"Addressing Human Factors and Ergonomics in Design Process, Product Life Cycle and Innovation: Trends in Consumer Product Design"

Abstract

Globalization, technological complexity, the growth of more mature markets demanding differentiated or high-quality products, and the pressure of competition to reduce time and cut development costs have been leading to a broader application of methods and techniques that address human factors in different ways. As a result, a large number of methods and techniques have been developed, each offering different and complementary approaches that enhance the understanding of design requirements relating to people. In line with this, the aim of this chapter is to present an overall view of current trends addressing ergonomic and human factors in consumer product design, so that the advantages, disadvantages, and challenges facing researchers and practitioners can be understood. A further goal is to locate the pertinent application of methods and techniques over the whole product life cycle (PLC), with respect to design and innovation processes.

Full text

Addressinghumanfactorsandergonomicsindesignprocess,product
lifecycleandinnovation:Trendsinconsumerproductdesign
GabrielGarcíaAcosta†‡,KarenLangeMorales†,DavidErnestoPuentesLagos†,
ManuelRicardoRuizOrtiz†

†UniversidadNacionaldeColombia,SchoolofIndustrialDesign,MIMAPROResearch
Group,Carrera30No.45‐03Edificio303Of.316,Bogotá,Colombia
‡UniversitatPolitècnicadeCatalunya,CentredeDissenyd'EquipsIndustrials‐CDEI,LlorensArtigas4,EdificiU,
08028,Barcelona,Spain
ggarciaa@unal.edu.co;klangem@unal.edu.co;depuentesl@unal.edu.co;mrruizo@unal.edu.co

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1.Introduction
Globalisation,technologicalcomplexity,thegrowth
ofmorematuremarketsdemandingdifferentiated
orhigh‐qualityproducts,andthepressureof
competitionforreducingtimeandcutting
developmentcostshavebeenleadingtoabroader
applicationofmethodsandtechniqueswhich
addresshumanfactorsindifferentways.Asaresult,
alargenumberofmethodsandtechniqueshave
beendeveloped,eachofferingdifferentand
complementaryapproachesthatenhancethe
understandingofdesignrequirementsrelatingto
people.Inlinewiththis,theaimofthischapteristo
presentanoverallviewofcurrenttrendsaddressing
ergonomicandhumanfactorsinconsumerproduct
design,sothattheadvantages,disadvantages,and
challengesfacingresearchersandpractitionerscan
beunderstood.Afurthergoalistolocatethe
pertinentapplicationofmethodsandtechniques
overthewholeproductlifecycle,withrespectto
designandinnovationprocesses.

2.TechnologyofConsumerProductDesignand
Development
Consumerproductdesignanddevelopmentisafield
thatinvolvesmanydisciplines,becauseofthe
diverseknowledgethatisrequiredthroughoutthe
wholeprocesschain.Thedisciplinesthatmakea
majorcontributiontothisknowledgeincludedesign,
engineering,management,marketing,and
ergonomics.Eachdisciplineusesinformation,
methodsandtechniquessometimesdevelopedin
otherfieldsorsciences,andthiswaynewknowledge
isobtained.Asaresultofenhancing,integrating,and
applyingnewknowledge,newmethodsand
techniquesaregenerated.Althoughthedifferent
disciplinescanbequitedifferent,mostofthemhave
commonobjectives,namelyreducingdesignand
developmenttime,avoidingorreducinghuman
error,improvingperformanceduringproductlife
span,fosteringpeople’sparticipationinthedefining
ofdesignrequirements,improvingthequalityof
people’slife,andbuildingsoliduserknowledge.
Thistechnologyisgettingstronger,asa
resultofthecommonpurposesidentifiedinthe
disciplinesinvolvedandimprovedmethodsand
techniquesachievedthroughresearchby
practitionersinthisfield(PuentesLagos2009).These
methodsandtechniquesarethususednotonlyby
theprofessionalswhodevelopedthembutalsoby
professionalsinotherdisciplinesthatplayarole
throughoutthewholedesignanddevelopment
process.Consequently,toolsandknowledgeare
generatedandspread,nourishedandconsolidated,
bynewresearchandinnovationsinthegoodsand
servicesmarket.Twodimensionsinthischanging,
dynamicconsumerproductdesignanddevelopment
technologyplayadecisiverole:peopleandproject.

2.1.People
Bothergonomicsanddesignhavean
anthropocentricfocus.AccordingtoJaneFultonSuri
(2007),peoplehavealwaysbeeninvolvedinthe
designprocess.However,thekeypointsarehow
designersunderstandhumanbeings,andwhatrole
humanbeingsplayinthedesignprocess.People
assumedifferentroleswhenusingtechnicalartefacts
tomeettheirneeds.AsstatedbyKroes,technical
artefactsareatthesametimeaphysical
constructionandasocialconstruction:theyhavea
dualontologicalnature(Kroes2001).Similarly,
designersandergonomistscanapproachpeople
fromdifferentperspectives,namelytoobserve
people(or“designfor”),toparticipatewithpeople

Addressinghumanfactorsandergonomicsindesignprocess,productlifecycleandinnovation:Trendsinconsumerproductdesign
GarcíaAcosta,G;LangeMorales,K;PuentesLagos,D.E.;RuizOrtiz,M.R.

Authors’Copy/Publishedin:Karwowski,W.,SoaresM.M.,Stanton,N.(2011)HandbookofHumanFactors
andErgonomicsinConsumerProductDesign:MethodsandTechniques(Chapter9)
(or“designwith”),andtoempowerpeople(or
“designby”)(FultonSuri2007),andthese
perspectivesshouldbetakenonboardconsciously
bydesignersandergonomists,recognisingpeople’s
needsasintentionalactions‐use‐(Kroes2001),in
ordertotackleconsumerproductdesignand
development.

2.1.1Toobserve
Underthisperspective,designersandergonomists
workobservingpeople,inordertocapturetheir
needsandrequirements.Here,peopleactasa
source,andtheirneedsareinferredbydesignersand
ergonomists(FultonSuri2007).Manyobservation
techniquesandmethodsareusedforacquiring
input,processandverificationdata.Designersand
ergonomistsusethisdataastheyweretheexperts
ontheactivity,makingdecisionstoconfigurethe
products.Thegenerateddatashouldbehandledin
anefficientandintegratedway,soitcanbeusedin
thedifferentconsumerproductdesignand
developmentphases.

2.1.2Toparticipatewith
Here,people,alongwiththedesignerandthe
ergonomist,areconsideredtobemembersofthe
workteaminaparticipativeapproach(Noroand
Imada1991).Withthisapproach,designerslearn
withpeopleandhelptotranslatetheirneeds(Fulton
Suri2007).Thisperspectiveaimstobuildfirst‐hand
knowledgewithpeopleabouttheirneeds,andhow
thesecanbemetwithproducts.Pointsliketheir
desires,feelingsandknowledgeresultingreater
reliabilityintheconsumerproductdesignand
developmentprocess.

2.1.3.Togetinvolved
Thethirdperspectivereferstoempoweringpeople
sotheycanrecogniseandmeettheirownneeds.Itis
assumedherethatpeoplealwaysaimtomeettheir
needs,andthattheyshouldthereforebeintegrated
intoandplayaleadingroleinthedesignteam
(FultonSuri2007).Theroleofthedesignerandthe
ergonomistbecomesoneofcooperatinginpeople’s
creativeprocess.Withthislatterperspective,people
areempoweredtomeettheirneedsandconceive
alternativesolutionsthroughoutthewholedesign
process.

2.2.Project
Thenumerousdisciplinesinvolvedinconsumer
productdesignanddevelopment(i.e.engineering,
design,management,etc.)sharethecommon
featureoffuturethought.Consequently,and
especiallyinthecaseofengineeringanddesign,they
buildasetofrepresentationsofpossibleconsumer
productfutures,usingthoughtmodelsfedbymany
symbols,meaningsandformalrepresentations(Goel
andPirolli1992).Inlinewiththis,allsharethe
featureofworkingwithmethodologiesthatallow
themtodefinehowthevariablesanalysedwill
possiblybehaveinthefuture.Basedonthese
variables,maindecisionscanbemadethatdefine
productcharacteristics.
However,disciplinesworkingonconsumer
productdesigncanhavedifferentinterests,andtheir
visionofthefuturewillthereforedependoneach
particularinterest.Threeperspectivesarepresented
inthefollowingparagraphs:productlifecycle,design
process,andinnovation‐to‐cashcycle.

2.2.1.ProductLifeCycle
Thisisacommonconceptusedinconcurrent
engineering,anditreferstoallthestagesthata
product(consideredasanindividualobject)hasto
gothroughfromcreationtotheendofitslife.
ProductLifeCycle(henceforthPLC)coverstheinitial
stagesinorganisationsthatproducetheartefacts
(i.e.definition,designanddevelopment,production,
packagingandtransport),untiltheyaresoldor
transferredtotheuserthroughdistributionand
marketingchannels.Italsoincludespost‐salestages
thatconcerntheuserorcollectives,suchasuse,
maintenance,re‐use,recycling,dismantlingandfinal
disposal(RibaRomeva2002).

