and BDNF pathways—epigenetic modifications, such as alterations in transcription factors, chromatin structure, and biomarkers, as well as neurochemical and neurophysiological changes associated with mind training practices, particularly meditation. These insights aim to contribute to a deeper comprehension of the complex interrelations governing the mind and body.
... Concerning psychological health outcomes, beneficial effects of MBIs could be found for example in the improvement of well-being and behavioral regulation, 12 positive affect 13,14 as well as in reductions of anxiety and depressive symptoms, [15][16][17][18] stress 19,20 and burnout. 21 Concerning physiological health outcomes, MBIs show varying positive bodily changes like reductions in heart and respiratory rates, hypertension symptoms, 22,23 skin conductance 24 and pain levels 25,26 or an increase in heart rate variability (HRV). 27 To theoretically frame these positive effects of MBIs on health, we apply Antonovsky's salutogenic model of health. ...
Objective
In the past two decades, mindfulness, rooted in Buddhist traditions, has gained considerable scientific interest. Virtual reality (VR) technology, in particular head-mounted displays, offers immersive experiences and is examined in this systematic review in terms of VR-based mindfulness interventions and their effects on psychological and physiological health outcomes.
Methods
Using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta Analyses guidelines, a systematic search was conducted with the following search terms: [(mindful* OR “meditat*”) AND (“virtual reality” OR “VR”) AND (health OR physio* OR psycho* OR mental OR physical)]. Considering critiques of methodological quality in existing systematic reviews, this study adopts Boell and Cecez-Kecmanovic’s hermeneutic approach, critically evaluating research outcomes.
Results
Psychological benefits include improved anxiety, mindfulness, emotions, disease patterns, affect, stress, (presleep) arousal, meditation and others. Physiological effects focus on neurobiological markers, heart rate/heart rate variability, pain, blood pressure, cortisol and galvanic skin resistance. Evidence mapping shows that more research has been conducted in the last 6 years, particularly by North American and South Korean authors, and points to gaps in study methodology. In addition, attention regulation is identified as a primary mindfulness mechanism in VR scenarios, often in nature-based virtual environments, with mainly single-session studies lasting 5 or 10 minutes.
Discussion
Critical mapping reveals the need for additional studies to support and extend initial findings in this emerging research field. Methodologically, there is a call for more true-experimental studies to enhance rigor. From a content perspective, VR protocols are currently still strongly characterized by single-session interventions, which makes it especially difficult to make a dose–response statement regarding long-term effects.
Conclusion
In summary, the studies provide important initial findings on psychological and physiological effects of VR-based mindfulness interventions on health. In addition, the need for more methodologically rigorous studies was emphasized, along with other methodological adjustments that must be carefully considered in the planning of future studies.
... Mindfulness meditation is a beneficial psychological therapy with a history of over 3000 years, deeply rooted in religious traditions, and has gradually evolved into a scientific discipline [16], [17]. Mindfulness meditation comprises three elements: firstly, awareness of one's current bodily state, including whether emotions are positive and whether one is focused [18]; secondly, acceptance of the observed content without judgment or resistance [19]; thirdly, concentration, anchoring attention onto a specific object, typically the breath [20], [21], [22]. Theoretically, mindfulness meditation allows participants to observe an object, sound, and/or bodily sensation without judgment, involving minimal cognitive load [18], [20], [23], making it an ideal choice for intervening in motion sickness. ...
... An exercise-brought "relaxation reaction" has been determined to prolong the latency of REM sleep and sluggishwave sleep. Goal adjustments associated with therapeutic outcomes had been located to have a response rate of sixty-eight percent, further suggesting that this release of lifestyles forces produces greater than a placebo impact [27,28,29]. ...
Book series on Medical Science gives the opportunity to students and doctors from all over the world to publish their research work in a set of Preclinical sciences, Internal medicine, Surgery and Public Health. This book series aim to inspire innovation and promote academic quality through outstanding publications of scientists and doctors. It also provides a premier interdisciplinary platform for researchers, practitioners, and educators to publish the most recent innovations, trends, and concerns as well as practical challenges encountered and solutions adopted in the fields of Medical Science. The content of the book is as follows
... Meditation is the process of training attention and awareness to achieve a physiological state that elicits physical and mental relaxation and enhances emotional stability (Bajaj et al., 2019;Jevning et al., 1992;Lee et al., 2015;Young & Taylor, 1998). Together with the associated state of mindfulness-being non-judgmentally focused Extended author information available on the last page of the article Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. ...
Buddhist meditation practices, including Samadhi meditation, which forms the basis for mindfulness practice, are broadly promoted as pathways to wellbeing, but evidence of their adverse effects is emerging. In a single-group observational study with assessments of autonomic system before, during, and after Samadhi meditation, we explore the relationship between post-meditation nausea symptoms and the degree of change in autonomic system activity during meditation as compared to before and after in 57 university students (42 women; mean age = 22.6) without any previous experience in meditation or yoga practices. We hypothesize that nauseous feelings in meditation are connected to a rapid increase of activity in the sympathetic nervous system, as indicated by decreased heart-rate variability (HRV). We additionally explore links between meditation-induced nausea and two markers of parasympathetic activity: increased HRV and vasovagal syncope. Engaging in meditation and increased nausea during meditation were both associated with increased markers of HRV parasympathetic activity, but 12 individuals with markedly higher nausea demonstrated increased HRV markers of sympathetic activity during meditation. Vasovagal syncope was observed but found to be unrelated to nausea levels. Drivers of adverse effects of meditation in some individuals require further investigation.
... erect that eight wives, the ones that automatically trained in mindfulness contemplation (graduates of or coaches at the program), had larger melatonin levels (as calculated by urinary 6-sulphatoxymelatonin) than the eight female controls, the one acting not moderately (Massion). Another group of investigators in Australia found that melatonin levels calculated in the middle of the night were higher immediately following the ending of contemplation [78]. They were second-hand knowledgeable meditators from two different traditions: individuals trained for a half-minute and others for a full minute. ...
Physiology is the study of how living structures function and classic physiological orders have long been the pillar of our understanding of plant structure. This review provides an inclusive test of five key classic corporeal structures, shedding light on their fundamental standards and relevance in contemporary research. The entire study investigated in this review included the nervous system, cardiovascular method, respiration plan, digestive system, and endocrine scheme. The central nervous system, comprising intelligence and spinal rope, is essential for ideas and control inside the physique. It also regulates aural understanding, engine function, and cognitive processes. Meanwhile, the cardiovascular system, accompanying the soul and blood vessels, transports fibers and oxygen, guaranteeing that the body›s strength needs are met. The respiring plan plays a vital role in the smoke exchange, accompanying the bronchi and enabling the exchange of oxygen and colorless odorless gas. The digestive system processes meat, extracts essential vitamins, and removes waste. Finally, the endocrine system, through an entire complex network of hormones, regulates different bodily functions, including progress, metabolism, and stress reactions.
... Authors did not provide an inclusive discussion on this finding. It can, however, be stated that the group with meditation experience was not experienced in the mindfulness tradition, but in transcendental meditation-involving recitation of certain phrases (i.e., mantra) and differing in structure to mindfulness practice (Jevning et al., 1992). In addition to the small study sample, the present fatalistic viewpoint could also be related to the nature of meditation experience. ...
Objectives
Research on the effects of time perspectives and dispositional mindfulness on psychological well-being can be potentially insightful. However, time perspective and dispositional mindfulness constructs have mostly been studied separately, leaving room for discussion regarding their interactions. There is, so far, a limited number of empirical studies and no systematic review on this area of research. This systematic review thus aimed at providing an informative outline.
Method
Key databases including Scopus and Web of Knowledge were screened, and the most recent search was conducted in June 2023. Initially, 593 entries were found to meet the criterion of cross-sectional design. Final analysis incorporated the narrative synthesis strategy for resulting 16 eligible articles.
Results
Dispositional mindfulness is closely related to a flexible shift in time perspectives, called the balanced time perspective. In general, dispositional mindfulness was found to positively correlate with an optimistic view of both the past and the future, and it was also positively linked to savoring the present moment experiences. Furthermore, a non-judgmental focus is central to mindful decentering when being attentive to the actual characteristics of present stimuli.
Conclusions
The balanced time perspective is an important construct possibly linking dispositional mindfulness and time perspectives. The present-eudaimonic perspective, self-compassion, and decentering are variables that can further help guide research in outlining complex interactions that also relate to psychological well-being. Future research is advised to include longitudinal and experimental designs for a more comprehensive understanding of relevant interactions.
Preregistration
This study was preregistered to PROSPERO with the number CRD42021241388.
... Relaxation is a commonly known concept, often associated with pleasurable activities such as spa treatments or massages. Relaxation refers to a state of wakefulness characterized by reduced psychophysiological activity in either the entire body or specific systems [1]. ...
This research article aimed to evaluate the most relaxing audio accompaniment for post-workout relaxation. The study involved ten relaxation sessions with different musical accompaniments, and five participants rated their experiences on a relaxation scale, ranging from 1 (not at all relaxing) to 5 (completely relaxed and blissful). The sessions included nature sounds, musical instruments, vocalizations, and silence. The results showed varying responses among the participants (1.8 to 4.6 out of 5), indicating the influence of audio accompaniment on relaxation. The sounds of waterfall (3/5), beach campfire (2.8/5), the piano (3/5), vocalise (3.2/5) and the forest (3.2/5) were average and not fully relaxing, while singing bowls (4.2/5) and Koshi chimes (4.4/5) received highly positive responses. The harp received above average ratings (3.6/5), while silence presented challenges (2.8/5) for some participants; interestingly, session of silence had positive rating post 2 hours of the session. The wind session was the least relaxing (1.8/5), causing anxiety and discomfort. These ratings, collected immediately after the session, were similar to ratings collected after two hours of session confirming consistency of result and post impact. The study had recognized its limitation of the subjectivity of individual experiences and the impact of participants' initial states. Though other sounds suggested during the sessions also had a beneficial effect, the marked effects of wind chimes and singing bowls were highlighted in the study indicating its potential in relaxation. The research suggests incorporating these instruments into regular relaxation routines for enhanced well-being.
