ArticlePDF Available

Insecticide susceptibility of the dengue vector Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) in Makkah City, Saudi Arabia

Authors:

Abstract

Objective: To examine the insecticide susceptibility of Aedes aegypti (Ae. aegypti) from various sites in Makkah City, Saudi Arabia. Methods: This was examined based on WHO standard procedures. Results: The larvae of Ae. aegypti were susceptible to all larvicides examined, but this susceptibility was more pronounced in wild populations, which tended to show tolerance to icon. Icon was the most effective larvicide with LC 50 values of 0.007 ppm and 0.012 ppm for the laboratory and field strains, respectively. Ae. aegypti adults exposed to lambda-cyhalothrin showed a low mortality rate in comparison with those exposed to deltamethrin and cyfluthrin. Conclusions: The results of the present study indicate differential susceptibility between field and laboratory larval populations. Wild larvae are less susceptible to insecticide treatments than their laboratory-bred counterparts. Taken together, these results suggest that tolerance and the tendency toward resistance to commonly used insecticides are present in Ae. aegypti populations throughout Makkah City, Saudi Arabia.
A preview of the PDF is not available
... Various insecticides have been used in the country: dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) was used from 1948 to 1954 and from then, other insecticides were used instead [16]. The first report of pyrethroid resistance was in 2011 in Makkah [17], followed by Jeddah [18] and Jazan [19]. Pyrethroids have been used mainly against Ae. ...
... These mutations (S989P, V1016G and F1534C) were reported in the Middle East and Southeast Asia [25]. Kdr mutations at amino acid 1016 have been reported from different geographical locations; for example, V1016G in Southeast Asia since 2009 [26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33], Ghana [34] and Saudi Arabia [17,35]. The mutation S989P is thought not to cause any resistance alone but when co-occurring with V1016G confers resistance against permethrin and deltamethrin [17]. ...
... Kdr mutations at amino acid 1016 have been reported from different geographical locations; for example, V1016G in Southeast Asia since 2009 [26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33], Ghana [34] and Saudi Arabia [17,35]. The mutation S989P is thought not to cause any resistance alone but when co-occurring with V1016G confers resistance against permethrin and deltamethrin [17]. The F1534C mutation is found in Asian, American and African populations of Ae. aegypti [36,37]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background The Aedes aegypti mosquito is the primary vector for dengue, chikungunya, yellow fever and Zika viruses worldwide. The first record of Ae. aegypti in southwestern Saudi Arabia was in 1956. However, the first outbreak and cases of dengue fever were reported in 1994, and cases have increased in recent years. Vector control for Ae. aegypti mainly uses pyrethroid insecticides in outdoor and indoor space spraying. The constant use of pyrethroids has exerted intense selection pressure for developing target-site mutations in the voltage-gated sodium channel (vgsc) gene in Ae. Aegypti against pyrethroids—mutations that have led to knockdown resistance (kdr). Methods Aedes aegypti field populations from five regions (Jazan, Sahil, Makkah, Jeddah and Madinah) of southwestern Saudi Arabia were genotyped for known kdr mutations in domains IIS6 and IIIS6 of the vgsc gene using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification and sequencing. We estimated the frequency of kdr mutations and genotypes from Saudi Arabia as well as from other countries, Thailand, Myanmar (Southeast Asia) and Uganda (East Africa). We constructed haplotype networks to infer the evolutionary relationships of these gene regions. Results The three known kdr mutations, S989P, V1016G (IIS6) and F1534C (IIIS6), were detected in all five regions of Saudi Arabia. Interestingly, the triple homozygous wild genotype was reported for the first time in two individuals from the highlands of the Jazan region and one from the Al-Quoz, Sahil region. Overall, nine genotypes comprising four haplotypes were observed in southwestern Saudi Arabia. The median-joining haplotype networks of eight populations from Saudi Arabia, Southeast Asia and East Africa for both the IIS6 and IIIS6 domains revealed that haplotype diversity was highest in Uganda and in the Jazan and Sahil regions of Saudi Arabia, whereas haplotype diversity was low in the Jeddah, Makkah and Madinah regions. Median-joining haplotype networks of both domains indicated selection acting on the kdr-mutation containing haplotypes in Saudi Arabia. Conclusions The presence of wild type haplotypes without any of the three kdr mutations, i.e. that are fully susceptible, in Saudi Arabia indicates that further consideration should be given to insecticide resistance management strategies that could restore pyrethroid sensitivity to the populations of Ae. aegypti in Saudi Arabia as part of an integrative vector control strategy. Graphical Abstract
... Phytocompounds could be involved in producing larvicidal action against mosquito species. The present study suggests that there may be a block in the siphon region affecting the larvae's respiration, in line with previous studies (Dien et al., 2011;Youssif and Shaalan, 2011) [8,16] . Flavonoid sulfate present in the extract could obstruct mosquito larvae through changes in the spiracular valves of the siphon and anal papillae. ...