2.2.2DesignProcess
DesignProcess(henceforthDP)isafuturethought
structureaimedatsolvingaproblem(Cross2003).
Therearemanydifferentapproachestodealingwith
adesignprocess,althoughfundamentalstages
includeplanning,inordertoidentifyprioritiesand
drawupaplanofaction,analysing,forstructuring
requirements,conceptdesign,relatingtodeveloping
problemsolvingconcepts,detaildesign,where
productspecificationsareestablished,simulation/
testing,andpre‐seriesevaluation,inordertoassess
technicalandhumanrequirements.

2.2.3TheInnovation‐to‐CashCycle(henceforthICC)
ThismodelwasdevelopedbytheBostonConsulting
Group.Capitalinvestmentreturntimeintheproduct
designprocessisanotherwayofviewingthefuture.
Itsinterestliesinidentifyingproductmaturity,taking
marketinsertionandacceptanceintoconsideration.
Thisvisionmakesitpossibletodifferentiatebetween

Addressinghumanfactorsandergonomicsindesignprocess,productlifecycleandinnovation:Trendsinconsumerproductdesign
GarcíaAcosta,G;LangeMorales,K;PuentesLagos,D.E.;RuizOrtiz,M.R.

Authors’Copy/Publishedin:Karwowski,W.,SoaresM.M.,Stanton,N.(2011)HandbookofHumanFactors
andErgonomicsinConsumerProductDesign:MethodsandTechniques(Chapter9)
thevariousstagesinaproduct'slife,sothat
decisionsthatwillextendproductmaturitytimeon
themarketcanbemade.Moreover,itallows
productportfoliostobelocatedonthebasisoftheir
lifeasabusinessstrategy(AndrewandDalens2004)
Inlinewiththeseapproaches,Figure1
showstasksontheverticalaxisandtimeonthe
horizontalaxis.Itthusallowsacomparisontobe
madebetweenthedifferentfuturevisionsofeach
approach.However,itisimportanttomentionthat
whilethethreeperspectivesgivealinear
representationoftheaforementionedprocesses,
theyalsoacknowledgetheexistenceofdeep
implicationswithrespecttocircularanditerative
thought(JimenezNarváez2000).
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Figure1.PLC/DP/ICCscheme.Adaptedfrom:RibaRomevaProductLifeCycle(2002)andAndrewandDalens
Innovation‐to‐cash‐cycleBCG(2004)


3.GeneralTrendsinDesignforPeople
Theimportanceofinvolvingpeopleinthedesign
processinordertounderstandtheirneedsand
valueshasbeenpointedoutbymanyauthorsandin
manyfields.Manyresearcharticlesandpractical
experienceshavebeenpublished,dealingwith
anthropocentricdesignusedforproductsand
servicesdesignanddevelopment.Inlinewiththis,a
systematicreviewofstate‐of‐the‐artpublications
wasundertaken(GarcíaAcosta2009).Thisreview
formedthebasisforestablishingthetrendsdetailed
below.Aftereachtrendwasdefined,abrief
historicalreviewwascarriedout,inordertogaina
betterunderstandingofthecoredimensionsofeach
trend.
Fivemaintrendswereestablished,namely
collaborativedesign,user‐centreddesign,usability,
universaldesign,andexperience‐baseddesign.
Transversetothesemaintrends,otherapproaches,
methodsortechniqueswererecognised,suchas
participatorydesign,ethnography,andscenario
building.Theseapproachescouldnotbeclassifiedas
belongingtoaparticulartrend,sincetheycouldbe
foundinmanyofthem.Thisiswhytheywereplaced
inaseparategroup,forexplanationpurposesonly,
sinceinpracticetheycontributetomanyofthe
particulardesigntrends.
Finally,itshouldbestressedthatthetrends
complementeachotherinmanycasesandtheir
bordersoverlap.Eachparticularprojectisbuiltusing
oneormoretrends,sometimesinaseamless
combination.However,itisimportanttounderstand
theconcepts,advantagesanddisadvantagesofeach
trend,inordertoimprovethemethodological
assembly(GarcíaAcostaetal.,2009)thattypically
arisesineachparticularproject.

Introduction
Expansion Maturity Decline
Product in development Product in market
Planning
Analysis
Concept
Detail design
Simulation
Pre-series
Planning
Analysis
Concept
Detail design
Simulation
Pre-series
Study Development Prototype&
Production Marketing
Use and maintenance
Design & DevelopementDecision & Definition
Production
Distribution &
marketing
Reuse
Recycling
Disassembly
Final disposal
PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE - ENGINEERING
PRODUCT DESIGN PROCESS
PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE - MANAGEMENT
Product Launch

Addressinghumanfactorsandergonomicsindesignprocess,productlifecycleandinnovation:Trendsinconsumerproductdesign
GarcíaAcosta,G;LangeMorales,K;PuentesLagos,D.E.;RuizOrtiz,M.R.

Authors’Copy/Publishedin:Karwowski,W.,SoaresM.M.,Stanton,N.(2011)HandbookofHumanFactors
andErgonomicsinConsumerProductDesign:MethodsandTechniques(Chapter9)
3.1.CollaborativeDesign

3.1.1.Aims,Concepts,andFocus
Thistrendisgrowingveryfast,duetocircumstances
likegreatercomplexityinproductsystemssuchas
vehicles(i.e.morecomponents,morefunctions,and
moreassociatedtechnologies)andthediversification
andglobalisationofproductionsystems.Another
aspectthatcontributestothisgrowthisthechange
ofperspective,accordingtowhicheveryproductis
conceivedasaservice,becauseaccordingtothis
approach,acompanyhastosupportitscustomers
throughoutthePLC.Inlinewiththis,collaborative
designaimstoa)increasevariableconvergence,so
thatrobustdecisionscanbemadeindefinition
phases,b)adddisciplinaryeffortssupportedby
communicationandprototypetechnologies,inorder
toobtaindesignsanddevelopmentswithmore
qualityandfunctionalintegration,c)achievebetter
productionprocessesandtechnologyselection,in
ordertoreduceproductiontimeandcostsandto
enhanceproductivity,andtherefore
competitiveness,d)buildupdistributionand
marketingnetworks,therebypromotingamore
activeparticipationinproductconceptionand
innovationprocesses,ande)integratewithother
fieldsorapproachessuchasusability,usercentred
designorexperience‐baseddesign,(Nietersand
Williams2007)inordertoencouragepermanent
feedbackwithrespecttonewneedsor
improvementsmadebyusers,including
maintenance,reuse,recycling,andfinaldisposal.
Onefeatureofthistrendistheuseofan
interdisciplinaryandmultidisciplinaryapproach,
whichintegratesqualitativeandquantitative
methodologiesinproductdevelopment.
Collaborativedesignapplicationisboosted
byinformationandcomputertechnologies
(henceforthICTs).Theseallowfornetworkinginreal
timeandinaubiquitousmanner,andatthesame
timemeanthateffortscanbecombinedforsolving
designproblemsandmakingproductionprocesses
moreefficient.Threemainworkingenvironments
arerecognised,namelyoutsourcing,peertopeer
work,andclusters.Thismakesdesigningthedesign
processesmorecomplicated,somethingthatshould
beconsideredwhenitcomestosimplifyingdynamic
decisionmaking(FathianathanandPanchal2009).
Collaborativedesigncanbeviewedfrom
threeinterdependentperspectives:emerging
scenarios,thestakeholders’role,anddecision
making.Fivescenarioscanbeidentified,namely
workbetweencompanies,university‐state
relationship,state‐communityrelationship,work
withinmultinationalcompanies(headquarters),and
university‐privatesectorrelationship(Vogel,2008).
Stakeholderscanplayseveralroles,suchas
developer,supplier,producer,distributor,vendor,
consumer,oruser.Allroles,includingtheir
respectiveknowledgeandinformation,havetobe
takenintoaccountindecision‐makingprocesses
throughoutthewholedesignprocesses.
Oneofthemainconceptualdiscussion
pointsistheneedtobaseongoingworkonnew
principlesandparadigms,somethingwhichis
necessaryinaglobaliseddesignscheme.Another
importantdiscussiontopiciscreatingarespectful
environment,onewherealltypesofknowledgeare
valued.Acooperationenvironmentshouldstimulate
interaction,integration,anddistributiontasks,and
facilitatecoordination,negotiation,anddiscussion.
Aspectsthatcanbestressedincludethesynergic
combinationoftechnologies,engineeringand
management,andtheroleofexperts.

