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Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach

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Mark H. Davis at Eckerd College
Mark H. Davis
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Abstract

Describes the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) and its relationships with measures of social functioning, self-esteem, emotionality, and sensitivity to others. 677 male and 667 female undergraduates served as Ss. Each of the 4 IRI subscales displayed a distinctive and predictable pattern of relationships with these measures, as well as with previous unidimensional empathy measures. Findings provide evidence for a multidimensional approach to empathy. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
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... Empathy, as a crucial psychological mechanism, is considered a significant mediating variable connecting dispositional mindfulness and prosocial behavior (Berry et al., 2020). Empathy encompasses both cognitive and affective dimensions, involving understanding others' thoughts and experiencing others' emotions, respectively (Davis, 1983). Research indicates that mindfulness can promote empathy by reducing self-centeredness and enhancing sensitivity to others' needs (Condon et al., 2013). ...
... The Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI; Davis, 1983) is a 22-item scale comprising four dimensions: perspective taking (PT), empathic concern (EC), fantasy (FS), and personal distress (PD). Participants rated the IRI on a 5-point scale from 0 (not appropriate) to 4 (very appropriate). ...
... This finding aligns with Trautwein et al.'s (2014) view that mindfulness can enhance both cognitive and affective empathy simultaneously. Several explanations can be proposed for these findings: First, as Davis (1983) noted, the fantasy dimension primarily reflects an individual's capacity to engage with fictional situations, which, although related to empathy, may be somewhat removed from actual prosocial behavior. Berninger (2018) research suggests that empathetic experiences in fictional contexts may involve different psychological mechanisms than prosocial responses in real life. ...
How does dispositional mindfulness foster prosocial behavior? A cross-cultural study of empathy’s mediating role and cultural moderation
Article
Full-text available
  • Nov 2024
Background Despite growing recognition of dispositional mindfulness (DM) in psychological research, its cross-cultural mechanisms in promoting prosocial behavior remain unclear, particularly regarding the mediating role of different empathy dimensions. Purpose This study investigated how DM influences prosocial behavior across cultural contexts, examining both the mediating effects of different empathy dimensions and the moderating role of cultural background in Chinese and Indonesian samples. Methods Participants included 683 university students (357 Chinese, 326 Indonesian) who completed the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS), Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI), and Self-Report Altruism Scale Distinguished by the Recipient (SRAS-DR). Mediation and moderation analyses were conducted using PROCESS macro. Results Chinese participants demonstrated higher DM levels than Indonesian participants. In the Chinese sample, both perspective taking (PT) and empathic concern (EC) mediated DM’s effects on prosocial behavior toward family (PBF), friends (PBFr), and strangers (PBS). However, in the Indonesian sample, PT and EC only mediated effects on PBFr. Cultural background significantly moderated DM’s indirect effect on PBS through PT, with stronger effects in the Chinese sample. Fantasy and personal distress showed no significant mediating effects in either cultural context. Conclusion This study reveals that DM enhances prosocial behavior through selective influence on different empathy dimensions, with cultural background moderating specific pathways. These findings extend our understanding of mindfulness’s cross-cultural mechanisms and provide practical implications for culturally-adapted mindfulness interventions.
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... A literatura evidencia ainda uma ligação entre a transfobia e a empatia, demonstrando que pessoas com uma empatia mais elevada tendem a ter atitudes e crenças mais positivas em relação aos homens e mulheres trans (Kelley, 2020 (Davis, 1983) para avaliar a empatia dos participantes, revelaram que as atitudes face a pessoas trans sofre um impacto com a empatia. De acordo com Mora et al. (2022), a empatia desempenha um papel preditivo nas atitudes face a pessoas trans e, quando implementada desde idades jovens, reduz a transfobia, estereótipos e promove um bom desenvolvimento. ...
... Índice de Reatividade Interpessoal (IRI; Davis, 1980Davis, , 1983 versão portuguesa traduzida e validada por Limpo et al., 2010). O IRI mede a empatia com base numa visão multidimensional, sendo composto por 24 itens. ...
Validity evidence of the Attitude Towards Trans Men and Women Scale
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2024
Transphobia can be defined as antipathy or strong emotional aversion towards trans men and women, often leading to these individuals suffering discrimination, violence, and harassment. The main aim of this study was to translate and validate the Attitudes Toward Transgender Men and Women (ATTMW) Scale developed by Billard (2018a) for the Portuguese population. The sample consisted of 539 participants, 431 females, and 108males, with a meanage of 27.25years. Each participant responded to three questionnaires, namely a sociodemographic questionnaire, the ATTMW, and the Interpersonal Reactivity Index. The results revealed that the Portuguese version of the ATTWM presented a two-factor structure, as in the original scale. Both subscales showed high internal consistency (ATTMW Perspective-Taking: α=.93; ATTWM Empathic Concern: α=.94) and good levels of convergent validity. Regarding convergent validity, the ATTWM Perspective-Taking and ATTWM Empathic Concern showed a significant negative correlation with the sub-scales of Perspective-Taking, Empathic Concern, and Fantasy of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index. The instrument demonstrated good psychometric qualities when used with the sample.
