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Spinacia oleracea Linn: A pharmacognostic and pharmacological overview

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  • Navsahyadri Institute of Pharmacy

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Herbal and natural products of folk medicine have been used for centuries in every culture throughout the world. Scientists and medical professionals have shown increased interest in this field as they recognize the true health benefits of these remedies. “Let food be your medicine and let medicine be your food” was advised by the father of medicine, Hippocrates, over two million ago. It’s still true today that “you are what you eat.” Spinach is a leafy green vegetable that came originally from south-western Asia and is now grown in most parts of the world. Scientifically it is known as Spincia oleracea Linn. (Family-Chenopodiaceae). Though Spinach is most often used as a food, it has medicinal value as well. Spinach is packed with vitamins such as vitamin C, vitamin A and vitamin E and minerals like magnesium, manganese, iron, calcium and folic acid. Spinach is also a good source of chlorophyll, which is known to aid in digestion. Spinach is also rich in the carotenoids beta-carotene and lutein. It is a good source of the bioflavonoid quercetin with many other flavonoids which exhibits anti-oxidant, antiproliferative, antiinfammatory, antihistaminic, CNS depressant, protection against gamma radiation, hepatoprotective properties in addition to its many other benefits. Spinach is also used to prevent the bone loss associated with osteoporosis and for its anti-inflammatory properties in easing the pain of arthritis. Spinach is good for the heart and circulatory system and has energy-boosting properties. Spinach is truly one of nature's most perfect foods.
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Otari K V et al / IJRAP 2010, 1 (1) 78-84
International Journal of Research in Ayurveda & Pharmacy, Volume 1, Issue 1, Sep-Oct 2010 78-84
Review Article Available online through
www.ijrap.net
SPINACIA OLERACEA LINN: A PHARMACOGNOSTIC AND
PHARMACOLOGICAL OVERVIEW
Gaikwad Priyanka Subhash, Shete Rajkumar Virbhadrappa, Otari Kishor Vasant*
Department of Pharmacology, Rajgad Dnyanpeeth College of pharmacy, Bhor, Pune, India
Received: 06-07-2010; Revised: 12-08-2010; Accepted: 16-09-2010
ABSTRACT
Herbal and natural products of folk medicine have been used for centuries in every culture
throughout the world. Scientists and medical professionals have shown increased interest in this field as they
recognize the true health benefits of these remedies. “Let food be your medicine and let medicine be your
food” was advised by the father of medicine, Hippocrates, over two million ago. It’s still true today that “you
are what you eat.” Spinach is a leafy green vegetable that came originally from south-western Asia and is
now grown in most parts of the world. Scientifically it is known as Spincia oleracea Linn. (Family-
Chenopodiaceae). Though Spinach is most often used as a food, it has medicinal value as well. Spinach is
packed with vitamins such as vitamin C, vitamin A and vitamin E and minerals like magnesium, manganese,
iron, calcium and folic acid. Spinach is also a good source of chlorophyll, which is known to aid in digestion.
Spinach is also rich in the carotenoids beta-carotene and lutein. It is a good source of the bioflavonoid
quercetin with many other flavonoids which exhibits anti-oxidant, antiproliferative, antiinfammatory,
antihistaminic, CNS depressant, protection against gamma radiation, hepatoprotective properties in addition
to its many other benefits. Spinach is also used to prevent the bone loss associated with osteoporosis and for
its anti-inflammatory properties in easing the pain of arthritis. Spinach is good for the heart and circulatory
system and has energy-boosting properties. Spinach is truly one of nature's most perfect foods.
KEYWORDS: Spinacia oleracea, Spinach, Flavonoids, Antioxidant.
*Corresponding author
Otari Kishor Vasant
Assistant Professor in Pharmacology
Rajgad Dnyanpeeth’s College of Pharmacy
Bhor, Pune, Pin- 412206
Mob: +91 9970060776, Fax: 02113 222841
Email: kvotari76@rediffmail.com
Otari K V et al / IJRAP 2010, 1 (1) 78-84
International Journal of Research in Ayurveda & Pharmacy, Volume 1, Issue 1, Sep-Oct 2010 78-84
INTRODUCTION
Plants are one of the most important sources of medicines. The medicinal plants are rich in secondary
metabolites (which are potential sources of drugs) and essential oils of therapeutic importance. The important
advantages claimed for therapeutic uses of medicinal plants in various ailments are their safety besides being
economical, effective and their easy availability1. Spinacia oleracea Linn. (SO) is an annual plant having
medicinal property native to central and southwestern Asia. It is cultivated for the sake of its succulent leaves
and was introduced in Europ in the 15th century. It is the favorite food among Indians in winter season2. The
Spinacia oleracea is commonly known as Spinach (English), Chhurika (Sanskrit), Palak (Hindi; Gujarati;
and Marathi), Palakh (Kashmiri), Palang (Bangla), Pasalai (Tamil), and Mathubucchali (Telugu)3. In
different traditional medicinal system it is known by different names. It’s Ayurvedic name is ‘Paalankikaa’,
in ‘Unani’ it is called as ’Paalak’, where as in ‘Siddha’ it is known by ‘Vasaiyila-keerai’4
Kingdom :
.
PLANT PROFILE
Spinacia oleracea Linn
Scientific Classification
Plantae
Subkingdom : Tracheobionta
Superdivision : Spermatophyta
Division : Magnoliophyta
Class : Magnoliopsida
Subclass : Caryophyllidae
Order : Caryophyllales
Family : Chenopodiaceae
Genus : Spinacia L.
Species : Spinacia oleracea L.5
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTIONS
Stem: Erect from 30-60 cm high, round, smooth, piped, succulent, sometime reddish.