3.1.2.MethodsandApproaches
Manystudiesproposedeveloping,enhancing,
improvingorvalidatingmethods,models,platforms
orsoftware.Theseprogrammes,modelsorplatforms
havethecommonpurposeofmakingcollaborative
networkingeasierwithrespecttocommunication,
decisionmaking,verification,simulation,
disseminatingdocumentationandknowledge,
distributingandintegratingtasks,andforming
intranetworkteams.Otherconcernsincludea)
buildingmethodswithareferenceframeworkfor
analysis,design,andproductdevelopment,suchas
knowledge‐basedfiniteelementanalysis,
informationmapsandroutesforsupportingdecision
makingandproductinformationmodelsthatallow
forthecooperativeestablishmentofdesign
parametersandrequirementsalongwithadefinition
ofproductcomponents,b)integratingknowledge
managementanddesignonthebasisofanaxiomatic
breakdownandanontology‐basedknowledgemodel
(Hou,Su,andWang2008),andc)developing
behaviour‐basedmodelsthatimprovedesign
planning.Inshort,themainconcernistouseand
boostICTsinordertoreducedesignprocesstime
andstrengthenmultidisciplinaryworkthroughout
thePLC(Shen,Hao,andLi2008).
Consideringhowtimeishandled,two
approachescanbeidentified,namelyan
asynchronousapproach,whichreferstosequential
informationanddecisionmaking,andasynchronous

Addressinghumanfactorsandergonomicsindesignprocess,productlifecycleandinnovation:Trendsinconsumerproductdesign
GarcíaAcosta,G;LangeMorales,K;PuentesLagos,D.E.;RuizOrtiz,M.R.

Authors’Copy/Publishedin:Karwowski,W.,SoaresM.M.,Stanton,N.(2011)HandbookofHumanFactors
andErgonomicsinConsumerProductDesign:MethodsandTechniques(Chapter9)
approach,conceivedassimultaneousworkaimedat
reducingtime(Engetal.2008).
Asfarastheparticipationscaleof
collaborativeworkprocessisconcerned,one
classificationidentifiesthreelevels:among
individuals(alsoknownasco‐design),collectivelevel,
andcorporatelevel.Otherauthorshavebuilta
taxonomicstructurebasedonsixfactors,namely
teammake‐up,communication,distribution,nature
oftheproblem,information,anddesignapproach
(OstergaardandSummers2009).

3.1.3.Advantages,DisadvantagesandChallenges
CollaborativeDesignallowsexperience,information
andknowledgetobeaddedtoallproductlifecycle
phases,andthisinturnpermitsamultidisciplinary
constructionofrequirements.Atthesametime,it
strengthensrealtimenetworkingandtherefore
enhancesinnovationopportunitiesthroughoutthe
productlifecycle.Similarly,thisapproachhelps
enhanceandimprovedocumentationprocesses,and
thereforesupportsknowledgemanagement.
However,teamsfollowingthistrendhaveto
faceandsolvevariouschallenges.Ontheonehand,
theinterdisciplinaryandmultidisciplinaryapproach
thattypifiescollaborativedesignestablishesnew
communication,agreementandconsensus
challengesforprofessionalswithdifferenteducation
andtraining(vanToorenandLaRocca2008).Onthe
otherhand,despiteitspurposeofmakingdecision‐
makingeasierincomplexdesignsituations,one
potentialpitfallisthatitcomplicatesorprolongs
decisionmaking,duetothingslikecoordination
problemsordisciplinarylanguagedifferences.In
ordertoovercomethis,timeisthereforeneededto
generateanappropriateworkingenvironment
betweenworkinggroups.Inlinewiththis,much
workisdoneonsoftwaredevelopmentand
adaptationforinterchanginginformationbetween
workteams(SivakumarandNakata2003):
compatibility,flexibility,scalability,sustainabilityand
efficiencyseemtobetheguidelinesinthisprocess.

3.1.4ApplicationtoConsumerProductDesign
CollaborativeDesignhasaverybroadsphereof
application,andcanbeunderstoodintwomain
domains,namelythebusinessdomainandthe
projectdomain.Furthermore,boththesedomains
canberelatedtothreeprinciples,(i)applying
processmanagement,(ii)adoptingsupplychain
management,and(iii)establishingvalue
frameworks.Thistrendisbeingextendedfrom
collaborativenetworkingbetweensectorsthatform
localclusters(YuandJing2008)toindustrialmacro‐
projectsapplyingthelatesttechnology,where
differentcompanies,withtheirworldwidebases,
worktogether(Goldin,Venneri,andNoor1999).
Anotherimportantapplicationisinnetworking
betweenacademicresearchgroupsorinstitutesand
industrialsectorsorcompanies(Fanuccietal.2007).
Urbanspacetransformation,publictransport,and
newcitizeninformationservicesareother
applicationswerethistrendisprovingveryuseful.

4.User‐CentredDesign

4.1Aims,ConceptsandFocus
Historically,someauthorshavesuggested,from
differentperspectives,theimportanceofinvolving
theuserinthedesignprocess:(Damodaran1983),
(Pejtersen1984),and(BrownandNewman1985).
NormanandDraperdefinedthenotionofUser‐
CentredSystemDesigndirectlylinkedtotheuser‐
computersysteminterface,therebyconsolidatinga
trendpreviouslyexploredfromthehumanfactor
andergonomicsviewpointcalledHumanComputer
InteractionHCI(NormanandDraper1986).
Subsequently,NormanexpandedtheUser‐Centred
Design(henceforthUCD)concepttoeveryday
objects,whichhasresultedinawiderangeof
approachesandapplications(Norman1988).Other
authorshaveintroducedfurtherapplicationsofUCD,
suchasHuman‐CentredDesign(HCD),recognisedin
diversefieldsofproductdesign.
Thistrendisadesignandproduct
engineeringstreamthatfocusesitseffortson
generatingknowledgeabouthumanfactorsand
usingitforproductdevelopment.AccordingtoISO
13407,Human‐CentredDesignisdefinedas“the
activeinvolvementofusersandaclear
understandingofuserandtaskrequirements;an
appropriateallocationoffunctionsbetweenusers
andtechnology;theiterationofdesignsolutions;
multi‐disciplinarydesign”.
Accordingtohowthetrendhassofarbeen
recognised,UCDcancurrentlybesaidtobethe
genericwaytoidentifyallstudiesderivedfrom
humanfactorsandergonomics,basedonphysiology,
experimentalpsychology(experimentationand
simulation),cognitivescience,andanthropology
(anthropometrics),orientatedtowardproduct/
servicedesign.Quiteapartfromtheseelements,
UCDgoesfurtherinthatitbreaksintoandfinds
supportinotherfieldsofknowledge,suchassocial
science(ethnology),newtechnologies,ICTs(virtual
reality),andparadigmssuchasparticipatory

Addressinghumanfactorsandergonomicsindesignprocess,productlifecycleandinnovation:Trendsinconsumerproductdesign
GarcíaAcosta,G;LangeMorales,K;PuentesLagos,D.E.;RuizOrtiz,M.R.

Authors’Copy/Publishedin:Karwowski,W.,SoaresM.M.,Stanton,N.(2011)HandbookofHumanFactors
andErgonomicsinConsumerProductDesign:MethodsandTechniques(Chapter9)
paradigmandconstructivism(GubaandLincoln
2005).
Eason(1995)introducedtwodesign
approaches,namelydesignfortheuser,anddesign
bytheuser.JaneFultonSuri(2007)introducedthree
designapproaches,namelydesignfortheuser,
referringtotheprocesswherethedesigner
interpretswhattheuserwants,designwiththeuser,
wheredesignersandusersareengagedina
permanentdialogueandfeedbackduringthedesign
process,anddesignbytheuser,wherethewhole
designprocessiscarriedoutbytheuser,whoisan
expertinthissubject,asinsomeveryspecialised
sportsdevicesandaccessories.
InthePLC,user‐centreddesignisusedfor
generatingusefulinformation,sothatobjective
decisionscanbemadeanddesignspecifications
definedwithoutthedesigner’sprejudicesinterfering
(Kwonetal.1999).
Itsoriginsarerelatedtoergonomics,from
whichithastakentheinitialsimulationandinterface
trialsstructure(human‐machine),basedon
activities,tasks,anduses.Theinitialsimulation
protocolswerecentredonanadequateandsafe
performance,theaimbeingtoavoiderrorsorrisks.
Someconsumerproductcasestudiesshow
simulationprocesseswithvirtualhumansevaluating
thecomplexityoftheusers’anthropometric
variability,safety,andproductergonomics.
Currently,theapplicationhasbeenextendedtothe
developmentofhapticuserinterfaces(Bjellandand
Tangeland2007).
UCDisworkingonadeepunderstandingof
userneeds,goalsandsensations,withaviewto
ensuringtotalsatisfaction,bybringingusersinfrom
theearlydesignstages,inaccordancewithusability
principles(Ames2001).Otherstudiesshow
prospectivehelpingrelationships,mainlytothink
aboutnewproductconcepts,accordingtosocial
trendsandcompanystrategies(Salovaaraand
Mannonen2005).
Inshort,UCDattemptstofindoutusers'
needsbasedonbehaviouralscienceandsocial
science,unlikeTechnology‐CentredDesign,which
startswiththeartefactandaimstoadvancefromthe
basisofappliedscienceslikecyberneticsand
engineering(Krippendorff2007).