... Based on Benson's approach, an evolutionary theory was proposed by Young and Taylor [8] , where meditation was characterized as a "wakeful hypometabolic state of parasym-pathetic dominance" [page 149] [8] . The hypometabolic state during meditation is a state of deep rest, which is similar to hibernation, but where the practitioner remains awake and vigilant [8,9] . The state of being awake and vigilant was later termed "tonic alertness," which indicates a state of optimal vigilance where attention is sustained for a prolonged period of time [10] . ...
... Future studies should also consider assessing and testing the effect of the interoceptive focus on the behavioral performance (motor or cognitive, according to the selected synchronization task), as well as on the feelings of synchrony Also, we acknowledge that in the future, it will be required to control the respiratory rate (with a respiration belt and a pulse oximetry sensor), which might affect the study's findings, and to contrast the differences between activities requiring attention to breathing and tasks requiring attention to cardiac activity. Although participants were told not to change their breathing during IA, and the task consisted of an attention and self-awareness task on the breath (not a breath control task), changed awareness of breathing might potentially have slowed the breathing involuntarily (Jevning et al., 1992), which might have affected the Blood Oxygenated Level Dependent response (Birn et al., 2006). It may be an additional caution to check whether and how this aspect affects the EEG data. ...
The effect of explicit interoception manipulation on electrophysiological (EEG) patterns concurrent with an interpersonal motor synchronization task with a social purpose was investigated in this study. Thirty healthy individuals executed a task involving behavioral motor synchronization with a social framing in both focus (conceived as the focus on the breath for a specific time interval) and no focus conditions. During the task, a 15 active electrodes electroencephalogram was used to record the following frequency bands (delta, theta, alpha, and beta band) from the frontal, temporo-central, and parieto-occipital regions of interest (ROIs). According to the results, for all the frequency bands significant higher mean values were found in the focus compared to no focus condition in the parieto-occipital ROI. On the whole, the current work conveys that when a motor synchronization task is executed and the person concurrently pays attention to his/her body correlates, EEG brain activity is empowered and boosted in posterior areas at the basis of attention to visceral signals, but also interpersonal action coordination. This evidence could have potentially interesting implications because it suggests the importance of modern breath-work during all conditions that require a social motor joint task, such as physiotherapy exercises or synchronized sports.
... Cardiovascular, hormonal, and metabolic changes, behavioral effects, and alterations of neurophysiology and phenomenology resulting from meditation have been explored in recent years. Most meditative states have been shown to have a particular physiological profile suggestive of an alert, but hypometabolic, state with decreased sympathetic nervous system activity, and increased parasympathetic activity through influence on vagal tone (Jevning et al. 1992): i.e., although meditation requires arousal and attention, it facilitates a somatic relaxation response, lowers heart rate, helps regulate breathing, and boosts melatonin. There is some evidence that -given the hypometabolic state -meditation likely provides some of the restorative functions of sleep and thus decreases the biological pressure and need for sleep. ...
... Pranayama practices, stretches the lung tissue producing inhibitory signals from action of slowly adapting receptors and hyperpolarising currents. These inhibitory signals coming from cardiorespiratory region involving vagi are believed to synchronize neural elements in the brain leading to changes in the autonomic nervous system; and a resultant condition characterized by reduced metabolism and parasympathetic dominance [52]. Yoga and pranayamas seems to influence through modifying activity of ascending reticular activating system and thereby also interact with autonomic centers in the brainstem thus affecting cardiorespiratory and metabolic parameters [53]. ...
Metabolic syndrome (MS) is defined by a cluster of risk factors including insulin resistance, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and obesity. Metabolic syndrome is also defined as having at least three metabolic risk factors — increased blood pressure, high blood sugar level, excess body fat, and abnormal cholesterol levels — and greatly increases the chance of future cardiovascular problems. The last 50 years have seen a dramatic increase in metabolic disorders, including obesity and type 2 diabetes, with the number of individuals diagnosed with type 2 diabetes worldwide expected to surpass 360 million by 2030. Early diagnosis is important in order to employ effectively lifestyle and risk factor modification. Pharmaceutical therapy in MS is aimed at treating the individual components of MS such as antihypertensives, statins, and metformin. Some natural compounds, Yoga and dietary elements. Therefore in this article various therapies (possible treatments) were reviewed. The world is in emergent need for searching of treatments for metabolic syndrome. The MS is a constellation of common metabolic disorders that is associated with type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Insulin resistance and dyslipidemia play central roles in the pathophysiology of this syndrome. In this modern world, metabolic syndrome is reaching epidemic proportions. With only a handful of people following the healthy diet and lifestyle, majority still fall in the bracket of those with compromised diet and lifestyle, burdening the health services. Socio economic changes and eventually globalization has led to transformation in the society. This has led to alterations in the dietary habits eventually resulting in nutrition transition. Pharmacological treatment is only based on only diagnosis and symptoms. Recently approved anti-obesity drugs can be prescribed to reduce body weight, particularly abdominal visceral fat. A first line intervention targeting MS involves dietary and lifestyle modification with regular physical activity over a period of time. However, improvement in MS parameters can only be maintained when these modifications can be sustained. Therefore, dietary and lifestyle modification in continuum is required to overcome MS holistically. The main and foremost treatment for metabolic syndrome is to eliminate the causative risk factors of it.
... Studies in Taiwan showed significant increase in seven standardized measures of functioning for a group of students practicing Transcendental Meditation (TM), and increases in two scales for the students practicing traditional Chinese contemplative practices, as compared to no increase for the group of students who napped. The standardized measures included such areas as the ability to reason in novel situations, speed of information processing, creative thinking, and anxiety level (Alexander, 1993;Jevning, Wallace, & Beidebach, 1992;So & Orme-Johnson, 2001). In business, the distinctive psychophysiological state of restful alertness produced by the TM technique has been found to improve employee health, wellbeing, job satisfaction, efficiency, and productivity, which, in turn, appear to influence organizational climate, absenteeism, and financial performance (Schmidt-Wilk, Alexander, & Swanson, 1996). ...
The aim of this empirical paper was to show the relationship between the effectiveness of Human Resource (HR) professionals and some selected organizational factors(namely leadership, organizational support and reward system).The study focused on HR professionals in Multimedia University(MMU),anIT-based private university in Malaysia. It had adopted a mixed method methodology combining an in-depth telephone interview with a senior HR manager in MMU and asurveyoflecturersinMMUMelakacampus.150questionnairesweredistributed to the said lecturers but obtained a response rate of 44 per cent. The findings from the survey(and the interview)found a strong correlation between leadership(0.699) and organizational support (0.673) and HR professionals’ effectiveness.
... Meditation practices induce both immediate and long-term effects on the hormonal milieu. In general, the practice of meditation reduces cortisol and catecholamines 17,18 , increases dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), melatonin, growth hormone (GH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and prolactin [19][20][21][22][23][24] . Among various hormones, DHEA, cortisol and melatonin are considered as a metric to assess the effect of meditation practice on the humoral system 25 and these hormones are also involved in the regulation of sleep 26 . ...
Objectives: Meditation practices positively influence the neural, hormonal and autonomic systems. We have demonstrated that long-term practice of mindfulness meditation increases N3 and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep stages and bring efficient autonomic modulation during sleep. In the present study, the probable humoral correlation that could bring about these changes is evaluated.
Material and Methods: Long-term Vipassana meditators (n=41) and controls (n=24) (males, 30-60 years of age) underwent a two-day consecutive whole night polysomnography recording. During the second day, with exposure to 100Lux brightness, blood was sampled from the antecubital vein between 8-9 PM and in subsequent early morning. Sleep stage was scored as per American Society of Sleep Medicine (ASSM) guidelines for the second-day recording. Sleep-related hormones were estimated - melatonin by radioimmunoassay; dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), cortisol, growth hormone (GH) and prolactin with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA); DHEA/cortisol ratio was calculated. Percentage of sleep stages and hormonal levels were compared between both groups using independent ‘t’ test and Pearson’s correlation was estimated between sleep stages and hormonal levels.
Results: Meditators showed increased N3, REM sleep stages. Though evening cortisol was comparable between the two groups; early morning cortisol, diurnal DHEA and melatonin were significantly higher in meditators. Diurnal DHEA correlated significantly with the N3 sleep stage in meditators.
Discussion: Higher diurnal DHEA despite variations in corresponding cortisol in meditators demonstrates that long-term Vipassana meditation practice modulates the hypothalamicpituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and thereby influences sleep. Thus, the study provides evidence to explore the mechanism most likely involved with mindfulness meditation intervention in insomnia.
... Meditation training has been shown to improve executive functioning and mental health (Chiesa and Serretti 2009;Leyland et al. 2019). These psychological changes are accompanied by reliable changes in brain (Cahn and Polich 2006;Lomas et al. 2015) and autonomic (Jevning et al. 1992) activity. However, little is known about how these neural physiological changes are related to the quality or 'depth' of meditation (Wallace 1999;Lutz et al. 2007;Dunne et al. 2019). ...