... Alternatively, γ-terpinene represents one of the major compounds found in C. maritimum EO, accounting for 36.1% of the total EO composition. This molecule has exhibited larvicidal activity against various insects, such as Anopheles anthropophagus (Xu and Feng), Aedes aegypti L., and Aedes albopictus Skuse (Diptera: Culicidae) [118][119][120][121][122][123]. It also displayed the ability to suppress the growth and development of Zeugodacus cucurbitae (Coquillett) (Diptera, Tephritidae) larvae, compromising the immune system of the insect [124]. ...
Article
Full-text available
The Apiaceae family, known for aromatic plants producing bioactive essential oils (EOs), holds significance across sectors, including agrochemicals. This study evaluated the insecticidal potential of four Apiaceae EOs from Crithmum maritimum L., Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague ex Turrill, Smyrnium olusatrum L., and Elwendia persica (Boiss.) Pimenov and Kljuykov against various significant storage pests (Sitophilus oryzae (L.), Trogoderma granarium Everts, Rhyzopertha dominica (F.), Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), T. confusum Jacquelin du Val, Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.), Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer), Acarus siro L., and Tenebrio molitor L.) on wheat. Insect mortality rates were monitored at intervals of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 days. Smyrnium olusatrum EO exhibited the highest efficacy, followed by T. ammi, C. maritimum, and E. persica EOs, although efficacy varied by species, developmental stage, and concentration. Notably, complete mortality occurred for several pests at 1000 ppm of S. olusatrum and T. ammi EOs. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis revealed key compounds in these EOs, including myrcene, germacrone, and curzerene in S. olusatrum EO, and thymol, γ-terpinene, and p-cymene in T. ammi EO. These findings emphasize their potential as botanical insecticides. Smyrnium olusatrum and T. ammi EOs emerge as promising eco-friendly pest management options due to their efficacy, highlighted compound composition, and availability of biomass from both wild and cultivated sources.
... Thailand also reported resistance to temephos from 2003 to 2005 [30][31][32] . Synthetic pyrethroid (deltamethrin, cyfluthrin, lambda-cyhalothrin, permethrin) also reported resistance in the local population of Ae. aegypti 33 . In India, DDT resistance in Ae. aegypti mosquito was reported from Jharia, Bihar in 1965 34 . ...
Article
Background & objectives: Aedes (Stegomyia) aegypti is a primary vector responsible for the transmission of various arboviral diseases in India. Without an effective drug or vaccine against these diseases, chemical insecticide-based vector control supplemented with source reduction remains the best option for their effective management. The development of insecticide resistance due to the continuous use of insecticides might affect the control operations. Methods: Adults and larvae of Aedes aegypti were collected from different localities in Delhi. Larvae were exposed to discriminating (0.02mg/l) and application (1mg/l) doses of temephos. WHO tube assay was conducted for F1 adults using impregnated insecticide papers of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), malathion, deltamethrin, permethrin, cyfluthrin, and lambda-cyhalothrin. Results: Larvae of Ae. aegypti were found resistant (76.0%) to the discriminating dose of temephos, whereas suscep-tible (100.0%) to the application dose of the temephos. Adult Aedes (Fl) mosquitoes were resistant to DDT (23.7%), malathion (90.5%), deltamethrin (76.0%), permethrin (96.2 %) cyfluthrin (85.5%), and lambda-cyhalothrin (94.0%). Interpretation & conclusion: Indoor residual spray is not used in Delhi for vector control. Resistance in Aedes might be due to pesticide usage for agricultural activities in peripheral regions of Delhi. There is a need to investigate more on the insecticide resistance mechanisms for indirect resistance development. Understanding the insecticide susceptibility status of urban vectors is critical for planning effective control strategies.
