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Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach

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Describes the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) and its relationships with measures of social functioning, self-esteem, emotionality, and sensitivity to others. 677 male and 667 female undergraduates served as Ss. Each of the 4 IRI subscales displayed a distinctive and predictable pattern of relationships with these measures, as well as with previous unidimensional empathy measures. Findings provide evidence for a multidimensional approach to empathy. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
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... Research has consistently demonstrated that theory of mind abilities are pivotal for developing and maintaining social relationships, particularly during childhood (Dunn and Cutting, 1999;Peterson et al., 2016;Etel and Slaughter, 2019; for reviews see Repacholi and Slaughter, 2003;Haddock and Birch, 2024). Evidence on the relationship between theory of mind and social competencies in adults, however, has been somewhat more mixed (Bora and Berk, 2016;Davis, 1983;Livingston et al., 2024;Wolgast et al., 2020). Generally speaking, individual differences in theory of mind are present early and continue into adulthood, with more advanced theory of mind predicting several positive outcomes (Dunn and Cutting, 1999;Repacholi and Slaughter, 2003). ...
... Generally speaking, individual differences in theory of mind are present early and continue into adulthood, with more advanced theory of mind predicting several positive outcomes (Dunn and Cutting, 1999;Repacholi and Slaughter, 2003). For example, higher theory of mind scores are associated with greater social understanding, higher levels of empathy, and more prosocial behavior, leading to reduced interpersonal conflicts and increased relationship satisfaction (e.g., Davis, 1983;Repacholi and Slaughter, 2003; for two meta-analyses see Imuta et al., 2016;Slaughter et al., 2015). Similarly, more advanced theory of mind has been associated with increased cooperation (Etel and Slaughter, 2019) as well as increased communication and reduced peer conflict (Dunn and Cutting, 1999;Haddock and Birch, 2024). ...
... Our empathy-related outcomes were measured through both self-report and behavioural testing. The self-report measure utilized in this study included subscales measuring perspective-taking, empathic concern, the tendency to identify with fictional characters, personal distress, and awareness of both emotional and behavioural contagion (Davis, 1983;Jordan et al., 2016). The behavioural task involved measurement of emotional contagion elicited by viewing affective film clips. ...
... The Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI; Davis, 1983) and Empathy Index (Jordan et al., 2016) were combined into a 42-item measure of empathy and related constructs (the IRI/EI). The IRI includes four subscales: perspective-taking (PT), measuring the ability to adopt the point of view of another; empathic concern (EC), measuring the ability to feel concern for another in need; fantasy (FS), measuring the tendency to imagine scenarios described in narrative works and how the characters might feel; and personal distress (PD), measuring the tendency to feel uncomfortable in tense interpersonal situations. ...
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Background: Exposure to childhood emotional abuse amplifies the personality traits of alexithymia and sensory processing sensitivity (SPS) and impacts empathy. Objective: This study investigated if alexithymia, SPS positive traits, and/or SPS negative traits mediate the relationship between childhood emotional abuse and both emotional contagion measured behaviourally and self-reported empathy. Materials and methods: A sample of 190 university students (M age = 19.92 years) completed self-report measures of empathy and a behavioural task measuring emotional contagion elicited by viewing affective films. Multiple parallel mediation analyses were run to determine if the personality variables mediated the links between abuse and empathy-related outcome measures. Results: The relationship between childhood emotional abuse and each of the self-report empathy subscales was mediated by personality, although the strength and direction of the effects varied across the three trait clusters. In the behavioural task, aspects of SPS mediated the relationships between emotional abuse and the strength of the primary emotion felt during viewing of positive and negative films; and alexithymia mediated the relationship between emotional abuse and the number of discrete emotions felt during viewing of negative films. Conclusions: The findings provide important insights into how childhood exposure to emotional abuse can impact personality development and, indirectly, the development of empathy. They also highlight the importance of considering the relative strength of specific traits associated with both alexithymia and SPS when trying to predict individual differences in empathy. The results may inform the development of individualized intervention programs targeting empathic deficits.
... Empathy, defined in general terms as the ability to understand and share another person's emotional experience [119,120], has often been considered by social scientists as the key to altruism and intergroup harmony [121,122]. Empathy in its two interrelated cognitive and affective components [120] drives helpful behaviors, which is why environmental researchers have come to believe that empathy for nature may be essential to conservation efforts. ...