Meditation training is proposed to enhance mental well-being by modulating neural activity, particularly alpha and theta brain oscillations , and autonomic activity. Although such enhancement also depends on the quality of meditation, little is known about how these neural and physiological changes relate to meditation quality. One model characterizes meditation quality as five increasing levels of 'depth': hindrances, relaxation, concentration, transpersonal qualities and nonduality. We investigated the neural oscillatory (theta, alpha, beta and gamma) and physiological (respiration rate, heart rate and heart rate variability) correlates of the self-reported meditation depth in long-term meditators (LTMs) and meditation-naïve controls (CTLs). To determine the neural and physiological correlates of meditation depth, we modelled the change in the slope of the relationship between self-reported experiential degree at each of the five depth levels and the multiple neural and physiological measures. CTLs reported experiencing more 'hindrances' than LTMs, while LTMs reported more 'transpersonal qualities' and 'nonduality' compared to CTLs, confirming the experiential manipulation of meditation depth. We found that in both groups, theta (4-6 Hz) and alpha (7-13 Hz) oscillations were related to meditation depth in a precisely opposite manner. The theta amplitude positively correlated with 'hindrances' and increasingly negatively correlated with increasing meditation depth levels. Alpha amplitude negatively correlated with 'hindrances' and increasingly positively with increasing depth levels. The increase in the inverse association between theta and meditation depth occurred over different scalp locations in the two groups-frontal midline in LTMs and frontal lateral in CTLs-possibly reflecting the downregulation of two different aspects of executive processing-monitoring and attention regulation, respectively-during deep meditation. These results suggest a functional dissociation of the two classical neural signatures of meditation training, namely, alpha and theta oscillations. Moreover , while essential for overcoming 'hindrances', executive neural processing appears to be downregulated during deeper meditation experiences.
... Jung et al. 2010;Kjaer et al. 2002). Vereinfacht gesagt: Meditation wirkt auf den Serotoninspiegel, welcher wiederum das Dopamin beeinflusst.Während der Meditation kommt es zu einer Zunahme der parasympathischen Aktivität des vegetativen Nervensystems, und die Herzfrequenz, der Blutdruck und die Atemfrequenz werden gesenkt (Jevning et al. 1992). In Korrelation einer Abnahme von Herz-und Atemfrequenz wird die Ausschüttung von Noradrenalin (NA) verringert (Craigmyle 2013). ...
Neben den in der Literatur vornehmlich psychologischen Deutungen von Achtsamkeit und Meditation werden heute auch physiologische und neurowissenschaftliche Auswirkungen und Wirkmechanismen von Achtsamkeit und Meditation untersucht. Dabei kann zwischen strukturellen und funktionellen Auswirkungen sowie zwischen neuronalen und molekularen Wirkmechanismen unterschieden werden. In diesem Beitrag werden die für Lehre und Lernen relevanten Erkenntnisse dargestellt und in Relation zum Stresserleben und der Beziehungsebene diskutiert. Die Befunde sind für die Medizin, die Psychologie als auch die Pädagogik relevant – da sie als grundlegendes Wissen für (therapeutische) Verhaltens- und Lebensstilmodifikationen sowie für Beziehungsgestaltung herangezogen werden können.
... Meditation is an ancient technique which promotes a sense of calm and heightened awareness and improves general physical well-being [1]. Techniques incorporating these teachings have now become widely popular for building resilience to stressors of everyday life and illness [2]. ...
Background
Meditation-based practices have been suggested to result in many biological benefits which include reduction of attrition of telomeres, the protective nucleotide-protein complexes at termini of eukaryotic chromosomes. This systematic review evaluated the effects of meditation on telomere length (TL) in healthy adults.
Methods
Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and observational studies conducted to determine the effects of meditation on TL in healthy individuals, published up to July 2020 were retrieved by searching seven electronic databases (PubMed, Scopus, PsycINFO, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, CINAHL and Google Scholar). The methodological quality of RCTs and observational studies was assessed using the Cochrane Collaboration Risk of Bias Tool and Joanna Briggs Institute critical appraisal checklist, respectively. The data was synthesized narratively and the effect estimates of TL in the RCTs were synthesized using alternative methods as a meta-analysis was not conducted. The certainty of evidence was classified according to the GRADE system.
Results
A total of 1740 articles were screened. Five studies comprising two RCTs and three case-control studies (CCS) were included in the final review based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The combined sample consisted of 615 participants with 41.7% males. Average age of participants was 47.7 years. One CCS and one RCT reported significant beneficial effects of meditation on TL while the two remaining CCS and the RCT showed positive effects of meditation on TL which were not significant. For all CCS and one RCT, the methodological quality was high while the remaining RCT was of moderate quality. The quality of evidence for the primary outcome was moderate in RCTs.
Conclusion
The effect of meditation on TL per se is still unclear. Strictly designed and well-reported RCTs with larger sample sizes are required to provide evidence of higher quality.
Systematic review registration
The protocol of this review was registered with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) database (registration number: CRD42020153977 ).
... The early studies also showed decreased cortisol levels during TM and lower levels of cortisol both during the day and at night in a TM group as compared to controls [25,26]. These initial findings have been expanded and extended by a number of researchers who have reported positive effects on autonomic, biochemical and brain activity measures [27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38]. ...
In our increasingly stressed world, especially with the COVID-19 pandemic, the activation of the threat network in everyday situations can adversely affect our mental and physical health. Neurophysiological response to these threats/challenges depends on the type of challenge and the individual’s neuroadaptability. Neuroadaptability is defined as the ability of the nervous system to alter responsiveness over time to reoccurring stimuli. Neuroadaptability differs from neuroplasticity, which is more inclusive and refers to the ability of the nervous system to change and learn from any experience. We examine neuroadaptability and how it affects health from the perspective of modern medicine and Ayurveda.
... Hypometabolism that is actively regulated by autonomic control has been observed in controlled meditative states (Wallace, 1970;Jevning, Wallace & Beidebach, 1992;Tang et al., 2009). This dominant activity of the parasympathetic component of autonomic nervous system (ANS) is analogous to what has been reported during entry into and maintenance of torpid states in humans (Harris & Milsom, 1995;Zosky, 2002). ...
During a long‐duration manned spaceflight mission, such as flying to Mars and beyond, all crew members will spend a long period in an independent spacecraft with closed‐loop bioregenerative life‐support systems. Saving resources and reducing medical risks, particularly in mental heath, are key technology gaps hampering human expedition into deep space. In the 1960s, several scientists proposed that an induced state of suppressed metabolism in humans, which mimics ‘hibernation’, could be an ideal solution to cope with many issues during spaceflight. In recent years, with the introduction of specific methods, it is becoming more feasible to induce an artificial hibernation‐like state (synthetic torpor) in non‐hibernating species. Natural torpor is a fascinating, yet enigmatic, physiological process in which metabolic rate (MR), body core temperature (Tb) and behavioural activity are reduced to save energy during harsh seasonal conditions. It employs a complex central neural network to orchestrate a homeostatic state of hypometabolism, hypothermia and hypoactivity in response to environmental challenges. The anatomical and functional connections within the central nervous system (CNS) lie at the heart of controlling synthetic torpor. Although progress has been made, the precise mechanisms underlying the active regulation of the torpor–arousal transition, and their profound influence on neural function and behaviour, which are critical concerns for safe and reversible human torpor, remain poorly understood. In this review, we place particular emphasis on elaborating the central nervous mechanism orchestrating the torpor–arousal transition in both non‐flying hibernating mammals and non‐hibernating species, and aim to provide translational insights into long‐duration manned spaceflight. In addition, identifying difficulties and challenges ahead will underscore important concerns in engineering synthetic torpor in humans. We believe that synthetic torpor may not be the only option for manned long‐duration spaceflight, but it is the most achievable solution in the foreseeable future. Translating the available knowledge from natural torpor research will not only benefit manned spaceflight, but also many clinical settings attempting to manipulate energy metabolism and neurobehavioural functions.
... This indicates that crafting activities involve both active, arousal-promoting processes and relaxation processes. Studies on the effects of meditation and mindfulness have also reported increases in both sympathetic and parasympathetic levels (Jevning et al., 1992;Ditto et al., 2006), suggesting that concentration on crafting tasks can create a similar state. Furthermore, Kubota et al. (2001) reported an increase in both CSI and CVI autonomic activity during the appearance of Fmθ during meditation tasks, which was attributed to a combined concentration-relaxation state. ...
Occupational therapy often uses craft activities as therapeutic tools, but their therapeutic effectiveness has not yet been adequately demonstrated. The aim of this study was to examine changes in frontal midline theta rhythm (Fmθ) and autonomic nervous responses during craft activities, and to explore the physiological mechanisms underlying the therapeutic effectiveness of occupational therapy. To achieve this, we employed a simple craft activity as a task to induce Fmθ and performed simultaneous EEG and ECG recordings. For participants in which Fmθ activities were provoked, parasympathetic and sympathetic activities were evaluated during the appearance of Fmθ and rest periods using the Lorenz plot analysis. Both parasympathetic and sympathetic indices increased with the appearance of Fmθ compared to during resting periods. This suggests that a relaxed-concentration state is achieved by concentrating on craft activities. Furthermore, the appearance of Fmθ positively correlated with parasympathetic activity, and theta band activity in the frontal area were associated with sympathetic activity. This suggests that there is a close relationship between cardiac autonomic function and Fmθ activity.
... The benefits of meditation training on mental health have been demonstrated by numerous studies along with an impact on critical cognitive abilities such as attentional control and emotional regulation (Chiesa and Serretti, 2009;Malinowski, 2013;Leyland et al., 2019). The psychological changes are moreover accompanied by reliable changes in brain structure (Fox et al., 2014), neural signatures of cognitive processing (Cahn and Polich, 2006;Lomas et al., 2015) as well as physiological markers of autonomic activity (Jevning et al., 1992). However, there is another dimension of meditation training that has received less attention. ...