... Insecticide treatments are less effective on wild larvae than on laboratory-bred larvae. These findings suggest that Aedes aegypti populations in Makkah City, Saudi Arabia, have tolerance and a proclivity for resistance to commonly used insecticides [6]. The development of resistance is not a new phenomenon; it is becoming a global issue [7]. ...
... γ-Terpinene showed potent larvicidal activity against Anopheles anthropophagus (Xu and Feng) (LC 50 of 29.21 mg L − 1 ) (Liang and Ying, 2011), but also against Aedes aegypti L. and Ae. albopictus Skuse, with LC 50 of 30.7 and 29.8 µg mL − 1 (Aziz et al., 2011;Cheng et al., 2009;Nikkon et al., 2011;Prabhu et al., 2011;Ravikumar et al., 2011). In addition, also cumin aldehyde, which is another abundant constituent of the EO, not only was reported as toxic to Culex pipiens L. larvae, with an LC 50 of 38.9 mg L − 1 (Zahran and Abdelgaleil, 2011), Fig. 1. ...
Article
Essential oils (EOs) represent innovative and safe botanical pesticides to be exploited in different fields, including agriculture, being often obtained by cheap and easily available plant crops. However, their use is threatened by some limits, which are mainly linked to their physico-chemical properties. In this regard, the use of nanoemulsions (NEs) usually enables to overcome these limits but often also to improve the biological activities of these products. Bunium persicum (Boiss.) B Fedtsch. and Ziziphora clinopodioides Lam. are two aromatic plants of economic interest well known for their traditional food and medical uses. Their EOs exhibited several biological properties, including a remarkable insecticidal activity against different targets. Here, the chemical analysis of the two EOs revealed the predominance of γ-terpinene (35.8%), cumin aldehyde (16.6%), γ-terpinen-7-al (14.0%), and α-terpinen-7-al (11.7%) for B. persicum, and pulegone (55.6%), piperitenone (12.8%), and iso-menthone (8.0%) for Z. clinopodioides. NEs were successfully obtained by high-pressure homogenization or ultrasonication method, using polysorbate 80 as emulsifier. The EOs and their 10% NEs were evaluated against larvae and pupae of Culex quinquefasciatus Say mosquitoes. In detail, both EOs exhibited a good larvicidal efficacy (LC50 of 35.8 and 68.9 µL L−1 for B. persicum and Z. clinopodioides, respectively). Bunium persicum EO NE showed higher efficacy than the EO alone (LC50 = 290.4 µL L−1), considering that only the 10% of the EO was encapsulated. Conversely, Z. clinopodioides NE showed the same efficacy than the EO alone (LC50 of 759.8 µL L−1). In addition, both NEs displayed significantly better sublethal toxicity compared with the EOs. Moreover, even if no significant mortality was detected in the pupal stage, only 12% of the larvae pupated and emerged as adults in the case of the NE from B. persicum. In conclusion, both EOs and their NEs could be promising candidates for the development of botanical pesticides, also considering the commercial availability and affordability of these EOs.