4.2.MethodsandApproaches
ThecurrentUCDfocushasgraduallychangedthe
laboratoryandexperimentalatmosphere(isolated
andcontrolled)intofieldwork(Greeneetal.2003)
basedonsocialsciencessuchasethologyand
ethnology,withscenarioconstructionmethodologies
usedforcapturingproductrequirements.
UCDcontinuestobefocusedonmodelsand
prototypesaswaystodevelopknowledgeabout
interaction,notonlyfromthephysicaldimensionbut
alsoconsideringcognitiveinteraction:virtualmodels
andprototypesandaugmentedreality,forinstance,
ortheunderstandingofspatialallocations,going
fromstatictomultidimensionalmodelswhich
improvevisualisationbynon‐expertusers.
Withregardtouser‐centredmethodologies,
threerelevantonesusedinsomecompaniescanbe
recognised:designereducationandtraining,process
standardisationandamendments,anduserinterface
evaluationbyexperts(Kobayashi,Miyamoto,and
Komatsu2009).Thesetechniquesarecomplemented
attheproductionstagebyfastmulti‐layer
prototypingsystems.Atthedistributionand
marketingstage,somefocusestakecustomerneeds
intoaccountbycomparingthemwiththeuser’s
visions,basedonsimulationtechniquessuchas
renderingsoftheproduct’sfeatures.

4.3Advantages,DisadvantagesandChallenges
Someauthorstalkofthebenefitsandchallengesof
involvingusersfromearlystagesinthedesignand
developmentprocessandtakingthemasaprimary
sourceofreliableinformation(Kujala2003;Kujala
andMantyla2000).Likewise,theseauthorspointout
thatthroughconstantsimulationandverification
usingtechniqueslikevirtualrealityimmersion(CAVE)
andvirtualprototyping(VP),relatedtothe
traditionalCAD,productdesignanddevelopment
timeandcostcanbeconsiderablyreducedbecause
thedesignprocessisprovidedwithfeedbackinthe
earlystagesofconception,intheformof
informationaboutusers'experiencewithvirtual
devicesandenvironments(Liukkunenetal.2008).
UCDisconsideredbysomeauthorstobea
businessstrategythatcouldformpartofcompanies'
topmanagement,aslongasthegoalsexpectedby
consumerscanbemadeexplicit.Morethanasimple
practicefocusedondesignteams,UCDshouldbe
partofcompanies’organisationalculture.UCDcan
beregardedevenasariskmanagementtool,sinceif
theproductcanbeevaluatedandvalidatedinthe
earlystagesofconception,itminimisestherisksof
designanddevelopmentcosts(Skeltonand
Thamhain2005).
Theconsumerproductdesignprocessis
complex,sinceithastomakeusers'requirements
andabilitiescompatible,intermsofuseand
function,withthequalitiesattributabletoproducts.

Addressinghumanfactorsandergonomicsindesignprocess,productlifecycleandinnovation:Trendsinconsumerproductdesign
GarcíaAcosta,G;LangeMorales,K;PuentesLagos,D.E.;RuizOrtiz,M.R.

Authors’Copy/Publishedin:Karwowski,W.,SoaresM.M.,Stanton,N.(2011)HandbookofHumanFactors
andErgonomicsinConsumerProductDesign:MethodsandTechniques(Chapter9)
Thissetsachallengefordesignteamsandimplies
cooperationbetweenvariousdisciplinesthroughout
thedesignprocess.Onethingthatisbotha
disadvantageandachallengeatthesametimeis
maintainingacommonbasisforcommunication,
evenallowingforthedifferencesinperceptionofuse
andmanipulationofproductsbetweenusersand
designers.

4.4Applicationstoconsumerproductdesign
Themainapplicationistogenerateprompt
knowledgeforestablishingthediverseuser
requirementsandperceptions,basedonamixtureof
qualitativeandquantitativetechniques(Karapanos
andMartens2007),anditisatthispointthatthe
relationshipwithusabilityknowledgetakesplace,
formingabasisforparticipativedesign.Alongwith
usabilityandotherfields,UCDispartofwhatsome
authorscallthefuturescienceofservice(Hirataand
Yamaoka2007).

5.Usability

5.1.Aims,ConceptsandFocus
TheconceptofusabilitywasintroducedbyShackelin
theearlyeighties.Severalresearchers,suchasMiller
andBennett(Miller1971)(Bennett1979)inthefield
ofcomputersystemdesignandinterfaceswith
humans,backedShackel'swork,whichattemptedto
changefromtraditionallydesignprocesscentredon
theIT‐relatedformofoperation(i.e.computers),to
thedesignforusability(i.e.people)(Shackel1986).
ThisnotionspreadintheninetiesafterJakobNielsen
launchedhisconceptualproposals(Nielsen1993).
Nielsenproposedthatusabilitybedevelopedonthe
basisoffiveprinciples:easytolearn,efficienttouse,
easytoremember,fewerrors,andsubjectively
pleasing.Meanwhile,amodelwasdeveloped
consistingofthreecomponents,toaddressthe
changeinperformanceonthebasisofrepetition.
Thiswaslaterexpandedtohavefivecomponents
(Jordan1994).
Usabilityimpliesknowingtheuser,his
characteristics,tasksandenvironments(March
1994).Initsbroadestsense,itisafieldofknowledge
whichattemptstoidentifyinteractionproblems
whenproductsordigitalplatformsarebeingused,
principallyinthefieldsofICTs,withaviewtomaking
themeasiertouse.AccordingtoISO9241‐11,
usabilitydiagnosesproblemsintechnologies,their
languages,users'knowledgeandvaluesanduse
contexts,inordertopredictlevelsofeffectiveness,
efficiency,andsatisfaction.
Theimportanceofthisdimensionof
consumerproductdesignwasfirstconsideredinthe
earlyninetiesatcompanieslikeThomsonConsumer
Electronics,AppleComputer,andNorthernTelecom
(March1994).Nowadays,theimportanceofits
applicationformakingproductseasiertouse,more
comprehensible,accessibleandmorecomfortableis
recognisedingeneral,andindifferentcontexts.
Currently,usabilityisnolongerrestrictedto
HCIorICTs,andisappliedinawiderangeofproduct
developmentfields.Usabilityencompassesawide
bodyofknowledgeinsomethingthathasbeencalled
'usabilityengineering',lookingforsolvinguser
interactionproblems,productriskmanagementand
qualitymanagement(Ketola2000).
AsfarapplicationinPLCisconcerned,
usabilitymakesakeycontributionintheinitialstage
whenfactors,variables,anddesignrequirementsare
beingdecidedanddefined.Iftheusabilitycriteria
thatcomefromtheuser’srequirementsfor
performingtasksoractivitiesaretakeninto
consideration,designanddevelopmenttimewillbe
reduced.Inaddition,costswillbereduced,mainly
thoserelatingtoverification.However,the
utilisationofusabilityshouldbereflectedintesting
protocolsthroughouttheproductdesignand
developmentstages.Now,ifweadherestrictlyto
theconceptionthatthemorequalityaproduct
offers,themoreusableitis,weneedtoenterthe
debateaboutagreaterproductutilityparticipation;
inotherwords,lifespan,obsolescence,andendof
lifecycle(Babbar,Behara,andWhite2002).
Anotherimportantconceptualcriterionis
thatthestructuringofvariablesandtheconceptof
usabilityitselfdependontheproductthatistobe
assessed.Forinstance,ifwerefertofootwear,akey
dimensioninusersatisfactioniscomfort,whileifa
websiteinterfaceisbeingdesigned,keydimensions
includeaccessibilityandinformationlegibility.
Thisrelativeconditioncausesproblems
whenitcomestogeneralisingaboutevaluation
criteriaandnotdependingonexperts'opinions,as
someresearchershavetriedtodo.Forthisreason,
onlynowaremoregenericcriteriabeingestablished
basedoninteractioncategoriesandeaseofuseand
usersatisfactiondemands,butreachingauniversal
consensusisverydifficult.Moreover,somestudies
showinterculturaldifferencesintheunderstanding
ofandconcernforusevariables,whichmakesthe
attempttouniversalisethemdifficult(Frandsen‐
Thorlaciusetal.2009).
Althoughthereareinterculturaldifferences
thatmakecertainaspectsofuniversalitydifficult,

Addressinghumanfactorsandergonomicsindesignprocess,productlifecycleandinnovation:Trendsinconsumerproductdesign
GarcíaAcosta,G;LangeMorales,K;PuentesLagos,D.E.;RuizOrtiz,M.R.

Authors’Copy/Publishedin:Karwowski,W.,SoaresM.M.,Stanton,N.(2011)HandbookofHumanFactors
andErgonomicsinConsumerProductDesign:MethodsandTechniques(Chapter9)
oneviewoftheuniversalityofusabilityhasbeen
structuredfromanotherperspective,thenotionof
inclusion.TheconceptofUniversalUsabilityhas
beenproposed.Itcomesfromtheworkof
VanderheidenandStephanidis,andfocusesonthree
areas:userdiversity,technologydiversity,and
bridgingthegapbetweenwhatusersknowandwhat
theyneedtoknow(Lazar2007).
Thefundamentalfocuscontinuestobeease
ofusewheninteractingwithanydevice,objector
information.Thisfacilitycanbeaddressedfroman
understandingofuserneedsandrequirementsinthe
physical,cognitive,andemotionaldimensions,which
aretobeunderstoodascomplementaryand
interdependent.
Finally,itisimportanttomentionthat
companiesinaglobalisedmarket,withcomplex
consumerrequirementsandhightechnology
development,identifyday‐by‐dayusabilityasbeinga
strategicelementincompetitiveness,efficiency,
differentiationandgoodpracticebyintegratingit
throughoutthedifferentprocessesintheproduct
lifecycle,includingitsinfluenceinthecreationof
values,brandfidelity,andinnovation(LinandLuh
2009).