Background: Meditation training is thought to enhance mental wellbeing by modulating neural activity, notably alpha and theta oscillations, and autonomic activity. However, considering that the enhancement of mental wellbeing also depends on the quality or “depth” of meditation, little is known about how these neural and physiological changes relate to meditation quality. Methods: One model characterises meditation quality as five increasing levels of “depth”: hindrances, relaxation, concentration, transpersonal qualities and nonduality. We investigated the neural oscillatory and physiological (pulse and respiration) correlates of self-reported meditation depth in long-term meditators (LTM; Mean years of training = 32) and demographically-matched meditation-naïve controls (CTL). Results: CTLs reported experiencing more hindrances than LTMs. LTMs reported more transpersonal qualities and nonduality compared to CTLs. In both groups, theta (4–6 Hz) oscillations were positively correlated with hindrances, and increasingly negatively correlated with increasing meditation depth levels. In contrast, alpha (7–13 Hz) amplitude followed precisely the opposite pattern. The increase in the inverse association between theta and meditation depth occurred over different brain regions in the two groups—frontal-midline in LTMs and frontal-lateral in CTLs—which correspond to two different aspects of executive processing, monitoring and regulation, respectively. Experiential deepening was also associated with reduced heart-rate in CTLs but not LTMs. Conclusions: Our study reveals that alpha and theta oscillations dissociate with respect to levels of meditation depth, showing for the first time distinct functional roles of these frequency bands in meditation. Moreover, while critical for overcoming hindrances, executive neural processing is downregulated during deeper meditation experiences, and is downregulated at an earlier executive stage in highly-trained meditators.
... In general, studies found in related literature have not shown that meditation exerts any direct effect on the reduction of the frequency and intensity of vasomotor symptoms [36]. However, this relationship between meditation and menopausal symptoms is not conclusive in the literature, since meditative practices produce very complex metabolic and psychic effects [39][40][41]. ...
Objective
The objective of this study was to assess the impact of meditation on insomnia and other menopausal symptoms experienced by working women during the menopausal transition period.
Method
A randomized clinical trial was conducted with 47 women between the ages of 40 and 55 who worked in three of the National Institute of Social Security units, in the city of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil. Participants were randomized into two groups: an intervention group, who practiced Raja Yoga Meditation and Sleep Hygiene - M + SH (n = 18); and a control group, who practiced only Sleep Hygiene - SH (n = 15) during a period that went from April to July 2013. Eight weekly meetings were held with the participants of both groups. Menopausal symptoms and sleep disturbances were the outcomes analyzed.
Results
In relation to the intensity of the insomnia symptom, improvement in relation to time was observed in both groups (M + SH p = 0.001) (SH p = 0.005). The intervention group showed a significant improvement in KMI index (p = 0,024). The control group showed improvement in PSQ total score (p = 0,016). In the comparison between groups ANOVA two-way test showed significant difference (0,026) in KMI, demonstrating that meditation can be relevant for the decrease of climatic symptoms.
Conclusion
The results suggest that Raja Yoga meditation may be a non-pharmacological alternative in the control of sleep quality and menopause associated symptoms during late menopausal transition, contributing to the improvement of working women’s quality of life. Registered in the Brazilian Clinical Trials Platform UTN: U1111−1136-0744.
... 14 Individuals in this state have demonstrated enhanced neurophysiologic function, as observed with this study with reduced reaction time. 15,16 As a result of TM, considerable decrease (by 30% or more) in the time of a simple motor response and a complex sensorimotor response (due to a decrease in the latent time at constant motor time) and a simultaneous decrease in the number of errors, as well as a considerable increase in the result of the tapping test, were recorded by Son' kin, V et al. 17 The proposed mechanism for this is could be the acceleration of neural conduction or augmentation of release of neurotransmitters and subsequent decrease in synaptic time, resulting in a change in muscle firing threshold and pattern. ...
Background: Transcendental meditation technique is purported to help treat high blood pressure, chronic pain, insomnia, and many other physical ailments. The present study was conducted to evaluate the impact of transcendental meditation on reaction time and cardiovascular parameters in young healthy volunteers.Methods: In this single centre, randomized, controlled study, 120 1st year M.B.B.S and OTPT students were recruited and put into two groups [control (60), experiment (60)]. Simple Auditory Reaction Time (ART) and Visual Reaction Time (VRT), along with Heart Rate (HR) and Blood Pressure (BP), of all subjects were recorded and compared. The experimental group participated in 16 weeks of TM programme and performed TM twice in a day, for 20 minutes, sitting comfortably with eyes closed and chanting OM. Control group were only made to sit with eyes closed during the same time. Keeping all the variables constant, all the parameters were measured again after 16 weeks.Results: There was significant reduction in all parameters (ART, VRT, HR, systolic BP and diastolic BP) in experimental group after 16 weeks of TM as compared to control group. ART was significantly shorter than VRT in both experimental and control groups and this difference was maintained after the intervention also.Conclusions: Transcendental meditation is an effective technique for reducing cardiovascular risk and can be prescribed to pre-hypertensive and hypertensive patients for stress reduction, along with medications for better results.
Background:Despite established benefits for mental and physical well-being, the precise underlying molecular mechanisms of the effects of meditation remain unclear. This study explored the hypothesis that long-term meditation practice downregulates the expression of genes associated with stress-induced inflammation. The expression of selected inflammation-related genes and their promoter methylation status were compared between long-term meditators and controls.
Methods:Thirty experienced meditators and 30 age- and gender-matched non mediators participated in this case-control study. RNA and DNA were extracted from blood samples. Reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) with GAPDH normalization was used to measure the expression of eight inflammation-related genes (IFN-γ, IL-6, CCL-2, CCR-7, TNF-α, NF-κB, CXCL8, andCOX-2). Additionally, bisulfite-specific PCR and Sanger sequencing were performed to assess the methylation status of five of these genes (IL-6, TNF-α, IFN-γ, COX-2, and CXCL8) in their promoter regions.
Results: The mean age of participants was 43.83 ± 9.92 years, and 63.34% in each group were male. Compared to controls, meditators showed significantly lower relative gene expression for IFN-γ (Fold change (FC)=7,p=0.045), IL-6 (FC=3.6,p=0.045), TNF-α (FC=2.73,p=0.038), NF-ƘB(FC=3.2,p=0.045), CXCL8 (FC=3.3,p=0.047), and COX-2 (FC=9.5,p=0.013). Furthermore, meditators exhibited significantly higher promoter region methylation in IL-6 (p < 0.001) and CXCL8 (p = 0.001). The methylation level at specific CpG sites showed that four out of 16 sites in IL-6 and five out of twelve sites in CXCL-8 gene had significantly higher methylation in meditators. Although no significant difference in the overall methylation level in the promoter regions of TNF-α and IFN-γ genes were detected, two out of 12 sites and one out of 27 sites in the TNF-α and IFN-γ genes, respectively, showed significantly higher methylation in meditators.
Conclusion:These findings suggest that long-term meditation practice may contribute to reduced inflammation by downregulating the expression of specific inflammatory pathway genes and increasing their promoter methylation. Further research is needed to explore these potential mechanisms and their long-term health implications.
A definição do Transtorno Obsessivo-Compulsivo (TOC) indica um espectro que se caracteriza por pensamentos obsessivos (obsessões) e por comportamentos repetitivos ou atos mentais (compulsões). As principais alternativas de tratamento são as farmacológicas e as psicoterápicas, no entanto, estima-se que aproximadamente 40 a 60% dos pacientes não atinjam alívio satisfatório dos sintomas. Desta forma, apresentamos o Kundalini Yoga, como um tratamento complementar. Foram realizadas 36 sessões com um protocolo de técnicas “específicas para o TOC”. Foram utilizados para avaliação os seguintes instrumentos: as Escalas Obsessivo-Compulsivo (YBOCS) e dimensional (DYBOCS), os inventários Beck de Ansiedade (BAI), e o Teste de Qualidade de Vida da OMS (WHOQOL). Nesta pesquisa com 24 pacientes adultos, houve uma melhora significativa (46%) na gravidade do TOC, especialmente nos sintomas de conteúdo sexual/religioso (54%) e de contaminação (33%). Também melhoraram em quase 48% os sintomas de ansiedade e todos os aspectos da qualidade de vida (física 9,7%, psicológica 11,7%, social 12,6% e ambiental 4,8%). O Kundalini Yoga se mostrou uma ferramenta efetiva para aliviar os sintomas do TOC em algumas dimensões, reduzir a ansiedade e melhorar a qualidade de vida.
Neuroelectric and imaging studies of meditation are reviewed. Electroencephalographic measures indicate an overall slowing subsequent to meditation, with theta and alpha activation related to proficiency of practice. Sensory evoked potential assessment of concentrative meditation yields amplitude and latency changes for some components and practices. Cognitive event-related potential evaluation of meditation implies that practice changes attentional allocation. Neuroimaging studies indicate increased regional cerebral blood flow measures during meditation. Taken together, meditation appears to reflect changes in anterior cingulate cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal areas. Neurophysiological meditative state and trait effects are variable but are beginning to demonstrate consistent outcomes for research and clinical applications. Psychological and clinical effects of meditation are summarized, integrated, and discussed with respect to neuroimaging data.