Leaves: Alternative, the lower ones very long petioled, variously lobed with lobes of an acute triangular
shape, smooth on both the side.
Flowers
Male- Flowers on long terminal glomerate spikes and on shorter ones from the axial, very numerous, sessile,
calyx 4-parted, stamen 4, anthers twin, very large.
Female- Flowers axillary, sessile, crowded. Calyx 2-tipped with a projecting horn in each side, growing into
spines when the seed is ripe. Styles generally 4, white tapering. Capsule 1-celled, 1-valved, armed, with 2
opposite short horns, and crowned with the small remaining calyx 3. (Figure 1)
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
1. Flavonoids: Spinacia oleracea is very rich in the flavonoids. Various flvonoids reported to be present are
querecetin; myricetin; kampeferol6; apigenin; luteolin; patuletin; spinacetin; jaceidin; 4’-glu-curonide;
5,3’,4’-trihydroxy-3-methoxy-6:7-methylenedioxyflavone-4’-glucuronide; 5,4’-dihydroxy-3.3’-dimethoxy-
6:7-methylene dioxyflavone-4’-glu-curonide7; 5,4’-dihydroxi-3,3’-dimithoxi-6,7-methylene-dioxi- flavone
(C18H14O8.); 3,5,7,3’,4’pentahydroxi-6-methoxiflavone8.
2. Phenolic Compounds: The polyphenols isolated from the plant are para-coumaric acid, ferulic acid,
ortho- coumaric acid 9.
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3. Carotinods: Spinach shows presence of different carotinoids like lutein, β-carotene, violaxanthin and 9’-
(Z)-neoxanhin2.
4. Vitamins: Spinacia oleracea contains high concentration of vitamin A, E, C, and K. and also folic acid,
oxalic acid2.
5. Minerals: Along with these chemicals various minerals present in the spinach. These are magnesium,
manganese, calcium, phosphorus, iron2, zink, copper and potash8.
DITRIBUTION
Native to South- west Asia; cultivated throughout India4.
TRADITIONAL USES
The plant is sweet, cooling, carminative, laxative, alexipharmic; useful in diseases of blood and brain,
asthma, leprosy, biliousness; causes “kapha” (Ayurveda). It has been used in the treatment of urinary calculi.
In experiments it has been shown to have hypoglycemic properties.
The leaves are cooling, emollient, wholesome, antipyretic, diuretic, maturant, laxative, digestiblle,
anthelmentic, useful in urinary concretion, inflammation of the lungs and the bowels, sore throat, pain in
joints, thirst, lumbago, cold and sneezing, sore eye, ring worm scabies, leucoderma, soalding urine, arrest
vomiting , biliousness, flatulence. And have been used in the treatment of febrile conditions.
The seeds are useful in fevers, leucorrhoea, urinary discharges, lumbago, diseases of the brain and of
the heart (Yunani). Seeds are laxative and cooling. They have been used in the treatment of difficulty in
breathing, inflammation of the liver and jaundice. The green plant is given for the urinary calculi3,10.
PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES
Protection Against Gamma Radiation
The protective effect of 1100 mg/kg/day of 50% methanolic extract of Spinacia oleracea L. (MESO)
against radiation-induced oxidative stress were evaluated in terms of lipid peroxidation (LPO) product and
tissue levels of glutathione. The animals were exposed to gamma radiation at a rate of 1.07 Gy/min with a
source-to-surface distance of 77.5 cm. The animals were autopsied at 1, 3, 7, 15 and 30 days post-exposure.
LPO increased after irradiation up to day 15 in the untreated-irradiated mice and up to day 7 in MESO pre-
treated irradiated mice. LPO values were significantly lower in the MESO pre-treated irradiated mice as
compared to respective untreated-irradiated mice at all intervals, which reached normal values from day 7
onward.
It was found that radiation-induced augmentation in malondialdehyde contents and depletion in
glutathione changes in liver can be altered by MESO. The protection may be attributed to the combined
effects of its constituents rather than to any single factor as the leaves are rich in carotenoid content (b-
carotene, lutein, Zeaxanthine), ascorbic acid, flavonoids and p-coumaric acid11.
The radioprotective efficacy of spinach against radiation induced oxidative stress was studied by
Verma and Bhatia in 2003. For the experiments, Swiss albino male mice treated with Spinacia oleracea
leaves alcoholic extract (SE) once daily at the dose of 1100 mg/kg/day p.o. for 15 days. The animals are
exposed to single dose of 5 Gy of gamma radiation at the dose rate of 1.07 Gy/min. After the exposure mice
were sacrificed at different autopsy intervals viz. 1, 3, 7, 15 and 30 days. Brain was removed and processed
to estimate LPO.
Radiation induced significant elevation in the LPO values, which were lowered by supplementation
of SE prior to irradiation at all the intervals studied. The protection rendered with SE in LPO value of brain
in this study indicates the possible role Spinacia oleracea as radioprotector to some extent if taken
continuously which might be due to synergistic effect of antioxidant constituents present in the spinach12.
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International Journal of Research in Ayurveda & Pharmacy, Volume 1, Issue 1, Sep-Oct 2010 78-84
Antioxidant Activity
The chemical fraction of natural antioxidant (NAO) components in Spinacia oleracea was reported
by Grossman in 2001. Spinach leaves were extracted with water and the 20,000 g supernatant which
contained the antioxidant activity was extracted with a water:acetone (1:9) solution. The 20,000 g
supernatant obtained was further purified on reverse phase HPLC using C-8 semi-preparative column.
Elution with 0.1% TFA resulted intensive hydrophilic peaks.