5.2.MethodsandApproaches
Manymethodsandtechniquesareemployedin
usability,someofwhichhavebeentakendirectly
fromotherdisciplinesorareadaptations,while
othershavebeendevelopedfromspecific
instrumentsinordertodealwiththefieldof
usability.Especiallyinthesoftware‐intensivesystem
andproductfield,theimportanceandimplicationsof
usabilitycapabilitymodels(UCM)havebeen
analysed,basedonacomprehensiveapproachusing
elevendifferentmodels(Jokelaetal.2006).Another
importantfocushasbeenheuristicdesignand
evaluationmethods(Kamper2002).
Asfarasfocusisconcerned,theempirical
focuspredominates,buttherearealsoqualitative
andquantitativemethods.Studiesthatreferto
qualitativeapproachesincludeInsiderAction
Research(IAR),whichallowstheresearchertobe
presentandplayanactiveroleduringmostofthe
projectdevelopmenttime,eitherasleader,as
memberofthedesignteam,orasobserver(Bjork
andOttosson2007).Thereisagrowingconcern
aboutquantitativeapproaches,asawayofmaking
thisfieldamore'objective'one:forexample,
statisticalmethodsforthescreeningofvariablesas
wellasarelationshipwithtechniquessuchasQFD
andgenerationofusabilityindices.
Somestudiesshowthataprocesshas
startedtoestablish,underanumberof
classifications,groupsoftechniquesandmethodsfor
recognisingusabilityapplicationsinaparticularpart
ofaproduct'slifecycle.Theresultingprocessisa
modelwhichtakestheformofasequenceof
differentcycles,called“TheWheelProcessModel”,
asausabilityengineeringmanagementsystem
(Helmsetal.2006).
Newmethodsandtechniquesare
appearing,aswellastherefiningofolderonesor
transferringfromotherfields,especiallyfromsocial
sciences,examplebeingdemography‐focused
questionnaires,usabilityquestionnairescomparing
theunderstandingofthewholeandofindividual
components,theperceptualcontroltheory,the
visualrepresentationsmethod,orthink‐aloud
protocols(George2008).

5.3.Advantages,DisadvantagesandChallenges
Forcompanies,usabilityhastogobeyondthemere
technicalexcellenceoftheirproducts,anda
fundamentaldirectiveisthatproductsshouldbe
easytouse.Thisexplainswhyusabilityisnow
recognisedasacriticaldimensionofproductquality.
Theuser’sphysical,cognitive,andemotionalneeds
canbegatheredandcorrelatedthroughaffinity
mapsordiagrams,inordertohelpproductdesign
directorstofindoutandmeetuserneeds(Babbar,
Behara,andWhite2002).
Thecontradictionthathasbeendetectedis
thatwhenattemptsaremadetogeneralise,
systematiseanduniversallyapplyprocesses,
techniques,andmethods,theylosetheirflexibility,
adaptationorcustomisationcapability,coverage,
andthequalityofbeingcomplete.Thecurrent
discussionwithregardtothediversityofmethodsis
thereforethateachproducttyperequirestailored
usabilityengineering.However,theaimistodrawup
ageneralframeworkwhereproductengineersand
designerscanfindspecifictechniquesandexistingor
newmethodsandactivitiestoapplyinthePLCunder
'goodusabilitypractice'criteria.
Themainconceptualconcernabout
usabilitythathasexistedfortwentyyearsistodefine
itexplicitlyandmeasureitobjectively,sothat
improvementscanbemadetointerfacedesign,
whileobservingandevaluatingthedifferentpartsas
componentsofawhole.Tothisend,thefollowing
pointsshouldalsobetakenintoconsideration:user
knowledgeandexperience,characteristics,tasksor
activities,andtheuseenvironmentandcontext.
Oneofthemainchallengesishowtoraise

Addressinghumanfactorsandergonomicsindesignprocess,productlifecycleandinnovation:Trendsinconsumerproductdesign
GarcíaAcosta,G;LangeMorales,K;PuentesLagos,D.E.;RuizOrtiz,M.R.

Authors’Copy/Publishedin:Karwowski,W.,SoaresM.M.,Stanton,N.(2011)HandbookofHumanFactors
andErgonomicsinConsumerProductDesign:MethodsandTechniques(Chapter9)
awarenessoftheroleofthedesignerinaprocess
thatisparticipativeandincludestheunderstanding
ofusabilityinrelationtohisknowledge,experience,
abilities,andcontext.Inthisrespect,certainstudies
pointtothecross‐culturaldifferencesinapplying
usabilityanditsimplications.Anotherchallengethat
arisesfromthenewdesignpracticesandopen,free
developmentistonotoverlooktheimportanceof
includingusabilityinthedevelopmentofFLOSS
software,inordertobalancethedevelopmentby
privatecompanies(Paul2009).
Finally,theinter‐dependenceofhow
matureanorganisationisandtheapplicationof
usabilityinthewholeconcurrentengineeringcycle
shouldbepointedout,asthisleadstoaseriesof
challengesthathaveyettoberesolvedifaproduct
developmentcultureistobegeneratedwithin
organisations(Ketola2000).

5.4.ApplicationstoConsumerProductDesign
Threemajorapplicationdimensionscanbe
identified.Thefirstisthecomputational,from
traditionalhuman‐computerinteractionandthe
developmentofInternetbrowsingsystemstovirtual
realityandaugmentedreality.Usabilityhasalways
beenmoreapplicabletoICTs,privilegingmainlythe
interfaceandvisualandauralfeedback,tosoftware
devicesandcommunicationgadgets,andintheweb.
However,augmentedrealityisguidingstudies
towardsmulti‐sensory,includingtactile,interaction.
(Ha,Chang,andWoo2007).
Thesecondreferstoproductusewith
respecttomanipulationefficiencyandeffectiveness,
andanalysingandsolvingphysical(operative)or
cognitive(perceptive)interfaceproblems,taking
age‐dependentabilityandcognitiondifferencesinto
account.Inlinewiththis,cellphones,or
communicationandinformationdevices,will
continuetokeepresearchers'attention.
Anotherrecentsphereofusability
applicationinproducts/servicesisinformation
search,comprehensionofmessages,andthe
communicationprocess.Thedesignpurposeof
documentationanddatabasemanagementisrelated
directlytotheeffectivenessandefficiencyofthe
understandingandmanagementofdata,andbythe
satisfactionoftheuserinthecontrolofthesearched
information.

6.UniversalDesign

6.1Aims,ConceptsandFocus
Thisfocusencompasseswhatisknownasuniversal
design,designforall,andinclusivedesign,andits
fundamentalpurposeisthedesignofsystems,
products,services,andenvironmentsthatcanbe
usedbythemajorityofpeople,withoutadaptations
orspecialdesigns.Morethanatrend,itisconsidered
tobeanenduringdesignfocus,onethatassumesthe
rangeofhumanabilitiesassomethingordinary,not
special(Ostroff2001).Universaldesignhasitsorigins
inaseriesoflegislativemovementsinfavourof
socialinclusion,aswellasindemographicchanges
(i.e.anincreaseinpopulationlongevity).
Ofallthetrendsanalysed,universaldesign
isundoubtedlyoneofmajorimportancethathasa
bigsocialimpact,becausesocialinclusionisinits
coreproposal(i.e.socialequality).PerhapsRicardo
BecerraSáenz'sphrases'itisnormaltobedifferent'
and'itisabnormaltobeindifferent'(LangeMorales
andBecerraSáenz2007)substantiallysummarisethe
fundamentalsofthisphilosophy.Itstartsoutby
acceptingthathumanvariabilityisanormal
characteristicofthehumanbeingandendsupby
adoptinganethicalposturetowardsthebarriersand
exclusiongeneratedbythedesignofpolicies,
systems,spaces,productsandservicesthatdonot
takesuchnormalhumanvariabilityintoaccount.
TheNorthernCarolinaUniversity'Centerfor
UniversalDesign'formulatedsevenprinciples
(Connelletal.1997),inordertoguidebothproduct
evaluationandthedesignprocess,andtherefore
educatedesignersandconsumersinthe
characteristicsofmoreusableproductsand
environments.Theseprinciplesareequitableuse,
flexibilityinuse,simpleandintuitiveuse,perceptible
information,toleranceforerror,lowphysicaleffort,
andsizeandspaceforapproachanduse.Usability
andsafetycriteriaarethusincludedtoagreat
extent,theaimbeingtoimprovequalityoflifeand
utilityforeverybody.
Muchofuniversaldesignpracticeisinspired
bythesituationofpeoplewithdisabilities,aswellas
bypeoplewithspecialneeds,andtakingaspects
suchasage,physicalandemotionalfragility,
limitationsanddisabilities,socialrole,andautonomy
intoconsideration.Participationbyandthe
experiencesofsuchusersarethereforefavoured
whendesignrequirementsandspecificationsare
beingdefined,andthroughouttheresearchand
developmentprocess.
Onemajorissueaddressedreferstothe
conceptsofinclusionandexclusion.Inthisrespect,
the'InclusiveDesignCube'(Clarksonetal.2000)isa

Addressinghumanfactorsandergonomicsindesignprocess,productlifecycleandinnovation:Trendsinconsumerproductdesign
GarcíaAcosta,G;LangeMorales,K;PuentesLagos,D.E.;RuizOrtiz,M.R.

