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A new anthropometric scale for discrimination between sexes
Annals of Human Biology
Abstract
Sexual dimorphism with respect to body size and shape has been analysed by means of discriminant function. An anthropometric score has been derived from 111 adult normal males and 108 females, based on 11 anthropometric and three dermatoglyphic variables. The score represents the range of quantified physical phenotypes of 'maleness' and 'femaleness'. Complete separation between the distributions of this score in either sex has been achieved. Predominantly, application of the anthropometric score can be in assessing a relationship between the anthropometric status of 'maleness' or 'femaleness', and cytogenetic or submicroscopic anomalies of sex chromosomes, and in studies of normal inter- and intra-population variation in sexual dimorphism.
... Research on sexual dimorphism in living humans has consistently identified wrist breadth as one of the most dimorphic dimensions when large numbers of common anthropometric measurements are tested [14][15][16] . Jamison 16 and Bennett 14 , using different ways of measuring sexual dimorphism, both found wrist breadth to be the most dimorphic dimension in non-hybrid Eskimos from Alaska. ...
... Jamison 16 and Bennett 14 , using different ways of measuring sexual dimorphism, both found wrist breadth to be the most dimorphic dimension in non-hybrid Eskimos from Alaska. Loesch et al. 15 found wrist breadth to be the second most dimorphic anthropometric variable behind palm width in Australians of European ancestry, and Bennet 14 , citing data from Hiernaux and Hartono 17 , listed it fourth behind ankle breadth, hand breadth, and biacromial breadth among the Hadza of Tanzania. Thus, the wrist represents a promising area for examination of sexual dimorphism in a forensic context. ...
Research on the upper limbs of Thai skeletons has shown a relatively high level of sexual dimorphism in this population. However the wrist has not been extensively studied for sex estimation in Thailand. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to assess the utility of carpal bones for sex estimation in a forensic context in Thailand. Fifteen (15) measurements were taken on seven carpals from 100 skeletons (50 males, 50 females) who died in the northern area of Thailand. Six of the seven carpals produced logistic regression equations with correct allocation accuracies of 84.0% or higher. The only exception was the triquetrum, which did not reach the 80% threshold. Three of the four equations with the highest estimated accuracies came from the trapezium – the highest reaching 92.0%. The trapezoid and capitate each produced one measurement with correct allocation accuracies of 87.8% or higher. The single measurement with the best combination of correct allocation accuracy (89.1%), measurement error (0.05%), and measurability (44/50 bones) on both sides is trapezium maximum length. Combining this dimension with maximum length of the 1st metacarpal facet on the right side produced an allocation accuracy of 91.8%, with accuracies above 90% for both sexes.
Craniofacial sexual dimorphism on size and shape in a prepubertal (6–12 years of age) population of northern Greece has been
studied by means of both univariate and multivariate analysis. The structure of population was limiting the influence of environmental
and genetic factors. Even though there have been observed statistical significant differences between the sexes in most of
the variables it has not been concluded any sexual dimorphism in the morphology of the craniofacial area.
Both handedness and dermatoglyphic asymmetry reflect early, prenatal influences and both have been reported to be associated with male sexual orientation; handedness has been related to female sexual orientation as well. Neurohormonal and developmental perturbation are two competing hypothesis that attempt to explain these connections. We attempted to replicate these associations and to extend dermatoglyphic asymmetry findings to women. Dermatoglyphic directional asymmetry and fluctuating asymmetry were unrelated to sexual orientation. Homosexual women, but not homosexual men, had highly significant increases in non-right-handedness compared with same-sex heterosexual controls. Although this pattern of results does not allow resolution of the two competing models, it does lend additional support to a biological basis of sexual orientation.
The argument for preceding multiple analysis of variance ({anovas}) with a multivariate analysis of variance ({manova}) to control for Type I error is challenged. Several situations are discussed in which multiple {anovas} might be conducted without the necessity of a preliminary {manova}. Three reasons for considering multivariate analysis are discussed: to identify outcome variable system constructs, to select variable subsets, and to determine variable relative worth. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Marshals known facts of growth and development of physical and reproductive systems, and the factors affecting them. Physiological, endocrinological, motor, and mental changes at adolescence are also covered. This edition deals with many aspects of growth at all ages. Contains bibliography. Harvard Book List (edited) 1964 #592 (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The effects of an extra X chromosome on size and shape of body and head were studied in 47,XXY males; 25 anthropometric measurements were recorded from 29 adult 47,XXY males and compared with those of male relatives and control males. In stature, arm length, leg length, triceps skinfold, and subscapular skinfold 47,XXY males were larger and in biacromial diameter, bideltoid breadth, wrist breadth, and in most head dimensions smaller than normal males. Arm length was increased less than leg length. Increase in stature seemed to be caused solely by increased leg length, and the somewhat feminine proportions in trunk were caused by decrease in biacromial diameter. Correlations of the body and head dimensions between 47,XXY males and their male relatives were found to be normal.