... Empathy, defined in general terms as the ability to understand and share another person's emotional experience [119,120], has often been considered by social scientists as the key to altruism and intergroup harmony [121,122]. Empathy in its two interrelated cognitive and affective components [120] drives helpful behaviors, which is why environmental researchers have come to believe that empathy for nature may be essential to conservation efforts. However, empathy is not the same as compassion. ...
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This study highlights the lack of research on the relationship between ecosystem services, climate change, and human well-being. The experiences with the COVID-19 pandemic show the value of the natural environment for people’s well-being. We propose a framework that fosters an integrative approach to enhance our connection with nature, which is vital for tackling current environmental challenges. We reviewed over 70 articles and 160 references from databases such as Elsevier, ScienceDirect, Dialnet, MDPI, and Taylor & Francis, focusing on the correlation between pro-environmental behavior and emotional bonds with nature. Increasing our awareness of nature is crucial for fostering sustainable ecosystems. To deepen our understanding of how this connection influences human well-being and ecosystem health, we advocate for the application of specific neuroscience and artificial intelligence techniques. The study presents a compendium of prospective research topics for future investigation and analysis. In particular, it underscores the significance of this research for the development of effective policy and practical applications in the realm of conservation efforts.
... In this study, the content oriented-coding scheme is generated and divided into categories. Based on the previous researches (Batson, Fultz & Schoenrade, 1987;Davis, 1980;Davis, 1983;Davis, 1996;Dökmen, 1988;Grynberg & Pollatos, 2015;Mehrabian & Epstein, 1972;Strayer, 1987) cognitive empathic expressions that are related with 'perspective taking' are categorized into four sub-scales as; cognitive empathy understanding (CEu), cognitive empathy analyzing (CEa), cognitive empathy evaluating (CEe) and cognitive empathy remembering (CEr). Affective empathic expressions that are related with 'empathic concern' are categorized into four sub-scales as; affective empathy arousal (AEa), affective empathy compassion (AEc), affective empathy distress (AEd) and affective empathy valuing (AEv). ...
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Design students should be able to design living environments and products according to diverse users’ needs, problems and expectations. The aim of this research is to explore the role of empathy as a design learning tool in interior architecture education. Moreover, the intention is to determine and analyze the reflections after the role-playing technique is experienced. This study is conducted with the graduate design students and three tasks were assigned to them. In the first task, the students took visually impaired people’s role and acted in real-life activities in a café. Then, they expressed their role-playing reflections and design reflections through semi-structured interviews. Lastly, Verbal Protocol Analysis is used in determining and categorizing the relevant affective and cognitive empathic expressions that were recorded. Color and light, orientation, safety and accessibility were mostly expressed as design issues in reflections. Furthermore, findings indicated that cognitive empathic expressions were widely used than affective expressions.
... EC functions as a resource multiplier through several mechanisms identified in COR theory. When individuals possess higher EC, they more effectively utilize their existing resources, particularly in social contexts (Davis, 1983). This enhanced resource utilization occurs because EC encompasses both cognitive and affective components, including perspective-taking and empathic concern (Decety and Jackson, 2004), which facilitate more efficient social resource development processes. ...
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Objective This study investigated how belief in a just world (BJW) influences prosocial behavior tendency (PBT) through psychological resilience (PR), and examined how empathic capacity (EC) moderates this mediation process. Method Data were collected from 955 Chinese university students (Mage = 19.5 years, SD = 1.3; 65.6% female) using validated scales measuring BJW, PBT, PR, and EC. Results Three key findings emerged: (1) BJW positively predicted PBT both directly ( β = 0.301, p < 0.001) and indirectly through PR; (2) EC moderated the relationship between BJW and PR, with the positive association being stronger for individuals with lower EC ( b = 0.45, p < 0.001) compared to those with higher EC ( b = 0.23, p < 0.01); (3) The indirect effect of BJW on PBT through PR was stronger for individuals with lower EC, indicating a moderated mediation effect. Conclusion These findings advance our understanding of prosocial behavior by identifying distinct pathways through which beliefs and emotional capacities interact. The results suggest that interventions to promote prosocial behavior should be tailored based on individual differences in empathic capacity, with different approaches needed for high versus low EC individuals.
... Martingano and Konrath (2022) reported positive correlations between rational thinking indicators, such as the Need for Cognition Scale (NFC), and dimensions of cognitive empathy, such as perspective-taking (r = 0.33; p < .001), measured using Davis' (1983) Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI). Conversely, when examining rational performance using the Cognitive Reflection Task (CRT), negative correlations were observed with emotional empathy dimensions, such as Personal Distress (PD; r = −0.13, ...