... The assessment of the Bti susceptibility of non-treated populations has shown a range of natural variations before the introduction of this microbial larvicide ( Table 2). Variations in the resistance ratios (RR) ranged from 0.8-to 8-fold for Aedes species [231,232,234,[320][321][322][323][324][325][326][327][328], from 1.5 to 12.5-fold for Cx. p. pipiens [234,329,330], and from 0.8-to 5.9-fold for Anopheles [234,303,331]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Larvicides based on the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis svar. israelensis (Bti) and Lysinibacillus sphaericus are effective and environmentally safe compounds for the control of dipteran insects of medical importance. They produce crystals that display specific and potent insecticidal activity against larvae. Bti crystals are composed of multiple protoxins: three from the three-domain Cry type family, which bind to different cell receptors in the midgut, and one cytolytic (Cyt1Aa) protoxin that can insert itself into the cell membrane and act as surrogate receptor of the Cry toxins. Together, those toxins display a complex mode of action that shows a low risk of resistance selection. L. sphaericus crystals contain one major binary toxin that display an outstanding persistence in field conditions, which is superior to Bti. However, the action of the Bin toxin based on its interaction with a single receptor is vulnerable for resistance selection in insects. In this review we present the most recent data on the mode of action and synergism of these toxins, resistance issues, and examples of their use worldwide. Data reported in recent years improved our understanding of the mechanism of action of these toxins, showed that their combined use can enhance their activity and counteract resistance, and reinforced their relevance for mosquito control programs in the future years.
Article
Dengue fever disease is an important health issue in the city of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Chemical pesticides play a vital role in dengue control, through combating the mosquito vector Aedes aegypti L. Standard methods recommended by the World Health Organization were applied in the current work to conduct resistance experiments in both adult and larval stages of Ae. aegypti mosquitoes against eight types of pyrethroid and organophosphorus pesticides used in control programs in Jeddah. The results prove that Ae. aegypti is resistant against the pesticides deltamethrin 0.05%, α ‐cypermethrin 0.05%, fenitrothion 1% and temephos, is tolerant with some degree of resistance against cyfluthrin 0.15% and λ ‐cyhalothrin 0.5%, as well as tolerant against malathion 5% and pirimiphos‐methyl 0.25%. On the other hand, the bacterial insecticide Bacillus thuringiensis ssp. israelensis ( Bti ) demonstrated high activity against the field strain of Aedes aegypti larvae, with a resistance ratio (RR) of 1.25. In general, we conclude from these findings that the continuous and frequent application of synthetic pesticides induces resistance in mosquitoes against pesticides. This, of course, forces us to reconsider the pesticides currently used in control programs and do our best towards finding alternative means to combat mosquitoes and the diseases that they can transmit.
Article
Full-text available
Honey bees are constantly threatened due to the wide use of pesticides. This study presents the effects of deltamethrin on the mortality, olfactory learning, and memory formation of the native Saudi bee Apis mellifera jemenitica. Topical and oral application of realistic field and serial dilutions of deltamethrin (250, 125, 62.5, and 25 ppm) caused significant mortality at 4, 12, 24, and 48 h posttreatment. Bee mortality increased with the increasing concentration of insecticide at all tested posttreatment times. Highest mortality was observed at 24 h and 48 h after both exposure routes. Food consumption gradually decreased with increasing concentration of deltamethrin during oral exposure. The LC50 of deltamethrin was determined at 12, 24, and 48 h for topical (86.28 ppm, 36.16 ppm, and 29.19 ppm, respectively) and oral (35.77 ppm, 32.53 ppm, and 30.78 ppm, respectively) exposure. Oral exposure led to significantly higher bee mortality than topical exposure of deltamethrin at 4 h and 12 h, but both exposure routes were equally toxic to bees at 24 h and 48 h. The sublethal concentrations (LC10, LC20, and LC30) of deltamethrin significantly impaired the learning during conditioning trials, as well as the memory formation of bees at 2, 12, and 24 h after topical and oral exposure. Thus, deltamethrin inhibits learning, and bees were unable to memorize the learned task.