The present findings support the earlier proposals that X chromosome carries genes which influence linear growth. It is suggested that the reduction in biacromial diameter is caused by lowered plasma testosterone level which may also have affected sitting height. The control of body and head dimensions seems to be maintained relatively normal.
Androgyny scores (3 × biacromial breadth - bicristal breadth) were calculated for 66 female track and field athletes divided into five event categories and 76 female non-athletes. Runners (distance and sprinters) did not differ significantly from the non-athletes in androgyny. However, jumpers, discus/javelin throwers, and shotputters were significantly more androgynous in physique. Androgyny scores for participants in jumping and throwing events overlapped considerably those for college-age males. © 1976 Informa UK Ltd All rights reserved: reproduction in whole or part not permitted.
Human body shape measures can be more informative in studies of developmental abnormalities than distances between body landmarks. Such measures were obtained by an appropriate transformation of 34 distances between trunk/limbs and head/face landmarks in 43 men and 72 women with the Martin-Bell Syndrome (MBS), and in 99 and 103 normal men and women, respectively. The transformation of the original distances was performed by adjusting individual measures for an overall size measure using regression analysis.
Thus obtained body shape variables were used in discriminant analysis in order to obtain unbiased classification probabilities of individuals having the MBS or being normal. The average percent correctly classified male and female individuals was high (93 and 87, respectively). Moreover, the body shape variables were used to obtain shape dimensions by means of principal component analysis. There was no difference between the MBS and normal individuals in the first (most important) principal component (shape dimension). This component represents the relative proportions between trunk and limb lengths and widths, or between midfacial lengths and widths. However, there were appreciable differences in some succeeding components.
The problem of interpretation of shape dimensions as derived from principal component analysis and of their relevance to abnormal development in the MBS individuals is discussed.
Human body shape variables were obtained by adjusting 34 distances between trunk/limbs, and head/face, landmarks, for an overall appropriate body size measurement. The adjustment was based on regression analysis. Principal component analysis was applied to thus defined shape variables to obtain shape dimensions in 99 normal adult males and 103 females. The first principal component either for trunk/limbs shape variables, or for head/face variables (considered separately in the analyses) is similar in both sexes in that it represents relative proportions between trunk and limb lengths and widths, and between midfacial lengths and widths, respectively. However there are appreciable differences in the succeeding components. The problem of interpretation of body shape dimensions, especially those accounting for less than 20% of the sample variance, as well as difficulties in assessing the biological meaning of dependence structures determined by principal component analysis in humans, are discussed.
A method of estimating the likelihood ratio and the risk of an individual being affected with Martin Bell syndrome (MBS) from anthropometric measurements is described. The procedure is based on the discriminant functions (one for each sex), generated in our previous study in order to separate the individuals with MBS from the normal individuals. The procedure is illustrated by the examples of estimating the likelihood and the likelihood ratio in four individuals of either sex, belonging to MBS families, where the discriminant score value obtained from each individual is compared with the empirical (normalized) distribution of discriminant scores from the known MBS and normal subjects of a corresponding sex. The ways in which the risk of an individual being MBS is estimated in the general population or in members of the MBS families are indicated. The limitations of the discriminant diagnosis based on body measurements, as well as its particular applications in studies of the Martin-Bell syndrome, are discussed.
Thirty anthropometric measurements were analyzed in 147 adults with Martin-Bell syndrome (MBS) (56 men and 91 women) and in a random sample of 108 normal women and 111 men. Results of the univariate comparison of the age, height, or weight-adjusted variables between MBS and normal individuals of either sex indicated that a decrease in stature, in upper limb length, and in upper face height, and an increase in jaw length, chest circumference, and waist width occurred in both affected men and in heterozygous women. While the increase in ear height and breadth and in hypermobility of finger joints and decrease in palm width and bigonial diameter occurred only in affected men, increased bispinal and bitrochanteric diameters, upper arm circumference, and palm and wrist widths were characteristic deviations in heterozygous women.
Multivariate analysis in the form of principal components showed some differences in the pattern of interrelationships in individual measures between MBS and normal individuals. In particular, and in contrast with both normal groups, height and weight tended to load on separate components (as did head and midfacial measures) in MBS individuals. A discriminant function based on all body measurements included in this study resulted in almost complete separation of discriminant scores of normal from those of MBS men and in good separation of the scores from normal and heterozygous women. Classification rates based on these functions were from 95% in men to 85% in women. These already high classification rates may be further improved mainly by enlarging the samples and including some other category of traits such as dermatoglyphic measurements.