Authors’Copy/Publishedin:Karwowski,W.,SoaresM.M.,Stanton,N.(2011)HandbookofHumanFactors
andErgonomicsinConsumerProductDesign:MethodsandTechniques(Chapter9)
modelthatenablesnotonlythosewhoarebeing
includedbutalsothosewhoarebeingexcludedtobe
visualised.Moreover,inclusionandexclusioncriteria
occuratdifferentlevels,suchasphysical,cognitive,
social,etc.
Anotheraspectofgreatinterestisstigma,
anditsrelationshiptoproductandservicedesign.
Mostproductsthataredesignedtocorrecta
disabilityprovidearesponsethatisasdiscreteas
possibleandtendtocamouflagethe'different'
condition.Thistrendthusgetsawayfromconcepts
suchasfashion,whichcouldenrichproductsfrom
theaestheticpointofviewandhelptransform
prejudiceandovercomethestigma(Pullin,2007).
Accessibilityhasbeenaddressedwidely,and
significantprogresshasbeenmadeinit,inlegislative
terms.Accessibilityrelatestobeingabletogo
somewhereortogetsomething.Thefirstsense
referstofreedomofmovementandtheelimination
ofphysicalbarriers,whilethesecondonerefersto
beingabletolearnandusesomeproduct.
Environmentalbarriersarerecognisedas
constitutingagreaterimpedimenttoparticipationin
societythanfunctionallimitations.Thishighlightsthe
underlyingimportanceofthedesignand
developmentoftechnologicalproductsandservices,
sincedesignwilldeterminewhethercertaingroups,
suchasdisabledpeople,canusethemornot
(Marincek2007).Inlinewiththis,assistive
technologieshaveplayedandwillcontinuetoplaya
leadingroleinthesearchforimprovingaccessibility
andusability,andprovidingpeoplewithcertain
disabilitieswithgreaterautonomyandfreedom.
Muchresearchinthisfieldhasconcentrated
onphysicalaspects,butmoreresearchisbeing
conductedinthecognitiveandculturaldimensions.
Thisisafieldofknowledgethatis
consolidatingandinfluencingthedevelopmentof
complexurbansystemsandprojectslikepublic
transportsystemsandpublicutilities,whichare
directlyrelatedtothedrawing‐upofregulationsand
legislationonaccessibilityandtherighttoequality.

6.2.MethodsandApproaches
Aswellasuser‐centreddesign,thistrendmakesuse
ofusabilitymethodsandtools,andisbasedalsoon
transversemethodssuchasscenarios,participative
design,andethnography.Inaddition,specifictools
havebeendevelopedforapplyingorevaluatingthe
extenttowhichuniversaldesignprinciplesarebeing
met,methodstounderstanduserneeds,andmodels
forevaluatingthecurrentandpotentialproduct
market,asinthecaseofthe'InclusiveDesignCube'
(Clarksonetal.2000).Computer‐basedtoolshave
alsobeenconstructed,suchas'DigitalHuman
Modelling'(DHM)RAMSIS,tomakeiteasierto
manageandconsidertheanthropometricdiversityof
users,orHADRIAN(HumanAnthropometricData
RequirementsInvestigationandAnalysis),an
inclusivedesigntoolthatprovidesaccessibleand
applicabledataforthevirtualevaluationoftasks,
andinthiswaysimulatesarealworldusertrial
(Marshalletal.2010;Porteretal.2004).Since
includingpeoplewithdisabilityinthedesignprocess
isaprimedirective,thestudyofmoreinclusive
methodsisafurtherareaofinterestforresearch.

6.3.Advantages,DisadvantagesandChallenges
Besidescontributingtosocialinclusion(i.e.tosocial
equality),whichisundoubtedlythebiggest
advantageofthisfocus,universaldesigncanbring
economicadvantagesforacountry'shealthcareand
welfaresystems.Somestudieshaveshownthatthe
developmentofhome‐andcommunity‐based
systemsforfrailelderlypeoplehasledtoareduction
inlong‐termcareexpenditure(StuartandWeinrich
2001).Ontheotherhand,inlinewiththeinclusion
achievedthroughuniversaldesign,thepotential
marketforthisworldwide‐growingpopulationis
expanding.
Elderlypopulationcontinuestobeoneof
themajorchallenges,demandingfurtherresearch
(CrewsandZavotka2006).Anotherchallengethat
needstobeovercomeisthedichotomybetween
individualisationandstandardisation.Thehuman
beingisunique,sowhyshouldheusestandard
products?(LangeMorales1997)Becauseproduct
andserviceproductionsystemsrespondtoconcepts
ofstandardisation,thisisoneofthemainqualities
thathaspermittedtheserialandmassproductionof
goodsandservices.However,itisthis
standardisationthathas,inmanycases,excluded
thosewhodonotfitthe'standard'.Inthisrespect,
thefactthataproductorserviceisaccessibleand
usablebythelargestnumberofusersshouldnotbe
deemedauniversalandstandardisedresponse:the
challengeliesingivingauniquedesignresponsefor
uniquebeings,onethatisatthesametime
accessibletoandsuitableforeverybody.

6.4.ConsumerProductDesignApplications
Universaldesigncanbeappliedtoallconsumer
productsthroughoutthelifecycleoftheproduct,
withspecialemphasisonalltechnologiesgearedto
theelderlypopulation,whoselifeexpectancyis
increasing,duetothequalityoflife.Greatinterest

Addressinghumanfactorsandergonomicsindesignprocess,productlifecycleandinnovation:Trendsinconsumerproductdesign
GarcíaAcosta,G;LangeMorales,K;PuentesLagos,D.E.;RuizOrtiz,M.R.

Authors’Copy/Publishedin:Karwowski,W.,SoaresM.M.,Stanton,N.(2011)HandbookofHumanFactors
andErgonomicsinConsumerProductDesign:MethodsandTechniques(Chapter9)
canbeseenintheapplicationofuniversaldesignin
education.Therearealsoseveralexamplesofit
beingappliedinmobilitysystems.ICTsandinterface
designareotherfieldswhereuniversaldesignhas
beenapplied,especiallyinproductssuchascell
phones.Automatedmachines,digitalset‐upboxes,
packaging,bathroomproductsandwastereceptacles
areotherpublishedexamplesofitsapplication.
Itisappliedessentiallyintheearlystagesof
thePLC,whendesignspecificationsarebeing
decidedanddefined.Themaincriterioniseaseof
use,sothatanyuserindifferentphysicaland
cognitiveconditionscaninteractwiththeartefact.
Testprotocolsatthedesignanddevelopmentstage
aimtoensurethatthephilosophyandtheprinciples
ofuniversaldesignareadheredto.Iftheseprinciples
havebeenfollowedrigorously,lessworkwillneedto
bedoneattheproductionstage.However,therecan
beprotocolstocheckthatwhatwasspecifiedand
determinedthroughouttheseriesofverification
stagesisattainedinthefinalproduct.Again,the
inclusivedesignfocusplaysakeyroleinutilisation
andmaintenance,becauseitisintherealworld,
withthefinalproducts,thattheextenttowhicha
productisinclusivecanbeverifiedandvalidated.
Likewise,atthereuse,reutilisationorevenextension
oflifecyclestage,theuniversaldesignfocushas
madecontributionsandopenedupnewfieldsof
research,sincetherealorprogrammed
obsolescenceofaproductisatopicofinterestinthis
field,especiallyduetotheimplicationsonthesocial
aspectofthetechnologydynamicandtheefforts
neededbytheuserstolearnandgainafastand
efficientcommandofthesetechnologies.