Article
In this study, the sensitivity of Aedes aegypti mosquitoe larvae to four types of pesticides two phosphorous-based and two pyrethroid insecticides was investigated. The larvae revealed approximately 1.126-fold more susceptibility to Safrotin (LC50 = 0.127 ppm) than Fendure (LC50 = 0.143) in the case of phosphorous-based pesticides and approximately 1.265-fold more susceptibility to AlphaQuest (LC50 = 0.0347 ppm) than Klash (LC50 = 0.0439) in the case of pyrothroid insecticides. Comparison between groups revealed that AlphaQuest was more effective than Klash, Safrotin and Fendure by approximately 1.3, 3.6 and 4.1-fold, respectively. The presence of enzyme activities relevant to insecticide resistance was often evaluated using enzyme assays to detect the underlying resistance mechanisms that may not be detected using bioassays. In this study, the results revealed significant decrease in the activity of esterase, glutathione- S- transferase and acetylcholine esterase enzymes to varying degrees. There were significant increases in catalase and total glutathione activity in all treatments compared to the control. The study concluded that this variation in enzyme activities is due to the type and purity of the additive compound and the source and purity of the active ingredient. The study recommends using the catalase enzyme and total glutathione as a biomarker indication for pesticide synergistic intoxication in aquatic animals.
Article
Full-text available
Objective: To observe the effect of two common organic acids on the larvae of Aedes aegypti (Ae. aegypti) (L), the natural vector of dengue fever/dengue hemorrhage fever, chikugunya and allergic skin reaction especially in children. Methods: Two common organic acids (lactic acid and orthophosporic acid of gradually increasing concentration) were used against laboratory reared third instars larvae of Ae. aegypti in order to observe the rate of mortality after 8, 16 and 24 h of post exposure respectively in laboratory. Results: Larval mortality rates recorded were in the following sequences: orthophosphoric acid and lactic acid at 1:1 combination >orthophosphoric acid>lactic acid. Conclusions: These two organic acids may be used perfectly in combination (1:1) along with other conventional vector control methods to reduce the Ae. aegypti population, especially in those areas where surveillance and supervisory mechanism are poor or insufficient.
Article
Full-text available
To assess the larvicidal and repellent potential of the essential oil extracted from the leaves of peppermint plant, Mentha piperita (M. piperita) against the larval and adult stages of Aedes aegypti (Ae. Aegypti). The larvicidal potential of peppermint oil was evaluated against early fourth instar larvae of Ae. aegypti using WHO protocol. The mortality counts were made after 24 and 48 h, and LC50 and LC90 values were calculated. The efficacy of peppermint oil as mosquito repellent was assessed using the human-bait technique. The measured area of one arm of a human volunteer was applied with the oil and the other arm was applied with ethanol. The mosquito bites on both the arms were recorded for 3 min after every 15 min. The experiment continued for 3 h and the percent protection was calculated. The essential oil extracted from M. piperita possessed excellent larvicidal efficiency against dengue vector. The bioassays showed an LC50 and LC90 value of 111.9 and 295.18 ppm, respectively after 24 h of exposure. The toxicity of the oil increased 11.8% when the larvae were exposed to the oil for 48 h. The remarkable repellent properties of M. piperita essential oil were established against adults Ae. aegypti. The application of oil resulted in 100% protection till 150 min. After next 30 min, only 1-2 bites were recorded as compared with 8-9 bites on the control arm. The peppermint essential oil is proved to be efficient larvicide and repellent against dengue vector. Further studies are needed to identify the possible role of oil as adulticide, oviposition deterrent and ovicidal agent. The isolation of active ingredient from the oil could help in formulating strategies for mosquito control.