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... That said, we must acknowledge that venting receipt did contribute to personal distress, aligning with Batson, Fultz, and Schoenrade's (1987) position that witnessing the suffering of others (i.e., receiving venting) can contribute to personal distress as an affective response. Yet, by finding that venting receipt also contributed to empathy, our findings not only speak to Batson, Fultz, and Schoenrade's (1987) archaic view of vicarious emotions, but also to the broader literature on empathy (e.g., Davis 1983;Simon et al. 2022) and compassion (e.g., Lilius et al. 2008) in the face of negative workplace experiences. More specifically, countering conventional wisdom around the negative effects of venting receipt (e.g., Bregman 2018; Robinson and Schabram 2016), our results suggest that hearing of others suffering via venting receipt can elicit empathy, which in turn motivates helping behaviors that may subsequently yield positive outcomes for the broader organization (and, as shown in our Supplemental Study, venting actors specifically by receiving more direct helping acts). ...
... Yet, it is possible that certain individuals may not react affectively-particularly for empathy-in response to venting receipt. For instance, perhaps only employees who are higher on trait levels of perspective taking are able to respond with empathy, as these individuals are better equipped to take the psychological viewpoint of others (Davis 1983; see Footnote 14 for a test we were able to provide of how trait empathy would work as a moderator in our model). Or, it could be the case that those with higher levels of power or perceived status at work are more empathetically reactive to venting (e.g., Djurdjevic et al. 2017), as they may have access to resources that would allow them to offer help that can enact positive change in light of what was vented. ...
The Receipt of Venting at Work: A Multi‐Study Investigation of Affective and Behavioral Reactions for Venting Recipients
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 2024
  • PERS PSYCHOL
As a form of social communication at work, venting—expressing negative feelings about a person or event to others—is fairly ubiquitous. Yet little is known about how those who are the recipients of venting react affectively and behaviorally to this experience at work. To advance our understanding of venting receipt in the workplace, we integrate the archaic view of vicarious emotions into research related to venting at work to develop theory regarding how receiving venting is likely to evoke feelings of personal distress and empathy as employees react to and process this social information. In turn, we theorize that while personal distress leads to venting enactment, empathy leads to helping that can promote more positive social relations, highlighting the double‐edged nature of this phenomenon. Finally, beyond clarifying the theoretical ways that venting recipients react, we also consider how the broader social context—namely, coworker similarity—has the potential to shape these reactions. Across two within‐person field studies, both of which utilize a newly developed measure of venting receipt at work, and a supplemental recall experiment, our research highlights why and when venting at work can have divergent effects on venting recipients.
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... Empathy as "the ability to understand and share the internal states of others" (Saxena et al., 2017, p. 765) is currently regarded in research as a multidimensional construct consisting of affective and cognitive components. This is best represented in the theory of Davis (1980Davis ( , 1983, who describes four aspects of empathy. The affective side of empathy is described by the aspects of Empathic concern (EC) and Personal Distress (PD). ...
IS FANTASY AN AFFECTIVE OR COGNITIVE PART OF EMPATHY? AN ANALYSIS OF THE FANTASY SCALE IN EMPATHY RESEARCH
Article
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  • Nov 2024
The aim of this study was to examine whether fantasy should be categorized as a cognitive or affective factor in empathy measurement. The categorization is not uniform in the literature, so that an empirical test using a representative sample can provide clarity. Our sample consisted of 10,303 subjects aged between 10 and 88 years. We used the German version of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index, the Saarbrücker Persönlichkeitsfragen SPF. The Fantasy Scale has a significantly higher correlation with Empathic Concern and should therefore be assumed to be an affective component of empathy. In addition, our data showed that women had significantly higher FS scores than men, which would also indicate a more affective interpretation of the scale, as women are generally considered to be more affectively empathic. In addition, we were able to demonstrate a significant decrease in Fantasy with increasing age, especially with women, which also points to an affective interpretation.