Elution with acetonitrile in TFA resulted in seven additional hydrophobic peaks. All the peaks were
detected at 250 nm. All the fractions obtained showed antioxidant activity when tested using three different
assays. Based on 1H and 13C NMR spectroscopy four of the hydrophobic fractions were identified as
glucuronic acid derivatives of flavonoids and three additional fractions as trans and cis isomers of p-coumaric
acid and others as meso-tartarate derivatives of p-coumaric acid. The study demonstrated for the first time the
presence of both flavonoids and p-coumaric acid derivatives as antioxidant components of the aqueous
extract of spinach leaves13.
Inhibition of Mammalian DNA Polymerases
The purification of the major glycolipids in the class of monogalactosyl diacylglycerol (MGDG),
digalactosyl diacylglycerol (DGDG) and sulfoquinovosyl diacylglycerol (SQDG), from green vegetable
spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) was reported. MGDG was an inhibitor of the growth of NUGC-3 human
gatric cancer cell, but the DGDG and SQDG has no cytotoxic effect. So researcher studied MGDG and its
monoacylglycerol-form, monogalactosyl monoacylglycerol (MGMG) in detail. MGMG with one fatty acid
molecule was obtained from MGDG with two fatty acid molecule by hydrolizing with the pancreatic lipase.
MGMG was also found to prevent the cancer cell growth. MGDG was the potent inhibitor of replicative
DNA polymerases such as α ό and ε. MGMG inhibited the activities of the all mammalian DNA polymerases
including repair-related DNA polymerases β with IC50 value of 8.5-36 µg/ml and the inhibition by the
MGMG was stronger than that by the MGDG. Both the MGDG and MGMG could halt the cell cycle at G 1
phase, and subsequently induced severe apoptosis14.
Sulphite Oxidase Activity
The spinach chloroplasts possess a sulphite oxidase activity coupled with oxygen consumption and
reduction of ferricyanide. This activity is associated with thylakoids and solubilized by non-ionic biological
detergents. The pH and temperature dependencies of sulphite oxidase activity solubilized by Triton X-100
from spinach thylakoids were consistent with those of an intrinsic membrane protein. This isolated activity
was insensitive towards radical scavengers (mannitol, mannose and fructose) and catalase, and was inhibited
only with very high concentrations of superoxide dismutase. Thus, observed sulphite oxidation was not
induced through the photosynthetic electron transport system, but achieved via a thylakoid membrane
enzymic system showing a sulphite oxidase activity. Kinetic parameters of thylakoid sulphite oxidase were
measured and compared with those of other sulphite oxidases15.
Hepatoprotective Activity
Gupta and Singh 2006 reported the amelioration by Spinacia oleracea L. leaves alcoholic extract (SE)
against the hepatosuppression induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCl4). This was evaluated in terms of serum-
marker enzymes like GGT, AST, ALT , LDH, SDH, GDH, ALP, serum-total bilirubin and total protein
levels along with concomitant hepatic-antioxidants like SOD, CAT ,GSH , GPx GR, GST ,ascorbic acid
(vitamin-c), β-carotene and cytochrome P-450 enzyme. Whereas, LPO was monitored in both serum and
liver. These biochemical parameters were significantly (P<0.001) altered by the single dose of CCl4
Pretreatment with SE prior to the administration of CCl
(1.0
ml/kg, i.p., with olive oil, 1:1).
4, at the doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg/day, p.o.
for 7 days, significantly restored to all the serum and liver parameters near to the normal levels. The
hepatoprotective potential of S. oleracea L. against hepatosuppression possibly involves mechanism related
to its ability to block the P-450 mediated CCl4 bioactivation through selective inhibitors of ROS (reactive
Otari K V et al / IJRAP 2010, 1 (1) 78-84
International Journal of Research in Ayurveda & Pharmacy, Volume 1, Issue 1, Sep-Oct 2010 78-84
oxygen species). Thus S. oleracea L., showing protection in liver, may prove as a rich source of
antioxidants16.
Inhibition of Clastogenisity
The homogenate of spinach reduces induction of micronuclei by benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) by 43–50% in
the in vivo mouse bone marrow micronucleus assay. Inhibition of genotoxicity by spinach was not caused by
any delay in maturation of micronucleated erythrocytes as shown by experiments with sampling times of 24,
48, and 72 h after dosing of BaP. Pre-treatment of the mice with spinach 48, 24, and 12 h before application
of BaP resulted in a 44% reduction of micronuclei.
A post-treatment procedure administering spinach 6 h after dosing of BaP did not indicate any
protective effects. When trans-7,8-dihydroxy-7, 8-dihydrobenzo[a]pyrene (BaP-7,8-OH) was applied for
induction of micronuclei spinach reduced the number of micronuclei by 55%. Pre-treatment of mice with
spinach 96, 72, and 60 h before sacrifice caused a decline of hepatic 7-ethoxyresorufin-O-dealkylase (EROD)
and of 7-pentoxyresorufin-O-dealkylase (PROD) activities by factors of 2.2 and 1.4, respectively. However,
statistical significance was not reached17.
Anticancer Activity
In one study spinach ethanol extract (SE) and the three fractions by the hydrophobic column
chromatography were investigated for their inhibition of calf, DNA polymarases (pol). The spinach
glycoglycerolipid fraction dose dependent inhibited the activity of pol α with IC50 value of 43.0µg/ml and
the fat soluble fraction slightly inhibited the activity of pol α, although the water soluble fraction did not
show such an effect. The ethanol extract from spinach had no effect on pol α, although the extract contains
pol inhibitory glycoglycerolipid. This concluded that the spinach glycoglycerolipid fraction can inhibit
mammalian pol activity, human cultured cancer cell growth, and in vivo solid tumor proliferation with oral
administration. This fraction could help to prevent cancer and be a functional food with anticancer activity18.