Postmaterial spiritual psychology posits that consciousness can contribute to the unfolding of material events and that the human brain can detect broad, non-material communications. In this regard, this emerging field of postmaterial psychology marks a stark departure from psychology's traditional quantum measurements and tenets. The Oxford Handbook of Psychology and Spirituality codifies the leading empirical evidence in the support and application of postmaterial psychological science. Sections in this volume include: personality and social psychology factors and implications; spiritual development and culture; spiritual dialogue, prayer, and intention in Western mental health; Eastern traditions and psychology; physical health and spirituality; positive psychology; and scientific advances and applications related to spiritual psychology. With articles from leading scholars in psychology, medicine, physics, and biology, this text is an interdisciplinary reference for a rapidly emerging approach to contemporary science.
Meditation is deep breathing, deep relaxation, and deep concentration. During meditation a wakeful state accompanied by decreased metabolism. Decreased breathing pattern, decreased heart rate, and decreased blood pressure. Decrease in the level of oxygen utilization and carbon dioxide elimination by muscles. During meditation the metabolic changes arise from a natural reduction in metabolic activity at the cellular level, not from a forced reduction of breathing. In the state of meditation, there was a 33% reduction in the amount of lactic acid in the blood in which the person feels physically and mentally light. Lactic acid increases in the blood as a result of chemical reactions taking place in the muscles of the body. Having more lactic acid in the blood increases the chances of blood acidosis.
Ulcerative colitis is chronic inflammatory bowel condition which is increasing in prevalence in modern era particularly in age group of 20 to 40years. The exact cause of this disease is unknown yet. Symptoms of UC are altered bowel habits, increased frequency of defecation, bleeding per rectum, mucus mixed stool and tenesmus etc. Associated symptoms are weight loss, weakness, fatigue etc. On the basis of these features UC can be compared with Rakta atisaar. UC is disease of nature with in between symptom free periods. In con-temporary science there is no curative treatment for UC. Symptomatic relief is provided with steroidal drugs and drugs like salphasalazine. So, this is need of hour that a protocol should be designed to provide relief to patient suffering from this disease. Present case study focuses on holistic approach towards entity under con-sideration rather than single formulation of therapy as the disease deteriorates physical and mental wellbeing of patient. A three months of treatment with proper lifestyle led to complete relief in symptoms. Keywords: Ulcerative colitis, Rakta atisaar, inflammatory bowel disease
Yoga is a holistic and ancient practice that traces its origins back about 3000 years and enables us to be more productive by activating all of the body's functions. The name yoga itself means union, intertwining of body, brain, and soul. Yoga can prevent periodontal diseases. This may sound extraneous, but it is a scientifically proven truth; yoga will prevent not only periodontal disease but also many other systemic diseases. A search was done to find the articles that have been published on various databases Medline/PubMed, Google Scholar, LILACS, Cochrane, OpenGrey, and USC Upstate Library. We included only original research studies which clearly explain the influence of yoga on periodontitis with specified result. Meta-analysis was done of the clinical periodontal parameters used for observation of the periodontal health in the selected studies. Five studies were selected after analyzing various factors, and coincidentally, all the selected studies were from various regions of India. Forest plots were made of the studies selected. We conclude very clearly from the analysis done that yoga, an ancient practice, has a favorable impact on human body in stress control, henceforth maintaining the periodontal health. How to cite this article: Kalburgi V, Sri Harsha NS. Effect of yoga on periodontal health-A systematic review and meta-analysis.J Dent Res Rev 2021;8:241-249 How to cite this URL: Kalburgi V, Sri Harsha NS. Effect of yoga on periodontal health-A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Dent Res Rev [serial online]
Over three decades of research on the role of meditation in hypertension have shown beneficial effects. The authors glue together the effects of different forms of meditation on hypertension from the earliest to the latest.KeywordsMeditationCardiovascular diseaseRisk factorsPsychological stressStress reductionMBSRTMYoga
Introduction: Recently, neuropsychiatry has focused almost exclusively on the correction of pathophysiological changes, inevitably neglecting certain psychosomatic factors of chronic diseases in the community. It is thus necessary to develop and apply mental health that uses a more comprehensive approach in the treatment of disabling diseases and in primary health care.
Aim: This study aims to review the effect of self-awareness and awareness of morbidity, as described subjectively by patients during psychotherapeutic interventions or by healthy adults in meditative practices.
Materials and Methods: To assess the effect described, a conceptual analysis is proposed as a method. Reviewing the current literature on the «state of the art” of brain dynamics and the psychoneuroimmunological axis, the correlation between the patient’s subjective experience and affective and cognitive neuroscience was tested. As a research hypothesis, it was intended to highlight the scientific paradigms used to study the effect described above.
Results: The current limitation on the integration of psychotherapeutic approaches in understanding well-being and mental health prevention is presented, as well as the need for its implementation in general and family medicine and in the community psychiatry. Self-awareness and awareness of morbidity promotes physical and mental well-being and contributes to the development of non-pathological emotional traits. Classical psychotherapy, as well as meditation, allows the individual to access his internal representations, providing the mental space necessary to work on affections and cognitions. The clinical access to these internal representations is important not only in the treatment of disabling diseases, but also indispensable in primary health care.
Conclusion: The physician, by promoting the physical and mental health of the individual, his family and the community, has a predominant role in the adhesion to the assumptions of good clinical practices. The research hypothesis defended by this conceptual analysis presents ground for the debate of a community medicine more focused on inducing policies for mental wellbeing, for self-awareness and for morbidity awareness. These mental health policies in the community are currently considered to be objectives of the general and family medicine health program, namely the person-centered approach, which aims at training and empowering the patient or healthy individual as the prime agent responsible for his own health.
We previously published a manuscript suggesting that use of phylacteries, ritual straps worn during Jewish prayer services, affects cardiovascular and inflammatory function (Owens et al., Am J Physiol-Heart Circ Physiol, 315(6):H1748–H1758, 2018). Observed physiologic changes were associated with improved cardiac outcomes, though a direct link between phylactery use and improved cardiovascular outcomes is difficult to prove as there are a number of associated religious and spiritual practices that may confound the observed effects. In this review, we assess the scientific literature regarding religious and spiritual practices associated with phylactery in order to better understand the cardiovascular implications of the practice of donning phylacteries. We focus on key aspects traditionally associated with donning phylacteries including gathering in groups, meditation and prayer.
The term “complementary and alternative medicine” (CAM) refers to the broad range of health systems, modalities, and practices that are not part of the conventional and politically dominant health system [1, 2]. We would also suggest that “integrative medicine” incorporates conventional medical approaches with evidence-based complementary approaches for an individualized care program designed to optimize human health and well-being. Several practices that are considered part of integrative medicine approaches in the United States include complex traditional health systems from other cultures, such as traditional Chinese medicine, as well as components of these systems that are practiced as distinct entities, such as acupuncture [3]. The originally named National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) categorized CAM in the following domains: whole medical systems such as homeopathy and Ayurveda; mind-body medicine such as meditation and art therapy; biologically based practices such as herbs and dietary supplements; manipulative and body-based practices such as chiropractic and massage; and energy medicine such as biofield therapies and magnets [4]. But as above, even NIH has recognized the importance of integrating CAM with conventional medicine and now calls the NCCAM the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health.
Psychological correlates of cancer incidence, progression, and quality-of-life difficulties have been well-documented in the literature; however, recent developments in psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) may provide further confirmation for the relationship between psychological factors and cancer. In this chapter, we review the current literature on how psychosocial factors (e.g., depression, marital support) and physiological processes (e.g., glucocorticoids) impact cancer incidence and progression. We then explore cutting-edge research on the biological mechanisms (e.g., bioenergetic health) that may explain quality-of-life difficulties among cancer survivors. Finally, we review studies that use biomarkers (e.g., pro-inflammatory cytokines) to evaluate the effectiveness of psychosocial intervention strategies.
ZET Ağrı tüm insanların yaşadığı evrensel bir deneyimdir. İnsanoğlunun yüzyıllardır açıklamaya çalıştığı ağrı kavramı, yüksek düzeyde rahatsızlık durumu olarak tanımlanan, ağrı çeken bireyin dışındaki kişiler tarafından anlaşılamayacak kadar subjektif bir duyumdur. Ağrı yönetiminin amacı en az yan etki ile ağrının en yüksek düzeyde giderilmesidir. Bu amaçla ağrı yönetiminde farmakolojik, nonfarmakolojik ve cerrahi yöntemler kullanılmaktadır. Hemşireliğin felsefesi hastayı koruma, savunma ve rahatlığa ulaşmasını sağlamaya temellendirilmiştir. Hastanın rahatlığını sağlamada ağrı ve acı çekmesini hafifletme ve dindirme hemşirenin en temel görevleri arasında yer alır. Bu nedenle hemşireler ağrıyı tanılama, yönetme ve dindirmede yeterli bilgi ve beceriye sahip olmalıdırlar Anahtar Kelimeler: Ağrı, ağrı kontrolü, hemşirenin rolü, ağrı kontrolünde kullanılan yöntemler. ABSTRACT Pain is a universal experience faced by all human beings. Pain concept which human beings try to explain for centuries is a sensation which is described as a status of high level discomfort and is so subjective that it cannot be understood by the individuals other than the person feeling pain. The purpose of pain management is to get rid of the pain at maximum level with the minimum side effects. For this purpose pharmacological, non-pharmacological and surgical methods are used in pain management. The philosophy of nursery is based on protecting, defending and relaxing the patient. Relieving ache and pain of the patient is one of the main assignments of the nurse. For this reason, nurses should be experienced and skilled enough to define, manage and relieve the pain.