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Empathy, Kindness, and Dignity in a Connected World
Chapter
Full-text available
  • Dec 2024
Public discourse often contains speculation about the impacts of digital technologies on human empathy, kindness, and dignity. Cases of cyberbullying, online hate speech, and oppressive algorithms contribute to perceptions that digital life is a net negative for human compassion. Research findings paint a more nuanced picture of the ways in which digital technologies can positively support human connection, empathy, kindness, and dignity. This chapter describes what is currently known about the implications of smartphones and social media for empathy, kindness, and dignity, with a particular focus on youth users. We frame findings from current research around a core set of questions: Does the presence of digital technologies in face-to-face interactions compromise empathy? How are digital technologies used in empathic ways? How is digital technology use related to empathy? How does online prosocial behavior benefit youth? How is low empathy related to cyberbullying? How can the state, the tech industry, and educators contribute to creating online environments that facilitate children’s well-being and dignity? We conclude by highlighting open or understudied questions and suggesting high-level recommendations for educators and peer mentors, clinicians, parents, tech designers, and policymakers.
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Social Identification in Times of Crisis: How Need to Belong, Perspective Taking, and Cognitive Closure Relate to Changes in Social Identification
Article
  • Dec 2024
  • J APPL SOC PSYCHOL
In a world shaped by global crises—from pandemics to international armed conflicts to an escalating climate crisis—research into human reactions to and coping with uncertainty is becoming increasingly important. The fundamental role of identification with social groups in maintaining well‐being during times of threat has been emphasized. In this context, the aim of this study was to examine the relationship between interindividual differences— need to belong, perspective taking, need for cognitive closure—and changes in social identification. To test our hypotheses, we conducted a two‐wave online study with a sample of 1008 participants during the COVID‐19 pandemic. We examined changes in social identification in narrow social groups (i.e., family, friends, neighbors) and broader social categories (i.e., own country, Europe, humanity). We found an overall increase in social identification in times of crises across all groups. The results show that need to belong (at Time 1) was positively related to increases in social identification (at Time 2) for all groups, while the positive association between perspective taking (at Time 1) and increases in social identification (at Time 2) was observed for almost all groups except neighbors. Contrary to our expectations, however, the need for cognitive closure (at Time 1) showed no association with changes in identification with any social group (at Time 2). These findings emphasize the importance of interindividual differences for our understanding of changes in social identification over time.
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Investigating the Factor Structure of the Japanese Version of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index
Article
  • Dec 2024
  • JPN PSYCHOL RES
The Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) is widely used to measure empathy; however, the factor structure and scoring of the IRI have been inconsistent. Previous studies showed a bifactor model with empathic concern (EC) and perspective taking (PT) as a better model for the Chinese version of the IRI. This study investigated whether this model was better than other candidate models for the Japanese version of the IRI. In Study 1, we compared the model fit parameters of confirmatory factor analysis using datasets from previous studies. The results showed that the bifactor model with EC and PT was the best among 42 models. Study 2 investigated which concepts were extracted in a bifactor model that was derived from web‐based survey data. Results showed that the general factor in the bifactor model might measure the compound characteristics of both EC and PT. Additionally, the extracted EC factor might measure avoidance of harm to others, and the extracted PT factor might reference inferring others' minds. This study suggests that the bifactor model with EC and PT has the best factor structure and that the extracted factors reflect different aspects of empathy.
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Men’s Empathy Toward Children’s Emotions Across the Transition to Fatherhood
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 2024
We investigated whether men’s affective and cognitive empathy toward children’s emotions changes across the transition to fatherhood. Specifically, we were interested in whether empathy increases with fathering experience. In two preregistered online studies (N = 1,046, primarily from the United Kingdom and the United States), participants’ task was to rate their affective responses to emotional pictures of children (affective empathy) and to recognize children’s emotions from pictures of the eye area (cognitive empathy). In Study 1 (N = 530), we compared childless men, expecting fathers, and fathers. Expecting fathers displayed greater affective empathy toward children than childless men, but they did not differ significantly from fathers. Unexpectedly, fathers exhibited lower cognitive empathy than expecting fathers. Study 2 (N = 516) extended these findings by investigating the impact of different levels of fathering experience among first-time fathers and those with prior parenting experience. Fathers of infants showed more affective empathy than childless men, regardless of prior parenting experience. Fathers with older children had lower cognitive empathy compared to childless men and fathers with infants. These results suggest that expecting fathers and fathers with a new infant may exhibit increased affective empathy to children’s emotions. More experienced fathers and fathers of older children may have become accustomed to childcare, necessitating less intensive engagement to child signals. Future longitudinal studies are needed to determine whether empathy toward children’s emotions shows within-person fluctuations during the transition to fatherhood instead of steadily increasing.