CNS Depressant Effect
Treatment with Spinacia oleracea extract (SO; 400 mg/kg body weight) decreased the locomotor
activity, grip strength, increased pentobarbitone induced sleeping time and also markedly altered
pentylenetetrazole induced seizure status in Holtzman strain adult male albino rats. SO increased serotonin
level and decreased both norepinephrine and dopamine levels in cerebral cortex, cerebellum, caudate
nucleus, midbrain and pons and medulla. Result suggests that SO exerts its CNS depressive effect in PTZ
induced seizure by modulating the monoamines in different brain areas2.
Inhibition of Proliferation of Human Gastric Adenocarcinoma Cells
Four kinds of assays (i) cell growth assay, (ii) colony forming assay, (iii) MTT colorimetric assay,
and (iv) 3H-TdR incorporation assay, were used to study the effect of a fat-soluble extract of spinach powder
(SPFE) on the proliferation of human gastric adenocarcinoma cell line (SGC-7901) in vitro. The
concentrations of SPFE expressed as the level of beta-carotene in the medium were 2 x 10(-8), 2 x 10(-7) and
2 x 10(-6) mol/L beta-carotene in assay (i)-(iii), but 4 x 10(-8), 4 x 10(-7) and 4 x 10(-6) mol/L beta-carotene
in assay (iv) respectively. The results indicated that SPFE inhibited the proliferation and colony forming
ability of SGC-7901 cells. And in MTT assay, SPFE inhibited the viability of SGC-7901 cells, but no
inhibitory effect of SPFE was observed on the viability of lymphocytes in peripheral blood of healthy people.
Finally, in the 3H-TdR incorporation test, both SPFE and beta-carotene showed significant inhibitory effects
on DNA synthesis in SGC-7901 cells, but SPFE was more effective than beta-carotene19
Dave et al., 2009 evaluated the anthelmintic activity of crude extract of Spinacia oleracea Linn. and
different extract namely fresh juice extract and methanolic extract using Pheretima posthuma as test worms.
Different concentrations 10 mg/ml, 20 mg/ml, 30 mg/ml, 40 mg/ml and 50 mg/ml of fresh juice extract and
methanolic extract of Spinacia oleracea Linn (MSO) were studied to determine the time of paralysis and time
of death of worms. Both the extract performed invitro anthelmintic activity. Albendazole was used as
.
Anthelmintic Activity
Otari K V et al / IJRAP 2010, 1 (1) 78-84
International Journal of Research in Ayurveda & Pharmacy, Volume 1, Issue 1, Sep-Oct 2010 78-84
standard reference and saline water as control. The result was revealed that the fresh juice extract may show
more potent anthelmintic activity than MSO20.
CONCLUSION
Spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) is a leafy vegetable that belongs to the goosefoot family.
1. Prakash P, Gupta N. Therapeutic uses of ocimum sanctum linn (tulsi) with a note on eugenol and its
pharmacological actions: a short review. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 2005; 49 (2):125–131.
Various
pharmacological activities of Spinacia oleracea such as, anti-oxidant, antiproliferative, antiinfammatory,
antihistaminic, CNS depressant, protection against gamma radiation, hepatoprotective have been reported.
Various secondary metabolites like flavanoids, carotinoids, phenolic compounds have been reported from
this plant. Thus Spinacia oleracea merits further phytochemical, pharmacological and clinical investigations
for development of an effective natural remedy to provide therapeutically effective lead compounds or
extracts.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors are thankful to Rajgad Dnyanpeeth’s College of Pharmacy, Bhor for providing platform to
carryout this work.
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Figure 1: Spinacia oleracea
Source of support: Nil, Conflict of interest: None Declared
... Medicinal plants are rich in secondary metabolites and active compounds with therapeutic importance, which can be a potential source of novel drugs. Medicinal plants offer several advantages in disease treatment, including effectiveness, lower side effects, cost-effectiveness, and easy availability [1]. Spinach is widely available and accessible to a large *Address correspondence to this author at the School of Persian and Complementary Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Tel: +989153086804; E-mail: derakhshanar@mums.ac.ir population [2]. ...
... Its seeds have also been used to treat conditions like fever, urinary incontinence, back pain, and heart diseases. This seed has laxative and anti-heat effects and has been used to treat respiratory problems, liver inflammation, and jaundice [1]. ...
... P-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, and o-coumaric acid are the polyphenols (1, 6) of the plant. Lutein, beta-carotene, neoxanthin, and violaxanthin are the main carotenoids that can be found in spinach (1,8). This plant contains vitamins A, E, C, and K, as well as folic acid and oxalic acid. ...
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Background: Spinach is a widely cultivated dark leafy vegetable highly regarded for its medicinal properties in traditional Persian medicine. It is rich in vitamins, minerals, flavonoids, carotenoids, and other bioactive compounds, and this review aims to explore the historical applications of spinach in Persian medicine and juxtapose them with current scientific evidence. Despite its historical significance, there remains a need to comprehensively evaluate and integrate traditional knowledge with modern research on the therapeutic benefits of spinach. Methods To achieve this, a comprehensive search was conducted in Persian medicine references and scientific databases to gather information on the traditional uses, chemical composition, and pharmacological effects of spinach. Studies that met the inclusion criteria were meticulously categorized, and relevant data were analyzed to draw insightful comparisons. Results Persian medicine describes spinach as a nutrient-rich, laxative, and fast-digesting agent with therapeutic effects on inflammation, lung diseases, back pain, sore throats, jaundice, urinary disorders, joint pain, eye inflammation, insomnia, dementia, and more. Modern studies have substantially corroborated these traditional uses, revealing that spinach possesses antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, blood sugar-lowering, lipid-lowering, anti-obesity, neurological, ocular, and musculoskeletal effects. Conclusion Spinach exhibits a wide range of beneficial effects on various health conditions. Its widespread availability, low cost, and exceptional nutritional richness position it as a promising candidate for further investigation. Future studies should explore the clinical effectiveness of spinach in various diseases, while taking into consideration the principles emphasized in Persian medicine to guide research and inform therapeutic strategies.