Suicide is a social phenomenon and is mainly caused by mental disorder which may be attributed to by genetic, neurotic, and environmental constructs. A total of 5,124 people had committed suicide in the fiscal year 2016/17.The number rose to 5,317 in 2017/18 and to 5,785 in 2018/19. Various social and biological factors have significant roles to create the suicidal thought in depressed people. So it is necessary to explore the coping mechanism of suicidal thought. The main objective of this study is to explore the knowledge and practice for meditation, its process, therefore its effects on human mind and body to control the negative thought leading to suicide. The study is based on the review of literatures concerning a subject. The study has collected the various related literatures and thoroughly reviewed it. The result shows that there is significant effect of meditation on improving the psychological personalities just by reducing the stress level and controlling the suicidal feeling in mind. Many experimental studies have found the significant difference in pre and post thoughts of suicidal indicators after an intervention ina meditation program. In a modern society, people have no time to think for themselves, no time to connect with own inner qualities. The physical facilities are dominant on the daily life activities which has created problem in the work-life balance also so there is need to beware the people especially for many productive age groups to spend some time in doing regular meditation to improve the psychological personalities.
Eine dreijährige Verlaufsstudie mit dem Freiburger Persönlichkeitsinventar FPI an 181 KlientInnen untersuchte die Effekte der Transzendentalen Meditation (TM) in der ursprünglichen Fassung - und psychologischer Interventionen bei stressbedingten psychosomatischen Beschwerden sowie in der Stress-Reduktion und Stress-Prophlaxe.
Die Ergebnisse zeigen einen bedeutenden Nutzen der TM in Form signifikant größerer Verbesserungen in „psychosomatischen“ Beschwerden - FPI-Skala „Nervosität“ - und in FPI-Gestresstheit („Beanspruchung“) verglichen mit der Kontrollgruppe. Regelmäßige Praxis der Meditation war der unregelmäßigen Praxis in der Wirkung signifikant überlegen.
Die positiven Effekte durch kombinierte Anwendung von TM mit ca. 6 Monate später nachfolgender psychologischer Intervention übertrafen (in der Reihenfolge) geringfügig die Effekte des - auch noch recht wirksamen - gleichzeitigen Beginnes von Meditation und psychologischer Intervention und deutlich die der Mono-Interventionen (psychologische Intervention oder Meditation).
Eine dreijährige Verlaufsstudie mit dem Freiburger Persönlichkeitsinventar FPI an 181 KlientInnen untersuchte die Effekte der Advaita-Meditation – eine Meditationstechnik vom Typ der Transzendentalen Meditation (MTTM) in der ursprünglichen Fassung - und psychologischer Interventionen bei stressbedingten psychosomatischen Beschwerden sowie in der Stress-Reduktion und Stress- Prophlaxe.
Die Ergebnisse zeigen einen bedeutenden Nutzen derMTTM in Form signifikant größerer Verbesse- rungen in „psychosomatischen“ Beschwerden - FPI-Skala „Nervosität“ - und in FPI-Gestresstheit („Beanspruchung“) verglichen mit der Kontrollgruppe. Regelmäßige Praxis der Meditation war der unregelmäßigen Praxis in der Wirkung signifikant überlegen.
Die positiven Effekte durch kombinierte Anwendung von“MTTM mit ca. 6 Monate später nachfolgender psychologischer Intervention“ übertrafen (in der Reihenfolge) geringfügig die Effekte des - auch noch recht wirksamen - gleichzeitigen Beginnes von Meditation und psychologischer Intervenion und deutlich die der Mono-Interventionen (psychologische Intervention oder Meditation).
Objective: We intended to evaluate the efficacy of yogic exercise on cardio-respiratory fitness; memory, stress, mental health and plasma nitric oxide level in healthy adult subjects. We also aimed to find out the correlation between change in cardiorespiratory fitness & mental health and nitric oxide level due to yoga practice.
Methods: In this yoga interventional study, the most prevalent yoga exercise model (Asanas, Pranayama and Meditation) was used. The study samples (n=200) were healthy male (n=120) and female (n=80) adults (mean age=39.95 years) were recruited by taking written consent. Subjects with any systemic and/or psychological disorders or under specific medications, pregnant women were excluded. Subjects who have never practiced or practicing yoga or other type of physical exercise and willing to practice yoga (1 hr per day; 6 days per week for 6 months) were included in the study. Data was collected at baseline (pre-yogic exercise) and after 6-months of yoga training (post-yogic exercise). The following parameters were measured at baseline and after yoga practice for 6 months: Cardio-respiratory parameters and fitness: Resting HR, resting BP, HR and BP after Harvard Step Test (HST), vital capacity, FEV1, PEFR, VO2max, physical fitness index (PFI); Mental health: memory, perceived stress (PSS), anxiety, depression, emotional balance, loss of behavioral or emotional control, general positive affect, life satisfaction, psychological distress & well-being, mental health index (MHI); and plasma nitric oxide level (NOx). The collected data was statistically analyzed with SPSS (24th version). Paired t-test was applied to determine the significance difference between baseline and post-yogic data values. The p-value was established at 5% level of significance.
vii
Results: We found significant decrease in resting heart rate (p<0.0001) and resting SBP and DBP (p<0.0001); significant increase vital capacity (p<0.0001), FEV1 (p<0.0001), PEFR (p<0.0001) and increase in VO2max (p<0.0001) by 14.43%, NOx (p<0.001) after yoga regimen. We found significant increase (p<0.0001) in physical fitness index by 56%. Yogic exercise for 6 months resulted in significant increase in memory score ((p<0.0001) and significant reduction in perceived stress score (PSS); anxiety (p<0.0001), depression (p<0.0001), and loss of behavioral or emotional control (p<0.0001) and psychological distress (p<0.0001) scores. Further, we found significant increase in general positive affect (p<0.0001), emotional ties (p<0.0001), life satisfaction (p<0.0001) scores. Regular practice of yoga for 6 months have resulted in significant increase in mental health index (p<0.0001).
Conclusion: Significant improvement in cardio-respiratory fitness and mental health due to yoga practice suggests the extremely positive health benefits on physiological as well as psychological health. The results indicate the effectiveness of yoga as mind and body work out modality to improve the cardio-respiratory and mental health, if practiced regularly.
Fractionated normal and Jendrassik reflex times were assessed on 14 subjects over a 6-wk. period to examine the short- and long-range effects of Transcendental Meditation on the neuromuscular system. While no significant differences in reflex times were observed pre- and posttreatment, a significant reduction in reflex times was found over sessions. Possible explanations were offered.
Characteristics of Visual Evoked Potentials (N120, P200, P300) were investigated during choice reaction time situations in a group of 10 subjects practising meditation (E.S.) versus a matched control group (C.S.). During a series of visual stimuli occuring at fixed intervals, with 10 % random omissions, the subjects were asked : 1) to respond by a finger displacement to each visual stimulus ; 2) to hold on the response to the stimulus and to respond to omission. Both tasks were recorded before and after the practice of meditation or rest for the controls.
The intergroup comparison showed that the experimental subjects had faster RT's with less mistakes, and N120 and P200 of larger amplitude and shorter latency. These differencies were significant before and after meditation. The transient effects of meditation or rest, were opposite for the two groups : whereas after meditation the RT's became longer with less mistakes, and the amplitude of P300 larger, after rest there was a decrease of the P300 amplitude and no change in the RT's of the controls.
These results are interpreted in terms of selective attention capacity and information processing strategies, A.S.C. being used as a model for the study of these processes.
Investigated points raised by D. S. Holmes (see record
1984-25288-001) and E. M. Morrell (see record
1986-26552-001) on the effect of meditation on reduction of somatic arousal, reviewing 31 studies. Results show that there is reduced somatic arousal during the transcendental meditation technique in comparison with rest, yet other physiological changes indicative of increased alertness are also present. This difference may be assessed by looking at the adaptive efficiency of physiological processes rather than reduction of somatic arousal during stress. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Compared the ability of meditation and relaxation to reduce stress reactions in a laboratory threat situation. 60 18-31 yr old Ss, 30 experienced mediators and 30 controls, either mediated or relaxed with eyes closed or open and then watched a stressor film. Stress response was assessed by phasic skin conductance, heart rate, self-report, and personality scale (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, Affect Adjective Check List, and Activity Preference Questionnaire). Meditators and the meditation condition habituated heart rate and phasic skin conductance responses more quickly to the stressor impacts and experienced less subjective anxiety. Meditation can produce a psychophysiological configuration in stress situations opposite to that seen in stress-related syndromes. Research is indicated on clinical applications and on the process whereby meditation state effects may become meditator traits. (33 ref)
Twelve subjects were studied for a total of 30 nights of uninterrupted sleep by simultaneous recording of EEG, eye movements, heart rate, respiration, and systolic blood pressure. In agreement with previous reports, progressive decreases in heart and respiratory rates and an early fall followed by a sustained rise in systolic blood pressure were found to be consistent base-line trends. Superimposed upon these trends and coinciding with the regular recurrence of stage I rapid eye movements (REM) there were periodic changes in these three functions of two kinds: a) slight increases in average level and b) marked increases in minute-to-minute variability. The changes in average level of blood pressure and of both blood pressure and heart rate variability were more conspicuous during the later REM periods of the night. Alternative interpretations and possible medical implications of these findings are discussed.
dreaming; sleep and EEG; eye movements and sleep
Submitted on October 11, 1963
The Zen Sect assumes an unique position amongst the Buddhist sects at present in Japan. Above all, the Soto Zen Sect is regarded as one of the most advanced of them, while, on the other hand, it represents primitive original Buddhism in some measure much more than any other sect. It teaches us to come to perfect selfenlightenment ad a final achievement of religious life by way of Zazen, or cross-legged sitting, which the Buddha himself practiced during his long religious life. The Zen of another Sect of Japanese Zen Buddhism, Rinzai, which uses Koan beside Zazen, cannot be accepted from the standpoint of Soto Zen Sect. It may therefore fairly be said that the Zazen now practicing in Soto Zen Sect appears the most important and valuable for understanding the traditional Buddha's Zen. Anyway, we can never think of Zen without doing Zazen. Zen is not theory, Religious truth in Buddhism is to be experienced through the practice of Zazen. In this sense Zazen is considered the most fundamental religious exercise in Buddhism. How to practice Zen, therefore, is the most important and regarded as the key to all serious seeker of Soto Zen. Master Dogen called his Zazen unstained practice and enlightenment. This is so-called "Shikan-taza", plain Zazen. It is a Zazen that embraces and transcends thinking and non-thinning. It differs from the waiting-for-enlightenment Zen of Sung China and from old Soto Zen of China. His unique contribution was the emphasis on the self-identity of superior practice and original enlightenment. Now, here is the proper way of practicing Zazen according to the Soto Zen teaching written by Master Dogen (1243).