Article
Full-text available
To determine the ovicidal and repellent activities of methanol leaf extract of Ervatamia coronaria (E. coronaria) and Caesalpinia pulcherrima (C. pulcherrima) against Culex quinquefasciatus (Cx. quinquefasciatus), Aedes aegypti (Ae. aegypti) and Anopheles stephensi (An. stephensi). The ovicidal activity was determined against three mosquito species at various concentrations ranging from 50-450 ppm under the laboratory conditions. The hatch rates were assessed 48 h after treatment. The repellent efficacy was determined against three mosquito species at three concentrations viz., 1.0, 2.5 and 5.0 mg/cm(2) under the laboratory conditions. The crude extract of E. coronaria exerted zero hatchability (100% mortality) at 250, 200 and 150 ppm for Cx. quinquefasciatus, Ae. aegypti and An. stephensi, respectively. The crude extract of C. pulcherrima exerted zero hatchability (100% mortality) at 375, 300 and 225 ppm for Cx. quinquefasciatus, Ae. aegypti and An. Stephensi, respectively. The methanol extract of E. coronaria found to be more repellenct than C. pulcherrima extract. A higher concentration of 5.0 mg/cm(2) provided 100% protection up to 150, 180 and 210 min against Cx. quinquefasciatus, Ae. aegypti and An. stephensi, respectively. The results clearly showed that repellent activity was dose dependent. From the results it can be concluded the crude extracts of E. coronaria and C. pulcherrima are an excellent potential for controlling Cx. quinquefasciatus, Ae. aegypti and An. stephensi mosquitoes.
Article
Full-text available
Life tables were established for trichlorphon-resistant and susceptible Bactrocera dorsalis strains based on the laboratory observations. Trichlorphon-resistant B. dorsalis strain had longer pupal and preoviposition periods, and mean generation time compared to the trichlorphon susceptible strain. Lower fecundity, emergence rate, and probability of standard fecundity 𝑃𝐹, and shorter female and male longevity also were apparent in the trichlorphon resistant strain. Based on the life tables, the life population trend index (𝐼) of the resistant strain was 86.80, while that of the susceptible strain was 116.97. The net reproduction rate (𝑅0) and the intrinsic rate of increase (𝑟𝑚) of the resistant strain were 1565.33 and 0.0164, while those of susceptible strain were 2184.00 and 0.0173, respectively. The results from this research revealed that the resistant strain was at a reproductive and developmental disadvantage relative to the susceptible strain.
Article
Full-text available
Objective To observe the effect of common salt (NaCl) on immature stages of laboratory reared Aedes aegypti (L).MethodsA laboratory colony of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes of Rajahmundry strain was established in the laboratory of National Institute for Communicable Disease (NICD), Rajahmundry unit at (26 ± 2) °C with relative humidity of (70 ± 10)%. 1.00%, 1.25% and 1.50% solutions of common salt (NaCl) were selected to observe the susceptibility status of immature stages of Aedes aegypti in laboratory.ResultsFifty percent larvae of Aedes aegypti died within 19, 31 and 48 hours when exposed to 1.50%, 1.25% and 1.00% common salt solution, respectively. Ninety percent of the larvae died within 29, 57 and 108 hours when exposed to the same salt solutions, respectively. Very high pupal mortality was observed varying from 81.8% to 40.0%. Formation of pupae was found inversely proportional in the presence of concentration of common salt in breeding water.Conclusions With easy availability, less toxicity and long lasting nature, common salt may be applied in unused containers, especially in junkyards where surveillance mechanism is poor along with other conventional vector control methods in order to control breeding of Aedes aegypti, the vector of dengue/dengue hemorrhagic fever and chikungunya.
Article
The use of fluorescent whitening agents (FWAs) increases as the demand for the whiter and brighter printing papers increases. FWAs are used as internal and surface treatment chemicals. FWAs that are not used properly in the papermaking process, however, remain in the process water and may demage the paper quality and processes. In this study, a new idea to eliminate FWAs from the process water, consisted of the floe formation of FWAs with cationic chemicals, such as cationic poly electrolytes and alum, and the removal of the floc by screening or sedimentation, was proposed. Flocculation of FWAs, that is the first step to remove FWAs from the process water, was investigated using turbidity and particle size measurement. Relationship between turbidity and particle size showed that the turbidity could reflect the particle size change of FWA flocs and was proper for the evaluation of flocculation phenomena. Poly-DADMAC was more efficient than PEI to induce the flocculation of FWAs. Alum was effective chemical for the flocculation and sedimentation of FWAs.