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Training emotional competencies at the workplace: a systematic review and metaanalysis
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 2024
Recent systematic reviews have shown that emotional competencies can be improved through training. In the workplace, such training has become increasingly popular over the last decade. These programs aim to enhance emotional intelligence, empathy or emotion regulation. This study wants to assess the training effects and potential moderators of these workplace interventions. To our knowledge, this is the first systematic review that focuses on the workplace context and integrates emotional intelligence, empathy, and emotion regulation training interventions. This study has been preregistered with PROSPERO and a protocol has been published before the review was conducted (CRD42021267073). We conducted a systematic literature search using Embase, PsycInfo, PSYNDEX, Web of Science and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials. The included studies were analyzed in two metaanalyses. In the primary analysis, we analyzed standardized mean changes in emotional competencies before and after the training for 50 included studies, depending on (a) training construct and (b) participants’ profession (teachers, health professionals, managers, and others). To determine the efficacy of the trainings, we conducted a separate metaanalysis of controlled trials only (k = 27). Both metaanalyses yielded moderate overall effect sizes that also persisted more than three months after the training end: (1) SMDpre-post = 0.44 (95% CI [0.29, 0.59]), (2) SMDEG-CG = 0.46 (95% CI [0.30, 0.63]). All professions benefited equally from the interventions and we observed no significant differences in the effectiveness of emotional intelligence, empathy, and emotion regulation trainings. Overall, our results suggest that workplace interventions effectively train emotional competencies, regardless of profession or specific training focus. Limitations are the high heterogeneity and the low methodological quality of the studies analyzed. Our study shows the need for more high-quality studies, like randomized controlled trials. Additionally, companies may consider incorporating emotional competence training into their employee and leadership development programs routinely. This study was preregistered on PROSPERO (CRD42021267073). Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40359-024-02198-3.
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The Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale: Concurrent and discriminate validity evidence
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 1980
The development of an adequate assessment instrument is a necessary prerequisite for social psychological research on loneliness. Two studies provide methodological refinement in the measurement of loneliness. Study 1 presents a revised version of the self-report UCLA (University of California, Los Angeles) Loneliness Scale, designed to counter the possible effects of response bias in the original scale, and reports concurrent validity evidence for the revised measure. Study 2 demonstrates that although loneliness is correlated with measures of negative affect, social risk taking, and affiliative tendencies, it is nonetheless a distinct psychological experience.
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Perspective-Taking, Self-Consciousness, and Accuracy in Person Perception
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 1982
Past difficulties in demonstrating a link between accuracy in person perception and "empathy" are reviewed. The advantages of a forced choice accuracy assessment technique, in which observers view target subjects on video tape and then attempt to match targets with three-word self-descriptions, are discussed. Two studies designed to validate the method were performed. In both studies observers' accuracy in matching targets with self-descriptions exceeded chance. The effects on accuracy of observers' perspective-taking ability and targets' self-consciousness were also explored. Study I revealed that subjects scoring high on a measure of perspective-taking (Davis, 1980) were more accurate than low perspective-takers as predicted. Study II showed that target subjects high in private self-consciousness (Fenigstein, Scheier, & Buss, 1975) were more easily matched with their self-descriptions than were targets low in private self-consciousness. Study II also showed that the effects on accuracy of both observers' perspective-taking abilities and targets' selfconsciousness were related to the length of time targets were observed. The theoretical connections between perspective-taking and both stereotype and differential accuracy are discussed.
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Empathic mediation of helping: A two-stage model
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 1978
Proposes a 2-stage model of empathic mediation of helping behavior, which holds that taking the perspective of a person in need increases empathic emotion; this in turn increases helping. Ss in 2 experiments learned of another person's need from taped radio broadcasts and were subsequently given an opportunity to offer help to that person. The experiments used different strategies for manipulating empathic emotional response to the other's plight. In Exp I, using 44 male and female undergraduates, the empathic emotion of some Ss was experimentally reduced by a misattribution of arousal technique; in Exp II, using 33 female undergraduates, the empathic emotion of some Ss was experimentally increased by a false feedback of arousal technique. Results of each experiment support the proposed model. Ss who experienced the most empathic emotion also offered the most help. Results of Exp I indicate that perspective taking did not directly affect helping; it affected helping only through its effect on empathic emotion. Motivational implications are discussed. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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An analysis of the Self-Monitoring Scale
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 1980
A factor analysis of the Self-Monitoring Scale yielded 3 replicated factors: Acting, Extraversion, and Other-Directedness. Acting includes being good at and liking to speak and entertain. Other-Directedness is a willingness to change one's behavior to suit other people, and Extraversion is self-explanatory. Other-Directedness correlates positively with Shyness and Neuroticism and negatively with Self-Esteem. Extraversion correlates negatively with Shyness and positively with Self-Esteem and Sociability. Two of the scale's 3 factors, therefore, have opposite patterns of correlations with other personality dimensions. The 3 factors help to explain certain discrepancies found in previous research with the Self-Monitoring Scale. For future research, it is suggested that scores for each of the factors are more appropriate than full scale scores. It is concluded that there may be a gap between the construct of Self-Monitoring and the way it is operationalized in the scale. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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