7.Experience‐BasedDesign

7.1.Aims,ConceptsandFocus
Industrialdesignhasalwaystakencareofaesthetic
experience,beauty,thepleasureofusing,enjoying,
contemplatingorhavingaconsumerproduct
(Dorfles,Mora,andCirici1968).Thispioneeringand
permanentapproachtoexperiencehasbeenbased
onphilosophyandthearts.Butinthefieldof
ergonomicsandhumanfactors,theemotional
dimensionandexperiencewereissuesthatwere
overlookedforseveralyears,aswasthecasewith
psychologyuntilVictorFrank’sworks,andlaterthose
ofGolemanandGarner(Goleman1995),(Gardner
1999).Today,experience‐baseddesign(EBD)is
gainingstrengthandcanalsobefoundinliterature
referredtoasemotionaldesign(ED)(Norman2004),
conceptuallybasedonsocialscienceswhichare
payingmoreattentioneverydaytothestudyof
emotionsandso‐calledemotionalintelligence(EI).
Asabriefreviewofbackgroundstudiesof
emotions,theworkbyLeuner,Kleinginnaand
Kleinginna,andPayne,shouldberecognised(Leuner
1966),(KleinginnaandKleinginna1981),(Payne
1985).Theconceptofemotioncanbeunderstoodas
acomplexsetofinteractionsbetweensubjectiveand
objectivefactors,mediatedthroughbiological
systems.Theseinteractionscanprovokeaffective
experiences(feelings,pleasure/displeasure),bring
forthcognitiveprocesses,initiatephysiological
adjustmentstochangingconditions;andfrequently
leadtoexpressive,adaptativeandpurposive
behaviours(KleinginnaandKleinginna1981).
AnotheressentialfocusisthatofKansei
engineering,developedbyMitsuoNagamachiinthe
seventiesinJapan.Thisapproachincorporatesthe
workonthesemanticdifferentialtechniqueby
Osgoodin1969(Schutteetal.2004),andseeksto
incorporatethedimensionoftheconsumer’s
feelingsintothefunctionanddesignofproducts
(Nagamachi2002).
Later,PeterSaloveyandJohnD.Mayer
establishedthefundamentalsofEI,definingitasthe
abilitytoperceiveandexpressemotion,assimilate
emotioninthought,understandandreasonwith
emotion,andregulateemotionintheselfandothers
(SaloveyandMayer1990).Subsequently,Daniel
Golemanfurtherconsolidatedtheconceptsand
principlestheoreticallyinhisbook'Emotional
Intelligence'(Goleman1995).
Inthefieldofconsumerproductdesign,
threestreamscanbeidentified.Onereferstothe
authorstalkingaboutpleasurableproducts(Jordan
2000),hedonicdesign(Bonapace1999)oraffective
design(Khalid2006).Anotherstreamiscalled
emotionaldesign(Norman2004),andthethirdone
isknownasexperience‐baseddesign(Margolin
1997).Althoughsomeauthorsuseemotionaldesign,
affectivedesignandhedonicdesignassynonyms,
thedistinctionismadehere,sincethebasic
postulatesforeachofthemareconsideredtobe
different.
Forsomeauthors,emotionaldesigncanbe
understoodtobeanextensionofusability,butfor
others,usabilityisinsufficient;thenotionof
satisfactionhasthusprogressedfromthefunctional
levelthroughtheusabilityleveltothepleasurelevel
(Jordan2000).
Emotionaldesignisunderstoodasbeingthe
frameworkforanalysingproductsinaholisticway,
throughthreelevelsatwhichpeopleact:visceral,or

Addressinghumanfactorsandergonomicsindesignprocess,productlifecycleandinnovation:Trendsinconsumerproductdesign
GarcíaAcosta,G;LangeMorales,K;PuentesLagos,D.E.;RuizOrtiz,M.R.

Authors’Copy/Publishedin:Karwowski,W.,SoaresM.M.,Stanton,N.(2011)HandbookofHumanFactors
andErgonomicsinConsumerProductDesign:MethodsandTechniques(Chapter9)
theinitialimpactoftheobject’sappearance,
behavioural,whichreferstothetotalexperience
(whathe/sheseesandfeels)whenusingthe
product,andreflective,orhowapersonthinksand
feelsafterusingtheproduct,andtheimageand
messageitcommunicatestoothersabouthislikes
(Norman,2004).
AsstatedbyMargolin,theexperience‐based
focusiswiderthanthetwofocusesmentioned
previously.Theideaofexperiencecontributestoa
moreholisticunderstandingoftheideaofuse.
Previousexperienceisfundamentaltofaceuse;for
thisreason,learninghowtouseanobject,andthe
timeneededtodothisaredependentonprevious
experience.Atwo‐waybenefitcanthusbegained
fromexperience.Ontheonehandasknowledge,
andontheotherhandassatisfaction(Margolin
1997).Furthermore,experienceismoreinclusiveand
integrating,asitimplieseliminatingtheCartesian
body‐mindseparationandunderstandinga
symbiosisbetweentheuser,hisbody,movement,
theproduct,andthecontext(Rompayetal.2005).
Thispreviousconceptionisbeingappliedinresearch
inordertounderstandhowhumanexperience
influencespeople'sunderstandingofproduct
usability(Chamorro‐Koc,Popovic,andEmmison
2009).
Themainunderlyingconceptinthistrendis
thatpeoplecancontributetheirexperience(either
pastorcurrent)totheuseoforinteractionwith
products.Theaimistogobeyondtraditionalsurveys
throughanintimate,close,andspontaneous
relationshipwhichallowstheessentialand
experientialaspectsofthepersontobeexpressedin
amulti‐dimensionalandmulti‐facetedway.Inline
withthis,thereisaneedforthevisionoftheroleof
userstobepermanentlyintegratedonthebasisof
threeinterdependentpremises:thebuildingof
collectiveandindividualknowledge,thecontextof
useanditsculturalheritage,andconceivinghuman
experienceasanunderstandingoftheuseandits
emotionalstates.Thistrioofconceptsenablesboth
socialsubjectivityandindividualsubjectivitytobe
captured.
Finally,withrespecttoPCL,someauthors
proposeincludinganemotionalneedsdimensionas
inputintheearlystagesoftheproductdesignand
developmentprocess.Ingeneral,andaccordingto
theconceptualvastnessstated,designfor
experiencecanbeassimilatedandbeuseful
throughouttheproductlifecycle(Khalidand
Helander2006).

7.2.MethodsandApproaches
Therearesubjectiveandobjectiveapproaches,but
theaffectivedimensionisevenmoredifficultto
objectify,sinceawiderangeofvariablesare
integratedand,atthesametime,manyofthe
methodsformeasuringandevaluatingemotionsare
notdirectlyapplicabletoconsumerproduct
development(KhalidandHelander2006).
Someauthorspointoutlimitationsin
psychologicalmeasurementmethodsandsuggest
usingphysiologicalmeasurementmethodsasamore
objectivewaytomeasureuseremotions(Jeong
2007).However,acommonfeatureistounderstand
whattheuserexperienceis,measureit,anddirect
thisexperiencetowardsthedesignanddevelopment
oftheproduct.
OtherICT‐basedtoolshavebeenformulated
forintegratinguserexperienceusingamethodthat
takestheuser’spointsofview,environmentalpoints
ofview,andlifecyclepointsofviewintoaccount
(YamazakiandFuruta2007).
Anemergingconceptfoundinrecent
studieswhichwillhavenewmethodological
implicationsistheuseofhermeneuticsfor
understandingexperience.Inotherwords,being
abletoreveal,interpretandclarifysubjects'actions
andvalues,thusleadingpeople’ssubjective
experienceintoobjectiveunderstanding.Itis
importanttoeliminate‐oratleastreduceand
delimit‐ambiguityintheinterpretationofhuman
actionsorcommunications.Culturalknowledge
shouldbeadeductive‐interpretativeprocessof
individualsandcollectivesheritage.

7.3.Advantages,DisadvantagesandChallenges
Therearetwoconceptswhichconstituteachallenge
toapproachingexperience‐baseddesignholistically.
Ontheonehandarethecustomer’semotions,the
aestheticappearanceoftheproduct,andthe
pleasureofusingit.Ontheotherhandare
expressionsofconduct,knowledge,thoughts,and
feelings,whichgotogetherandareverydifficultto
separate.Theseconceptsgobeyondtheideaof
creatingmethodsortechniquesformeasuring
emotionsinan'objective'way,andreducea
complexandrichfieldtoaconcernforthedominant
positivistparadigminthefieldofscience(Jeong
2007).
'Experience‐baseddesign'isoneofthe
lateststreamstohaveappearedinthedesignand
productdevelopmentworldwhichsetoutto
understandtheuserfromtheemotionaldimension.
Emotionaldesign,orthedesignofexperience,

Addressinghumanfactorsandergonomicsindesignprocess,productlifecycleandinnovation:Trendsinconsumerproductdesign
GarcíaAcosta,G;LangeMorales,K;PuentesLagos,D.E.;RuizOrtiz,M.R.

Authors’Copy/Publishedin:Karwowski,W.,SoaresM.M.,Stanton,N.(2011)HandbookofHumanFactors
andErgonomicsinConsumerProductDesign:MethodsandTechniques(Chapter9)
establishesconnotationswhichleadtoconceptual
andepistemologicaldifficulties,sincestrictlyand
rigorouslyspeaking,neitheremotionsnorexperience
aredesigned;whatiscreatedordesignedarethe
conditions(environmentsorproducts)tostimulate
andgenerateemotionsandexperiences.Viewed
fromthisperspective,theconceptualdifferencesin
thistrendhavenotbeenmadeexplicit,norhave
theybeenrigorouslyaddressed.Thisiswhythereisa
needtomakeroomfordebate,sothatthe
epistemologicalandethicalaspectscanbeclarified.
Theprecisionanddefinitionofconcepts
suchasexperience,needs,andemotionshavebeen
questioned.Inthisrespect,someauthors(Kaygan
2008)havestartedadebatethatbecomes
fundamentalandraisesquestionslikewhetherwe
aremovingtowardsthecommercialisationof
emotions,orwhethertherightwayistoapproachor
captureexperiencesfromanethicofuseandthe
user,orwhatsatisfactionisorhowweunderstandit.
Itisafactthatemotionshaveaninfluenceonhow
weinteractwithaproduct,butarethereuserneeds
thatgotrulybeyondfunctionalityandutility,related
toemotions?Orisitanextremeaspectofthe
consumerfocustodelvemoredeeplyintheintimacy
ofconsumers,torevealaspectsthatkeepthemas
customers?