The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of the Y chromosome on different body and head dimensions of 47,XYY males, and especially its effect on their body proportions. From seven adult 47,XYY males 25 anthropometric measurements were recorded and compared with four male relatives and 42 control males. In most dimensions 47,XYY males were larger than the normal males, the difference being mainly between 0.5 and 1.5 S.D. units. The body proportions of 47,XYY males were found to be similar to those of the normal males when the effect of size was allowed for. It is concluded that the extra Y chromosome in 47,XYY males causes an increase in their growth without affecting the body proportions. This finding suggests that the Y chromosome contains gene(s) which affects growth by increasing its quantitative outcome. This effect may be mediated by a direct action of the Y chromosome on the cells. It also may seem that the Y chromosomal gene(s) influence the development of the sex difference in height and body size.
Anthropometric measurements of four 46, XX males are compared with those of their first degree male relatives, control males, and a sample of 47, XXY males. Most dimensions of 46, XX males are smaller than those of normal males. 46, XX males are also shorter and smaller than 47, XXY males.
The present results support the earlier suggestion that there is a gene(s) in the Y chromosome with a general size‐increasing effect and that the Y chromosome has an active role in the development of sex dimorphism in many body dimensions. These four 46, XX males may possess the Y chromosomal gene which sets the later timing of development in males.
Twenty-five anthropometric measurements were recorded from 48 adult 45,X females, 24 of their first-degree female relatives, and 95 control females. When 45,X females were compared with their female relatives and control females they were smaller in most dimensions, the largest differences being found in weight, stature, sitting height, arm length, leg length, bi-iliac diameter, bitrochanteric breadth and wrist width. No significant differences were found in head dimensions. The comparison after allowance for size showed that 45,X females are relatively smaller in stature, sitting height, arm length, leg length and bitrochanteric breadth and larger in bideltoid breadth, waist breadth, upper arm circumference, chest circumference and triceps skinfold. However, in proportion to height the relative lengths of sitting height, arm length and leg length were similar to those of normal females. The mother-45,X daughter correlation coefficients were significantly larger than those of sister-45,X sister pairs in body dimensions whereas they were more similar in head dimensions. The present findings suggest the presence of genes on the X chromosome having effect on growth in general. This conclusion is in accordance with the results of several earlier studies which have indicated an X-chromosomal influence on stature, tooth size and enamel thickness.
A procedure is developed and presented for the calculation of sex dimorphism in quantitative variates. Instead of expressing sex dimorphism by the male X/female X ratio, it deletes the area of overlap of the two curves and provides the proportion of males and females in terms of the areas under each curve. Examination of anthropometric variates among Eskimos from northwestern Alaska and the Hadza from Tanzania indicates that extremity measurements might be of special value for assessing the magnitude of sex dimorphism.
The anthropometric measurements made by Professor Nigel Barnicot in 1966 and 1967 on 126 male and 110 female adult Hadza, a group of hunter-gatherers of the Tanzanian savanna, are analysed. Sex dimorphism of subcutaneous fat is particularly high in the Hadza, which suggests a relatively better status of the female sex than in other African societies. The Hadza males are among the leanest Africans. However, they are above the average in weight-for-height, owing to a much larger muscle mass. Sex dimorphism of stature is higher in the Hadza than in the average African population, but much lower than in Europe. Among other factors, attention is drawn to possible differences between societies in inequality of the sexes in feeding during growth.
Children with Sex-Chromosome Aneuploidy: Follow-up Studies
- D A Stewart
STEWART, D.A., 1982, Children with Sex-Chromosome Aneuploidy: Follow-up Studies (New York: Alan R. Liss), BD:OAS XVlll (4).
14 For personal use only Physical measurements of the adult Hadza of Tanzania
- D Z Loesch
Ann Hum Biol Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by Chinese University of Hong Kong on 12/26/14 For personal use only. D.Z. Loesch et al. HIERNAUX, J., and HARTONO, D. B., 1980, Physical measurements of the adult Hadza of Tanzania. Annals of Human Biology, 7, 339-346.
Quantitative Dermatoglyphics: Classification, Genetics, Pathology
- D Z Loesch
LOESCH, D.Z., 1983, Quantitative Dermatoglyphics: Classification, Genetics, Pathology, (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
Genes on the Y chromosome influencing rate of maturation in man Lancet
- J M Tanner
- A Prader
- H Habich
- M A Ferguson-Smith