... Spinacia oleracea L. (Amaranthaceae) as a South-West Asian native plant is widely grown in India, and is applied in culinary use with laxative, alexipharmic and carminative effects; it was found to be beneficial for treating diseases of the blood system, central nervous system, as well as leprosy, asthma, jaundice, and became a part of "kapha" (Ayurveda). It has traditionally endured to treat urinary calculi in traditional medicine ( Gaikwad et al., 2010 ). Coriandrum sativum L. (Apiaceae) is a fragrant, antioxidant-rich herb that has many culinary uses and health benefits. ...
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... 4 typically white tapering styles. Onecelled, one-valved, armed, sporting 2 symmetrical short [11] horns, and topped with the last little calyx. ...
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The family Chenopodiaceae includes the annual herb spinach (Spinacia oleracea). Due to its great nutritional content, it is widely spread and farmed around the world, including Iran, where it is a native of South-West Asia. Minerals like iron, copper, phosphorus, zinc, and copper are abundant in spinach. ß-carotene, lutein, vitamin B complex (niacin and folic acid), selenium, ascorbic acid, and Zeaxanthin, phenols (flavonoids, p-coumaric acid), apocynin, and Omega-3 fatty acids are some of these components. It is a Vegetable that grows quite quickly, is simple to maintain, and can be distinguished by its color green. as oblong, smooth leaves that might be either smooth or crinkled. Moreover, the entire plant is medicinally significant and has several therapeutic uses in conventional medicine. 81 spinach landraces were grown during 2-years according to randomized complete block design with four replications.
... This study leads to a sustainable complementary food approaches which integrate availability and accessibility to local resources of iron, an approach increasingly recommended [6]. In this light, spinach (Spinacia oleracea), a leafy vegetable grown and consumed in Cameroon, is one of the best plant sources of iron, with about 83.3 mg/100g DM [7]. Its high ash content (30.6%) indicates that it may contain other essential minerals [8]. ...
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The aim of this study was to determine the optimal conditions (time and temperature) of steam blanching of spinach leaves, and the effect of blanching on its chemical composition and functional properties. This was done especially to improve Iron disponibility in spinach leaves.
... Spinach contains special defensive carotenoid compounds that are linked with decreasing the risk of many diseases including heart disease (Miller, 1994;Gaikwad et al., 2010; Diet and Health, 2014) diabetes (BMJ 2010), neurodegenerative diseases and obesity (Miller, 1994). Chemical constituents include carotenoids as beta-carotene, lutein, and zeaxanthin, similar to other vegetables like carrots, kale, and broccoli (Hugo et al., 2005). ...
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The early ages of the seventeenth and eighteenth- century witnessed the emergence of colorful pandemics and conditions. There was a great trouble from the public to cover the citizens from contagious conditions at this stage. The 19th century saw a great advancement in the field of public health. There was a huge development in the part of the public in financing public health care during the late 1970s. During the same period, the public sector share of this sum rose from 25 percent to 37 percent. Although health requirements and health services haven't lowered, political and social values of this time encouraged financial constraint. The values during this period emphasized state responsibility for utmost health and weal programs.
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One of the major causes of the high prevalence of young children suffering from malnutrition in developed countries is inadequate complementary feeding practices, and especially the low quality of homemade complementary foods. The present study aimed to use available local plant foods to formulate a complementary flour Which can be able to meet energy and nutrients requirements of children aged from 6 to 23 months. To achieve this goal, pumpkin was fermented, soybean soaked and roasted, and spinach steamed. The pre-treated ingredients were ground to obtain individual flours, which were blended in various proportions to obtain four complementary flours (PSS1, PSS2, PSS3, PSS4). The proximate and micronutrient composition, and the energy value of the blends were determined, and based on the results, two of them, that is; (PSS1 [Pumpkin 70 %/Soybean 25 %/Spinach 5 %], and PSS2 [Pumpkin 65 %/Soybean 25 %/Spinach 10 %]) were selected to pursue the Study. The functional properties (water absorption capacity, water solubility index, bulk density) and pasting properties of these two flours were then evaluated. Gruels were prepared from the flours and their energy densities, physical as well as sensory properties were evaluated. Moisture, ash, protein, fat, and sugar contents of PSS1 and PSS2 met the FAO/WHO standards. Fiber content in both flours was higher than the recommendation. Vitamin A and iron were sufficient in PSS2, while PSS1 had low iron content. Calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium content of PSS1 and PSS2 were significantly higher than the standards. PSS1 and PSS2 had good water absorption capacity and solubility index, with low viscosity values (213 and 173 cP respectively), interesting functional properties for complementary flours. The gruels prepared with PSS1 and PSS2 flours had good fluidity and energy densities. They were fairly appreciated based on their organoleptic characteristics, with scores of 5.96 and 5.75 for overall acceptability. PSS2 could be recommended as infant flour rich in iron, vitamin A, and protein, with good nutritional values and functional properties.