Reports that Ss during the practice of transcendental meditation manifested physiological signs of a wakeful, hypometabolic state: (a) reductions in oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide elimination, and rate and volume of respiration; (b) decreased blood-lactate level; (c) slowed heartbeat; (d) increased skin resistance, and (e) an EEG pattern of slow alpha waves with occasional theta-wave activity. These changes bore little resemblance to physiological changes associated with other relaxed states, e.g., sleep and hypnosis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Short periods of conscious control of the rate and depth of breathing as a health-promoting exercise has claimed wide human interest. In India, yoga cults based in part on persevering efforts to achieve physiological control of bodily functions have included systems for the control of respiration. Such breathing patterns have a long history, but have received little scientific attention. This paper reports a large series of repeated yoga respiration tests, graphically recorded under laboratory conditions by an Indian man who served as subject. The study was made by means of basal metabolism technique, employing the Krogh recording spirometer. All three of the yoga breathing patterns examined, when individually continued for 20 min or more and compared with previous relaxed quiet breathing, were found to demand an increased oxygen consumption of a mere 12–35% above basal need. The relaxed breathing that immediately followed a yoga pattern gave little or no indication that the subject had been exerting himself. There is some indication that such respiratory training may have elements in common with adaptation to high altitude and may serve to fortify an individual against the early onset of hypoxia in emergencies concerned with oxygen supply.
respiration training exercises; BMR during trained respiratory behavior; respiratory measurements during yogic breathing; thoracic and abdominal breathing; breathing patterns versus breathing rates; yogic breathing patterns; voluntary pause after inspiration; domestication of respiration; discipline for the diaphragm; higher education for the respiratory center
Submitted on February 21, 1963
Two studies have been widely quoted as indicating the differing states of consciousness in Zen vs Yoga meditation. A replication and extension were attempted. Very experienced Zen, Yoga, and TM meditators with average lengths of experience of 7.5 yrs, 5 yrs, and 7 yrs, respectively, and two groups of controls were presented with auditory clicks during meditation. EEG alpha suppression and skin conductance response both showed clear habituation which did not differ among groups, thus failing to replicate the earlier studies. The N100, P200, and P300 components of the EEG average evoked potential were also measured.
Zen meditation (ZAZEN) is a spiritual exercise held in the Zen sect of Buddhism. Apart from its religious significance, the training of Zen meditation produces changes not only in the mind but also in the body—these influences are of interest to scientific studies, from the stand point of psychology and physiology.
In the present study the EEG changes accompanied with Zen meditation have been revealed and described in detail. The authors discussed further these electro-graphic changes in relation to the consciousness with its underlying neurophysiological background, comparing with that of the hypnotic trance and sleep.
In our study, 48 priests and disciples of Zen sects of Buddhism were selected as the subjects and their EEGs were continuously recorded before, during and after Zen meditation. The following results were obtained;
These electroencephalographic findings lead to the following conclusions; In Zen meditation, the slowing of EEG pattern is confirmed on the one hand, and the dehabituation of the alpha blocking on the other. These indicate the specific change of consciousness. The authors further discussed the state of mind during Zen meditation from the psychophysiological point of view.
Four Yogis who practised samadhi were investigated electroencephalographically. It was observed that their resting records showed persistent alpha activity with increased amplitude modulation during samadhi. The alpha activity could not be blocked by various sensory stimuli during meditation.Two Yogis, who could keep their hand immersed in ice cold water for 45–55 min, also showed persistent alpha activity both before and during this practice.The possible mechanism of these observation has been discussed.
1. 1. By measuring and charting the times elapsed between peaks of normal alpha and beta waves recorded simultaneously from right and left homologous areas in 52 human subjects, an attempt has been made to deduce the probable source for rhythmic control of these normal frequencies. 2. 2. Bilateral alpha and beta rhythms are probably under the control of a subcortical pacemaker or system of pacemakers. The possibility of transcallosal influences are not entirely ruled out, but seem unlikely under the circumstances discussed. 3. 3. Shifting bilateral synchrony-asynchrony of these normal rhythms may be accounted for by one of two possible mechanisms: 3.1. (a) the cortical rhythm may partially escape from the deep control, then be forced to return to synchrony by the influence from below, or 3.2. (b) the primary source of the rhythm oscillates physiologically from side to side. 4. 4. The progression of latencies in the occipito-frontal direction suggests transmission delays within the pacemaker itself, or in its deep subcortical connections. 5. 5. It seems very likely that the reticular formation of the brain stem and the diffuse thalamic projection system, operating in series, provide the anatomical substratum for the physiological observations of the present study.
A prospective investigation was designed to test whether the altered behavior of the regular practice of a relaxation, meditational technique might lower blood pressure in 22 borderline hypertensive subjects. The investigation was unbiased with regard to the presence of antihypertensive agents; subject familiarity with blood pressure measurement or with the observer; observer error; and the effects of blood pressure variability. During the control period, blood pressures averaged 146.5 mm Hg systolic and 94.6 diastolic. During the experimental period, they decreased to 139.5 mm Hg systolic (p < 0.001) and 90.8 mm Hg diastolic (0.001 < p < 0.002). The results of this relaxation, meditational technique are consistent with a hypothesized integrated hypothalamic response associated with decreased sympathetic nervous system activity. It is possible that the decreased blood pressures are unrelated to the proposed mechanism of decreased sympathetic nervous system activity and represent, instead, a placebo effect. Regardless of mechanism, the described relaxation, meditational technique is an effective method of lowering borderline hypertensive blood pressures. The relaxation technique is learned easily and inexpensively, practiced at no cost, and has no pharmacologic side effects.
The EEG responses to intermittent photic stimulation were examined in a group of subjects experienced in meditation, and compared with those of a control group. The meditators exhibited a significantly smaller decrement in alpha activity and alpha blocking over the course of the experiment than did the control group, and alpha induction occurred earlier and more frequently in the meditators. These findings support the hypothesis that experienced meditators spontaneously enter the meditative state on closing the eyes, and also the view that physiologically the meditative state is one of prolonged drowsiness. An alternative interpretation, that meditation is a state of sustained attention, is discussed.
20 hypertensive patients participating in a professionally supervised programme of transcendental meditation showed no significant change in blood-pressure after a 6-month study. Although there were small reductions in systolic blood-pressure and in pulse-rate early in the trial, these changes had disappeared by 6 months. At no time did the mean diastolic pressure fall significantly. Plasma-renin activity did not change during the study. It is concluded that while the general feeling of wellbeing experienced by most patients may provide a useful adjunct to conventional treatments, it is unlikely that transcendental meditation contributes directly towards the lowering of blood-pressure.
In a survey of the EEG characteristics of persons practising the Transcendental Meditation technique, 21 of 78 people demonstrated intermittent prominent bursts of frontally dominant theta activity. On the average across subjects, the theta bursts occurred about every 2 min, had an average duration of 1.8 sec, and an average maximal amplitude of 135 muV. Typically, the bursts were preceded and followed by alpha rhythm. Subject reports elicited during theta bursts indicated pleasant states with intact situational orientation and no subjective experiences related to sleep. Fifty-four non-meditating controls showed no theta bursts during relaxation and sleep onset. It is hypothesized that theta burst may be the manifestation of a state adjustment mechanism which comes into play during prolonged low-arousal states, and which may be related to EEG patterns of relaxation in certain behavioural conditions.
Auditory evoked potentials to tone stimuli were recorded from 8 practised meditators before, during, and after meditation, and also during light sleep. No consistent changes were noted between baseline and meditating AEPs, or between meditating and sleep AEPs.
The hemispheres of the brain are thought to be specialized with respect to the manner in which they process information. In view of this it is possible to explore the way information is processed during the performance of a specified task by identifying the relative activity of the hemispheres. The hypothesis, that meditation is characterized by a gestalt, holistic and spacial cognitive style associated with the right hemisphere was tested. Sixteen Transcendental Meditators were compared to 16 control subjects with respect to the degree of lateral asymmetry during meditation-relaxation and the performance of two analytic and two spacial cognitive tasks. Lateral asymmetry was assessed by the relative distribution of alpha activity. The only difference between the two groups was that meditators showed a greater degree of lateral asymmetry on both analytical and spacial tasks. During both meditation and relaxation the hemispheres were found to be symmetrical with respect to the distribution of alpha activity, suggesting that neither analytical nor spacial processing was dominant during these exercises.