7.4.ConsumerProductDesignApplications
Thefocusofthistrendiscentredontwoaspects.The
firstreferstoknowingtheuser’sexperience(i.e.the
perceptions,feelings,sensations,emotionalchanges,
pleasure,enjoyment,andwishesthatpeoplehave
andshareinacollective).Thesecondismanaging
theuser’sexperience,basedonuser‐centreddesign,
usability,andcollaborativedesign.Itcanbededuced
thatitisimportanttotransferuserexperiencein
ordertoboostproduct/serviceinnovation
processes(BateandRobert2006).
Fieldsofexperience‐baseddesign
applicationincludehuman‐computerinteraction
integrationatphysicalandcognitivelevel,virtual
reality,augmentedreality,ICTs,increased'good
practice'culture,fastadoptionofusabilitystandards,
prototypeswithenrichedinformationfromlow‐
fidelitypaperprototype,andproductallocation,
understoodasbeingtheprocessofmodifying
applicationsorproductsbasedontherequirements
ofaparticularscenario.

8.TransverseApproaches,MethodsandTechniques
Focuses,methodsandtechniquescommontoa
numberoftrendswerefound.Someofthese
approachesareintroducedinthissection,namely
participatorydesign,ethnography,andscenarios/
personas.

8.1ParticipatoryDesign
Participatorydesigngoesagainstthetraditional
designprocess,wherethedesigner‐duetohis
expertise‐tookcareofdefiningandcontrollingthe
formulationofuserrequirements.SincetheFirst
ParticipatoryDesignConferenceinSeattle(1990),
whichconcentratedoncomputersystems,thisfocus
hasgrowntowardsthedesignanddevelopmentof
productsandservicesingeneral.Participatorydesign
practicehasdiversefocuses,andisnotunifiedbya
singletheoreticalcorpus,andforthisreasonsome
practitionersconfuseitwiththecollaborativedesign
trend,includingco‐design,asaddressedabove.
Therearediverseexperiencesand
applications.However,thesamedirectionand
distinctivespirit,whichischaracterisedbyaconcern
foramorehumane,creative,andeffective
relationshipamongthoseinvolvedintechnology
designanduse,arerecognisedinthediversityof
focuses.

8.2.EthnographicStudies
Ethnographyisaninterpretativeanthropology
techniquethatisgearedtounderstandingthe
ethnical‐culturalandgeographical‐cultural
differencesbetweenpeopleorsocialgroups,not
fromasilentorneutralobservation(monologue)but
asadialogicpractice,onethatprivileges'discourse'
over'text'(GeertzandClifford1991).Itisconsidered
tobeatoolthatbacksuptheculturalrelativism
paradigmandconstructionistperspectivefocusin
socialscience.
Theethnographerisinterestedin
understandinghumanbehaviourasreflectedinthe
waysoflifeofdifferentcommunities.Thedesigneris
interestedindesigningartefactsthatwillsupportthe
activitiesofthesecommunities(Blombergetal.
1993).Ethnographyisthusamethodological
alternativeforthedesignanddevelopmentof
consumerproducts,sinceitaccessespeople’s
everydaypracticesasmembersofasocialgroup.
Someauthorsmentionadvertisingand
marketingasfocalpointsofapplicationfor
understandingacquisitiontrendsbygroupsand
thereforeestablishingdifferentiatedmarketing

Addressinghumanfactorsandergonomicsindesignprocess,productlifecycleandinnovation:Trendsinconsumerproductdesign
GarcíaAcosta,G;LangeMorales,K;PuentesLagos,D.E.;RuizOrtiz,M.R.

Authors’Copy/Publishedin:Karwowski,W.,SoaresM.M.,Stanton,N.(2011)HandbookofHumanFactors
andErgonomicsinConsumerProductDesign:MethodsandTechniques(Chapter9)
strategies,alongwiththedesignofcomplex
interfaces,especiallyonesrelatingtoverbaland
visuallanguages,theculturalperceptionofthe
formalaestheticqualitiesofproducts,usability
evaluation,knowingthevaluejudgmentsof
consumersandidentifyinghowusersperceiveand
enjoyproducts,andincludinginnovationinthe
productcycleforidentifyinguserexperiencesas
opportunitiesforinnovation.
Theinformationobtainedthrough
ethnographicstudiesisusedbyvarious
anthropocentricdesigntrends,especiallyatthePLC
decisionanddefinitionstage,forgainingaless
hypotheticalspecificationoffinaluserneedsand
requirements.

8.3.ScenarioBuilding
Scenariobuildingisasetofmethodsandtechniques
thatareusedinprospectivestructuringprocessesfor
foreseeingthebestpaththatcanbefollowedina
specifictechnologicalorsocialdevelopment.In
design,itisapowerfulexploration,prototypingand
communicationtool(FultonSuriandMarsh2000).It
isusedforunderstandingtheuser’sroleduring
productdesignanddevelopment,andforthisreason
itiswidelyusedindifferenttrends.
Scenariobuildingenablestheenvironment
tobemodelledandsimulatedasaframeworkthat
containsfactorsrelatedtomarket,technology,
suppliers,distributionlogisticsandsalesystems,
economicconditions,andenvironmental
requirements.Characters,contextsandgroupsof
activitiesareinterlinked,thusmakingiteasierto
understandsystemcomplexityanddynamics,aswell
asthe'useexperience'.
Thismethodiscomplementedbythe
constructionofpersonas,whichprovidescontextual
modelsthatenrichtheconstructionofrequirements
(Aoyama2005).
Scenariobuildingenablesuserneedstobe
characterisedandlookedintomoredeeplythan
purelyfunctionalneeds.Successusingthistechnique
reliesontheabilitytomakeascriptasrichas
possible,takingvariousfeaturesofthephysical,
social,andculturalenvironmentinwhichthe
charactersperformintoaccount.
ThismethodisusedinPLCespeciallyatthe
decisionanddefinition,designanddevelopment,
andutilisationandmaintenancestages.However,
thistoolcouldbeusedinanyofPLCstage,sinceit
stimulatescreativityandthegenerationofconcepts
onaplatformthatallassistantsandcreatorsshare.

9.Conclusions
Thediversetrendscanbedifferentiatedand
understoodintheconsumerproductdesignand
developmentframeworkinthelightoftheir
respectivepurposes.Collaborativedesignthusaims
tocoordinate,addto,share,andboostknowledge
forsolvingmorecomplexproblems.User‐centred
designaimstounderstandhumanbehaviouras
individualsandcollectives,soastomakethe
functionsofproductsmorecompatiblewithhuman
actions.Usabilityseekstogobeyondthefunctional
dimensionandtogenerateproductsthatareeasier
touseandthusincreaseusersatisfaction.Universal
designsetsouttoprovideinclusiveandequitable
accesstoproducts.Andexperience‐baseddesign
aimstogobeyondproductfunctionalityandusability
andtogenerateemotionsthroughtheuseof
objects.Transversefocusesandmethods(i.e.
participativedesign,ethnographyandscenarios)
strengthenpeople'sunderstandingofeachofthe
trends.
Intermsoftherelationshipofeachtrend
withintheDP/PLC/ICCscheme,Figure2locateseach
trendanalysedontheaxisoftheproject,identifying
theprincipalpointsatwhicheachtrendcanbe
involved.
Beyondthefocusesanddifferencesofeach
trend,allofthemshareacommonthread,namely
thewelfareofthehumanbeingandthechangefrom
techno‐centricdesigntoananthropocentricdesign.
Thedifferentandsometimesopposingpositions
amongtrendsarethususefulforcomplementingour
understandingofthecomplexhumannatureand
empoweringproductdesign.
Finally,althoughawidevarietyoffocuses,
methods,tools,andapplications,aswellas
differentiatedpurposes,canbedistinguishedin
practice,intheoreticaltermsthereisnoclarityon
ontologicalandepistemologicalaspects.




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

Addressinghumanfactorsandergonomicsindesignprocess,productlifecycleandinnovation:Trendsinconsumerproductdesign
GarcíaAcosta,G;LangeMorales,K;PuentesLagos,D.E.;RuizOrtiz,M.R.

Authors’Copy/Publishedin:Karwowski,W.,SoaresM.M.,Stanton,N.(2011)HandbookofHumanFactors
andErgonomicsinConsumerProductDesign:MethodsandTechniques(Chapter9)




























Figure2.LocationofanthropocentricdesigntrendsontheprojectaxisinthePLC/DP/ICCscheme.



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Introduction
Expansion Maturity Decline
Product Launch
Product in development Product in market
Planning
Analysis
Concept
Detail design
Simulation
Pre-series
Planning
Analysis
Concept
Detail design
Simulation
Pre-series
Study Development Prototype&
Production Marketing
Collaborative design application
Universal Design application
Usability application
User Centred Design application
Experience-Based Design application
Use and maintenance
Design & DevelopementDecision & Definition
Production
Distribution &
marketing
Reuse
Recycling
Disassembly
Final disposal
PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE - ENGINEERING
PRODUCT DESIGN PROCESS
PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE - MANAGEMENT

Addressinghumanfactorsandergonomicsindesignprocess,productlifecycleandinnovation:Trendsinconsumerproductdesign
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