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Healing with herbs has been a common practice for ages. Nowadays, various infectious diseases like malaria, flu, hepatitis B; COVID-19, etc. are commonly spreading around the world as a consequence of environmental pollution and related consequences. These diseases are not well controlled by the present drug treatment. Antibiotics are failing because of bacterial resistance. Although people believe that herbal medicines are more effective and safer. Therefore, traditional herbal remedies have been recommended for treatment purposes throughout the world. They are often used in combination, fused with honey, or alone for curing different types of ailments. Today, modern formulations of these medicines exist in the form of capsules, tablets, powders, and granules. In several traditional systems, ‘Honey’ is recommended as a natural medicine that improves several health conditions. In ‘Ayurveda’, honey is considered a most precious and miraculous product of nature and is used to treat various diseases either alone or after its infusion with herbs. It is a natural, antioxidant-rich, and highly nutritious food that is widely used as a natural sweetener without any side effects. It has antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, and antioxidant properties. It also proves fruitful in managing/curing various disorders like colds, coughs, cancer, diabetes, wound healing, and cardiovascular disorders. Honey infused with herbs is also used to repair wounds, diabetes, lymphedema, and the prevention of chronic venomous diseases as a part of the folk medicinal system. The current article aims to analyse the medicinal efficiency of honey infused with herbs for curing/managing/treating various types of ailments.
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Вступ. Печінка є бар’єром на шляху надходження токсичних речовин в організм, оскільки саме в ній відбуваються метаболізм і знешкодження їх, тобто вона є органом-мішенню для дії токсичних хімічних речовин. Пошук потенційних гепатопротекторів проводять в останні роки серед великої кількості лікарських речовин, що мають різні походження і структуру, проте найперспективнішими виявились препарати природного, переважно рослинного, походження. Мета дослідження – вивчити вплив густого екстракту зі шпинату городнього листя на розвиток оксидативного стресу в організмі щурів при тетрахлорметановому ураженні печінки. Методи дослідження. Антиоксидантні властивості густого екстракту зі шпинату городнього листя вивчали на моделі ураження печінки щурів тетрахлорметаном, який вводили у вигляді 50 % олійного розчину в дозі 1,0 мл/кг маси тіла тварини. Тваринам однієї з груп дослідний екстракт вводили у дозі 150 мг/кг маси тіла. Препаратом порівняння слугував гепатопротектор рослинного походження “Силімарин”, який щури отримували у вигляді 1 % крохмальної суспензії в дозі 100 мг/кг маси тіла. Щурів виводили з експерименту під тіопенталовим наркозом, дотримуючись усіх правил роботи з хребетними тваринами. У сироватці крові та печінці визначали вміст продуктів окисної модифікації протеїнів і відновленого глутатіону, в печінці – супероксиддисмутазну активність. Для статистичної обробки даних використовували параметричні (за Стьюдентом) та непараметричні (за Вілкоксоном) методи дослідження. Результати й обговорення. Протягом 10 діб у сироватці крові щурів, уражених тетрахлорметаном, спостерігали прогресуюче зростання вмісту продуктів окисної модифікації протеїнів як основного, так і нейтрального характеру. До кінця дослідження вміст окисномодифікованих протеїнів нейтрального характеру в сироватці крові збільшився у 2 рази, в печінці – в 1,4 раза. Протягом експерименту вміст відновленого глутатіону (р<0,05) та супероксиддисмутазна активність у печінці знижувалися (в 1,65 раза на 10-ту добу дослідження). Використання екстракту зі шпинату городнього листя привело до нормалізації досліджуваних показників, і його ефективність не відрізнялася від ефективності силімарину. Застосування його в уражених тетрахлорметаном тварин спричинило пригнічення окисних процесів, зокрема окисної модифікації протеїнів, і підвищення супероксиддисмутазної активності та вмісту відновленого глутатіону, що вказує на відновлення активності антиоксидантної системи. Висновок. Густий екстракт зі шпинату городнього листя проявив виражений антиоксидантний вплив за умов тетрахлорметанового ураження печінки, що робить доцільними подальші дослідження його як антиоксидантного засобу.
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Nitrate content is an essential indicator of the quality of vegetables but can cause stress at high levels. This study aimed to elucidate the regulatory mechanisms of nitrate stress tolerance in spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.). We studied the effects of exogenous application of 15 (control), 50, 100, 150, 200, and 250 mM NO3⁻ on spinach growth, physiology, and photosynthesis. The results showed that all the nitrate treatments inhibited the growth of the aerial parts of spinach compared to the control. In contrast, low nitrate levels (50 and 100 mM) promoted spinach root formation, but this effect was inhibited at high levels (150, 200, and 250 mM). Treatment with 150 mM NO3⁻ significantly decreased the root growth vigor. Low nitrate levels increased the chlorophyll content in spinach leaves, whereas high levels had the opposite effect. High nitrate levels also weakened the net photosynthetic rate (Pn), the actual photochemical efficiency of PSII Y(II), and increased non-photochemical quenching (NPQ), reducing photosynthetic performance. Nitrate stress increased the activity of nitrate reductase (NR) and promoted the accumulation of nitrate in spinach leaves, exceeding the health-tolerance limit for nitrate in vegetables, highlighting the necessity of mitigating nitrate stress to ensure food safety. Starting with the 150 mM NO3⁻ treatment, the proline and malondialdehyde content in spinach leaves and roots increased significantly as the nitrate levels increased. Treatment with 150 mM NO3⁻ significantly increased soluble protein and flavonoid contents, while the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), catalase (CAT), and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) were significantly reduced in leaves. However, spinach could resist nitrate stress by regulating the synthesis of osmoregulatory substances such as proline, thus showing some nitrate tolerance. These results provide insights into the physiological regulatory mechanisms of nitrate stress tolerance and its mitigation in spinach, an essential vegetable crop.