Two experiments were conducted to measure the oxygen uptake (Experiment II) and the carbon dioxide production (Experiment I) during transcendental meditation. A control group of non-meditators and a few meditators listening to music was used for both experiments. In Experiment I, a controlled group of fasting meditators was also included. A drop in oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production, found by previous authors during transcendental meditation, was confirmed. It was, however, possible to show that these drops were physiologically of small significance, and were of the magnitude to be expected from muscle relaxation. EEG recordings were taken during Experiment II in the meditating group. The EEG results showed transcendental meditation to be a method of holding the mediator's level of consciousness at stage 'onset' sleep. No evidence could be found to suggest that meditation produced a hypometabolic state beyond that produced by muscle relaxation and there was no evidence that the EEG changes were different from those observed in stage 'onset' sleep. No support was found for the idea that transcendental meditation is a fourth stage of consciousness.
Ss were monitored for respiratory rate, pulse rate, blood pressure, skin resistance, EEG activity, and muscle activity. They were monitored during the alert state, meditation (TM or simple word type), hypnosis (relaxation and task types), and relaxation. Ss gave a verbal comparative evaluation of each state. The results showed significantly better relaxation responses for the relaxation states (relaxation, relaxation-hypnosis, meditation) than for the alert state. There were no significant differences between the relaxation states except for the measure "muscle activity" in which meditation was significantly better than the other relaxation states. Overall, there were significant differences between task-hypnosis and relaxation-hypnosis. No significant differences were found between TM and simple word meditation. For the subjective measures, relaxation-hypnosis and meditation were significantly better than relaxation, but no significant differences were found between meditation and relaxation-hypnosis.
The concentration of 13 neutral and acidic plasma amino acids was measured before, during and after either 40 min of control relaxation or 40 min of the process known as transcendental meditation (TM). An electro-oculogram, electroencephalogram, and electromyogram were simultaneously monitored in these subjects. Increased phenylalanine concentration was noted during TM practice with no change during control relaxation; no difference between the groups of total time slept or sleep stage percent was observed. The stability of phenylalanine concentration in controls and lack of correlation of increased phenylalanine with sleep in the long-term practitioners seem to suggest a relationship of the phenylalanine increase to TM practice.
We studied acute plasma cortisol and testosterone concentration changes during the practice known as "transcendental meditation" (TM) and during control rest. Three groups of normal, young adult volunteers were studied: a group of controls, these same controls restudied as practitioners after 3 to 4 months of TM practice, and a group of long-term, regular TM practitioners (3 to 5 years of practice). No change was found in controls during rest. Cortisol declined, but not significantly, in restudied controls, while cortisol decreased significantly in long-term practitioners during meditation and remained somewhat low afterward. No change in testerone concentration was noted during either rest or TM. Apparently, the practice of TM becomes associated with psychophysiologic response(s) which acutely inhibit pituitary-adrenal activity.
The practice of the transcendental meditation technique in subjects eliciting this state regularly for 3--5 years is correlated with acute decline of adrenocortical activity not associated with sleep during the practice.
Cardiac output, renal and hepatic blood flows, arterial lactate concentration, and minute volume were measured before, during, and after 40 min of rest induced either by the practice known as "transcendental meditation" (TM) or by an ordinary eyes-closed rest-relaxation period. Two groups of normal young adults were studied: one group consisted of regular practitioners of TM and the other of similar individuals studied prior to learning this technique. Marked declines of renal blood flow were noted in both groups. Decline of hepatic blood flow, increased cardiac output, decreased arterial lactate, and minute volume were also recorded in the TM-induced rest period. These changes imply a considerable increase of nonrenal, nonhepatic blood flow during TM (44%) and, to a lesser extent, during rest (12%). Increased cerebral and/or skin blood flow is hypothesized to account for part of the redistributed blood flow in the practitioner.
The concentrations of plasma prolactin and growth hormone were measured before, during, and after 40 min of the practice known as 'transcendental meditation' (TM). Subjects studied included a group of individuals who had regularly practiced TM for 3 to 5 years (long-term practitioners) and a group who had been regular practitioners for 3 to 4 months (short-term practitioners). Individuals of the short-term practitioner group were studied as their own controls before, during, and after a 40-min eyes-closed rest period. Prolactin concentration began to increase toward the end or after meditation in both groups of practitioners with levels continuing to increase in the post-TM period. The increases were not correlated with sleep occurrences. Prolactin levels were stable in controls throughout the experiment. Growth hormone concentration was unchanged in both TM and rest groups.
The effects of transcendental meditation (TM) on plasma renin activity (PRA) and plasma concentrations of aldosterone, cortisol, and lactate were studied by measuring these variables before, during, and after 20--30 min of meditation. Subjects, who rested quietly rather than meditating, served as controls. There were no differences in the basal values for these variables between meditators and controls, but controls, in contrast to meditators, showed a significant increase in cortisol between the first (A) and second (B) samples of the control period. PRA increased slightly (14%) but significantly (p less than 0.03) during TM, but not during quiet rest in controls. Cortisol decreased progressively (after sample B) throughout the experiment to the same degree in both groups. Aldosterone and lactate did not change. The data do not support the hypothesis that TM induces a unique state characterized by decreased sympathetic activity or release from stress, but do suggest that meditators may be less responsive to an acute stress.
Ten male advanced meditators and ten male long-term meditators subjected themselves four times to slight physical exercise following a period of rest, meditation or reading. Daily urine excretions of catecholamines and VMA were determined in both groups. On the experimental days 4-hour urine specimens, one before and one after the experiments, were again collected for analysis. During the experiments blood pressure and heart rate were measured continuously and blood samples were taken for plasma catecholamine levels immediately before and after the physical exercise.
Daily catecholamine and VMA excretions showed to be higher in advanced meditators. During the experiments the pattern of noradrenaline, adrenaline and VMA excretions were different in both groups, long-term meditators showing a higher adrenaline excretion after exercise.
After the resting period there was in both groups a similar increase of plasma catecholamine levels during exercise. However, after meditation the advanced meditators showed a significant increase in plasma noradrenaline and no further increase in plasma noradrenaline level during the following physical exercise. Also after the reading period differences between both groups in plasma catecholamine levels during exercise could be observed.
In advanced meditators heart rate reduction after meditation was about 9% and diastolic blood pressure was slightly raised. The preceding conditions of rest, meditation or reading had a significant different influence on the behaviour of heart rate and blood pressure during the following physical exercise and this pattern was different for both groups.
It is concluded that the effects of transcendental meditation on the autonomic nervous system are more obvious in advanced meditators. Furthermore, the results show that meditation enhances sympathetic activity. It is suggested that the “transcendental state” seems not to be a mere trophotropic parasympathetic functional state.
Chronic sympathetic nervous system overactivity has been implicated as a factor capable of elevating and maintaining high serum cholesterol levels independent of dietary measures. We conducted a controlled trial to determine the effect of a relaxation technique. Transcendental Meditation, on serum cholesterol levels in hypercholesterolemic subjects. Serum cholesterol levels were measured at beginning and end of an 11-month period in 12 hypercholesterolemic subjects who regularly practiced meditation. Eleven hypercholesterolemic controls who did not practice the technique were similarly followed up for 13 months. Paired comparisons showed a significant (p less than 0.005) reduction in fasting serum cholesterol levels of those subjects who practiced meditation. These results suggest that the regular practice of a relaxation technique may contribute, most likely through a reduction in adrenergic activity, to the amelioration of hypercholesterolemia in certain subjects.
Characteristics of Visual Evoked Potentials (N120, P200, P300) were investigated during choice reaction time situations in a group of 10 subjects practising meditation (E.S.) versus a matched control group (C.S.) During a series of visual stimuli occuring at fixed intervals, with 10% random omissions, the subjects were asked : 1) to respond by a finger displacement to each visual stimulus; 2) to hold on the response to the stimulus and to respond to omission. Both tasks were recorded before and after the practice of meditation or rest for the controls. The intergroup comparison showed that the experimental subjects had faster RT's with less mistakes, and N120 and P200 of larger amplitude and shorter latency. These differencies were significant before and after meditation. The transient effects of meditation or rest, were opposite for the two groups : whereas after meditation the RT's became longer with less mistakes, and the amplitude of P300 larger, after rest there was a decrease of the P300 amplitude and no change in the RT's of the controls. These results are interpreted in terms of selective attention capacity and information processing strategies, A.S.C. being used as a model for the study of these processes.
Transcendental meditation is said to induce in its practitioners an altered state of consciousness resulting in relief of stress, an increased sense of awareness, and a sense of well-being. Release of catecholamines has been associated widely with stress and lends itself to quantitation. Plasma epinephrine and norephinephrine, as well as lactate, were measured in 12 volunteers before, during, and after meditation. Values were compared with those obtained from controls matched for sex and age who rested instead of meditating. Essentially the same results were obtained for the two groups, which suggests that meditation does not induce a unique metabolic state but is seen biochemically as a resting state.
The highly significant increase of 5-HIAA (5-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid) in Transcendental Meditation technique suggests systemic serotonin as "rest and fulfillment hormone" of deactivation-relaxation. Furthermore 5-HT (5-hydroxytryptamine, serotonin) is considered to be the EC-cell (enterochromaffine-cell) hormone requested by Fujita and Kobayashi and its role for EEG synchronisation via area postrema chemoreceptor as anti arousal agent is being discussed. The significant decrease of the catecholamine metabolite VMA (vanillic-mandelic acid) in meditators, that is associated with a reciprocal increase of 5-HIAA supports as a feedback necessity the "rest and fulfillment response" versus "fight and flight". As the adreno medullary tissue serves for hormonal reinforcement of orthosympathetic activity, the Enterochromaffine Cell System (having taken the form of distinct organs in some species as octopus and discoglossus) is suggested to serve via serotonin for humoral reinforcement of parasympathetic activity in deep relaxation.