Chapter
Spinach is a popular cool-season green vegetable that is eaten all around the world. Spinach is a highly heterozygous dioecious, wind-pollinated plant. Spinach plant is a six-chromosome diploid crop (2n = 2x = 12). The spinach plant is characterized by rich nutrients which are high in health-enhancing chemicals and nutrients. Spinach is a rich-nutrient vegetable that is high in minerals and vitamins. To improve the varied qualities of spinach cultivars, several breeding procedures were used. At the level of genome sequencing and annotation, proteins, RNA, and metabolic pathways, many databases were used for the bioinformatics of spinach. Spinach breeders and geneticists are primarily interested in improving spinach for a variety of desirable features, such as abiotic and biotic stress tolerance and high yield. Modern genomics tools and traditional breeding approaches can help achieve these goals. One of the challenges in spinach plant regeneration is establishing full, healthy plants, which is related to plant transplanting to the greenhouse. As a result, tissue culture techniques using variable plant growth regulators can be used to solve the problem.
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Present study is an attempt to investigate the radioprotective efficacy of spinach against radiation induced oxidative stress, since its leaves are rich in antioxidants like carotenoids (lutein, β-carotene, zeaxanthin), p-Coumaric acid, ascorbic acid, proteins, vitamins etc. Healthy Swiss albino male mice of 6-week-old age groups were selected from an inbred colony; maintained on standard mice feed and water ad libitum. For the experiments, mice were divided in four groups. Group I (normal) it did not received any treatment. Group II (drug treated) was orally supplemented spinach extract once daily at the dose of 1100 mg/kg.b.wt. /day for 15 consecutive days dissolved in double distilled water. Group III (experimental) was also administered orally spinach extract at the dose of 1100 mg/kg.b.wt./day for 15 consecutive days thereafter exposed to single dose of 5 Gy of gamma radiation at the dose rate of 1.07 Gy/min. Group IV (control) received distilled water orally equivalent to spinach extract for 15 days thereafter it was exposed to 5 Gy of gamma radiation. After the exposure mice were sacrificed at different autopsy intervals viz. 1,3,7,15 and 30 days. Brain was removed and processed to estimate lipid peroxidation (LPO). Radiation induced significant elevation in the LPO values, which were lowered by supplementation of spinach prior to irradiation at all the intervals studied. At day 30 th LPO values attained normalcy in the experimental group, but in the control group LPO values was still higher by approximately 12%. The levels of LPO products in brain of SE supplemented mice activates antioxidant enzymes in brain suggesting that spinach leaf extract reduces LPO values by quenching free radicals. The protection rendered with SE in LPO value of brain in the present study indicates the possible role Spinacia as radioprotector to some extent if taken continuously which might be due to synergistic effect of antioxidant constituents present in the spinach.
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The present paper provides evidence that spinach chloroplasts possess a sulphite oxidase activity coupled with oxygen consumption and reduction of ferricyanide. This activity is associated with thylakoids and solubilized by non-ionic biological detergents. The pH and temperature dependencies of sulphite oxidase activity solubilized by Triton X-100 from spinach thylakoids were consistent with those of an intrinsic membrane protein. This isolated activity was insensitive towards radical scavengers (mannitol, mannose and fructose) and catalase, and was inhibited only with very high concentrations of superoxide dismutase. Thus, observed sulphite oxidation was not induced through the photosynthetic electron transport system, but achieved via a thylakoid membrane enzymic system showing a sulphite oxidase activity. Kinetic parameters of thylakoid sulphite oxidase were measured and compared with those of other sulphite oxidases.
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From spinach leaves (cv Viroflay), five new naturally occurring flavonoids have been isolated and identified by 13C NMR, 1H NMR, FAB-MS, UV and hydrolytic and enzymatic procedures. The new compounds were identified as spinacetin 3-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl(1 → 6)-[β-d-apiofuranosyl(1 → 2)]-β-d-glucopyranoside, patuletin 3-O-β-d-(2″feruloylglucopyranosyl)(1 → 6)-[β-d-apiofuranosyl(1 → 2)]-β-d-glucopyranoside, spinacetin 3-O-β-d-(2″-p-coumaroylglucopyranosyl)(1 → 6)-[β-d-apiofuranosyl(1 → 2)]-β-d-glucopyranoside, spinacetin 3-O-β-d-(2″feruloylglucopyranosyl)(1 → 6)-[β-d-apiofuranosyl(1 → 2)]-β-d-glucopyranoside and spinacetin 3-O-β-d-(2″feruloylglucopyranosyl)(1 → 6)-β-d-glucopyranoside. The known compounds jaceidin 4′-glucuronide, 5,3′,4′-trihydroxy-3-methoxy-6:7-methylenedioxyflavone 4′-glucuronide, 5,4′-dihydroxy-3,3′-dimethoxy-6:7-methylenedioxyflavone 4′-glucuronide, patuletin 3-glucosyl(1 → 6)-[apiosyl(1 → 2)] glucoside and patuletin and spinacetin 3-gentiobiosides, were also detected. © 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
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The concentrations of flavonols (kaempeferol, quercetin, myricetin) were determined in 22 plant materials (9 vegetables, 5 fruits, and 8 medicinal plant organs). The materials were extracted with acidified methanol (methanol/HCl, 100:1, v/v) and analyzed by reverse phase high-performance liquid chromatographic (RP-HPLC) with UV detection. The total flavonols contents varied significantly (P<0.05) among vegetables, fruits and medicinal plant organs ranged from 0 to 1720.5, 459.9 to 3575.4, and 2.42 to 6125.6mgkg(-1) of dry matter, respectively. Among vegetables, spinach and cauliflower exhibited the highest amounts of flavonols (1720.5 and 1603.9mgkg(-1), respectively), however, no flavonols were detected in garlic. Within fruits, highest level of flavonols was observed in strawberry (3575.4mgkg(-1)), whereas, the lowest in apple fruit (459.9mgkg(-1)). Of the medicinal plant organs, moringa and aloe vera leaves contained the highest contents of flavonols (6125.6 and 1636.04mgkg(-1)), respectively, whereas, lowest was present in barks (2.42-274.07mgkg(-1)). Overall, leafy green vegetables, soft fruits and medicinal plant leaves exhibited higher levels of flavonols. Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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The carotenoid and phenolic acid contents in fresh, stored and processed (blanched, frozen and boiled) spinach were comparatively determined by spectrophotometric and HPLC analyses. The major carotenoids identified after HPLC analysis in saponified samples were lutein (37–53 μg/kg), β-carotene (18–31 μg/kg), violaxanthin (9–23 μg/kg) and neoxanthin (10–22 μg/kg). These carotenoids were all affected by storage and/or heating. The content of carotenoids was best preserved after storage for one day at 4 °C.The total phenolic content in the fresh spinach was 2088 mg GAE/kg FW. After LC–MS analysis three phenolic acids were identified and quantified. These being ortho-coumaric acid (28–60 mg/kg FW), ferulic acid (10–35 mg/kg) and para-coumaric acid (1–30 mg/kg) depending on the sample type. After storage of spinach at different temperatures (4 °C or −18 °C) the amount of total phenolic compounds decreased by around 20%, while the amount of individual phenolic acids increased by four times on average.
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Four kinds of assays were used to study the effect of a fat-soluble extract of spinach powder (SPFE) on the proliferation of human gastric adenocarcinoma cell line (SGC-7901) in vitro. These studies included: (i) cell growth assay, (ii) colony forming assay, (iii) MTT colorimetric assay, and (iv) 3H-TdR incorporation assay. The concentrations of SPFE expressed as the level of beta-carotene in the medium were 2 x 10(-8), 2 x 10(-7) and 2 x 10(-6) mol/L beta-carotene in assay (i)-(iii), but 4 x 10(-8), 4 x 10(-7) and 4 x 10(-6) mol/L beta-carotene in assay (iv) respectively. The results indicated that SPFE inhibited the proliferation and colony forming ability of SGC-7901 cells. And in MTT assay, SPFE inhibited the viability of SGC-7901 cells, but no inhibitory effect of SPFE was observed on the viability of lymphocytes in peripheral blood of healthy people. Finally, in the 3H-TdR incorporation test, both SPFE and beta-carotene showed significant inhibitory effects on DNA synthesis in SGC-7901 cells, but SPFE was more effective than beta-carotene.
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In previous studies we have elucidated the presence of powerful, natural antioxidants (NAO) in water extracts of spinach leaves and demonstrated their biological activity in both in vitro and in vivo systems. In the present study, the chemical identity of several of these antioxidant components is presented. Spinach leaves were extracted with water and the 20,000 g supernatant which contained the antioxidant activity was extracted with a water:acetone (1:9) solution. The 20,000 g supernatant obtained was further purified on reverse phase HPLC using C-8 semi-preparative column. Elution with 0.1% TFA resulted in five hydrophilic peaks. Elution with acetonitrile in TFA resulted in seven additional hydrophobic peaks. All the peaks were detected at 250 nm. All the fractions obtained showed antioxidant activity when tested using three different assays. Based on 1H and 13C NMR spectroscopy four of the hydrophobic fractions were identified as glucuronic acid derivatives of flavonoids and three additional fractions as trans and cis isomers of p-coumaric acid and others as meso-tartarate derivatives of p-coumaric acid. The present study demonstrates for the first time the presence of both flavonoids and p-coumaric acid derivatives as antioxidant components of the aqueous extract of spinach leaves.
Article
In the in vivo mouse bone marrow micronucleus assay, homogenates of spinach, artichoke, peaches, and blue grapes as well as commercial concentrates of these vegetables and fruits reduced induction of micronuclei by benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) by 43-50%. Concentrates of strawberries (31% reduction) and of cauliflower (20% reduction) were less potent. Inhibition of genotoxicity by spinach and peaches was not caused by any delay in maturation of micronucleated erythrocytes as shown by experiments with sampling times of 24, 48, and 72 h after dosing of BaP. Pre-treatment of the mice with spinach 48, 24, and 12h before application of BaP resulted in a 44% reduction of micronuclei while peaches generated only a marginal effect. A post-treatment procedure administering spinach or peaches 6h after dosing of BaP did not indicate any protective effects. When trans-7,8-dihydroxy-7,8-dihydrobenzo[a]pyrene (BaP-7,8-OH) was applied for induction of micronuclei spinach and peaches reduced the number of micronuclei by 55 and 48%, respectively. Pre-treatment of mice with spinach 96, 72, and 60 h before sacrifice caused a decline of hepatic 7-ethoxyresorufin-O-dealkylase (EROD) and of 7-pentoxyresorufin-O-dealkylase (PROD) activities by factors of 2.2 and 1.4, respectively. However, statistical significance was not reached. On the other hand, peaches had no influence on hepatic EROD or PROD activities. The flavonoids quercetin and its glucoside isoquercitrin, administered orally in doses of 0.03 mmol/kg body weight simultaneously with intraperitoneally given BaP, reduced the number of micronuclei in polychromatic erythrocytes of the bone marrow of mice by 73 and 33%. Ten-fold higher concentrations, however, reversed the effects with a particular strong increase observed with isoquercitrin (+109%; quercetin: +16%).