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This study examines the relationships between critical thinking, metacognition, psychological well-being, and empathy using structural equation modeling. The study sample consists of 155 university students from a higher education institution in Spain, who completed the PENCRISAL, the metacognitive abilities inventory, the Ryff psychological well-being scale, and the empathy quotient, which assess these psychological constructs. The results indicate that critical thinking has a direct positive effect on metacognition, which, in turn, is significantly associated with higher levels of psychological well-being and empathy. These findings reinforce the essential role of critical thinking in fostering cognitive self-regulation and socioemotional competencies. Furthermore, this study provides empirical evidence supporting the integration of critical thinking into educational programs, emphasizing its potential to enhance reflective thinking, emotional awareness, and interpersonal understanding.
Chapter
AI is increasingly shaping critical sectors such as healthcare, education, commerce, and governance, offering advancements in efficiency, predictive accuracy, and personalised solutions. However, its rapid adoption raises ethical concerns, particularly regarding biases embedded in AI systems. These biases stem from data used to train machine learning models, reflecting implicit ontological, psychological, cognitive, and cultural assumptions. As such, AI biases perpetuate structural inequalities and reinforce historical discrimination. This chapter explores the urgent need for global frameworks to mitigate AI bias, highlighting policy initiatives to address these challenges. It then shifts to an interdisciplinary perspective, proposing empathy as a tool for tackling AI bias. Drawing on Baron-Cohen's Empathizing-Systemizing theory, the chapter argues that fostering empathy in AI development strengthens accountability and trust, essential for ethical AI deployment. Gender-balanced teams, with greater empathy emphasis, can offer solutions to reduce bias, supporting equitable AI systems.
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Purpose Some studies have highlighted the presence and persistence of suicidal ideation (thoughts) among individuals convicted of intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration immediately after receiving their sentence. This calls for an exploration of the variables that can explain the emergence of these types of thoughts. For example, it seems that borderline and antisocial personality traits among these men are strongly associated with these types of thoughts. However, it would also be necessary to explore the moderating role of empathic alterations, cognitive flexibility, and/or impulsivity to characterize which profile of men convicted of IPV perpetration tends to experience suicidal ideation after receiving their IPV conviction. Methods he main objective of this study was to assess whether borderline or antisocial personality traits were associated with suicidal ideation before starting the mandatory intervention program for men convicted of IPV perpetration (n = 602). In addition, the study analyzes whether these associations are moderated by empathic ability (cognitive and emotional), cognitive flexibility (measured with Wisconsin card sorting test), and self-reported impulsivity. Results Our results allowed us to conclude that men who have perpetrated IPV and presented moderate or high levels of borderline personality traits exhibited higher levels of suicidal ideation, especially among those with moderate or high scores in personal distress (or the tendency to experience suffering or discomfort in emotional distressing situations) and impulsivity. Conclusions hese results highlight the psychological characteristics of men convicted of IPV perpetration with an increased risk of suicidal ideation when confronted with distressing emotional situations. This knowledge could help design specific therapeutic modules to avoid the fatal consequences of the persistence of these thoughts.
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The development of an adequate assessment instrument is a necessary prerequisite for social psychological research on loneliness. Two studies provide methodological refinement in the measurement of loneliness. Study 1 presents a revised version of the self-report UCLA (University of California, Los Angeles) Loneliness Scale, designed to counter the possible effects of response bias in the original scale, and reports concurrent validity evidence for the revised measure. Study 2 demonstrates that although loneliness is correlated with measures of negative affect, social risk taking, and affiliative tendencies, it is nonetheless a distinct psychological experience.
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Past difficulties in demonstrating a link between accuracy in person perception and "empathy" are reviewed. The advantages of a forced choice accuracy assessment technique, in which observers view target subjects on video tape and then attempt to match targets with three-word self-descriptions, are discussed. Two studies designed to validate the method were performed. In both studies observers' accuracy in matching targets with self-descriptions exceeded chance. The effects on accuracy of observers' perspective-taking ability and targets' self-consciousness were also explored. Study I revealed that subjects scoring high on a measure of perspective-taking (Davis, 1980) were more accurate than low perspective-takers as predicted. Study II showed that target subjects high in private self-consciousness (Fenigstein, Scheier, & Buss, 1975) were more easily matched with their self-descriptions than were targets low in private self-consciousness. Study II also showed that the effects on accuracy of both observers' perspective-taking abilities and targets' selfconsciousness were related to the length of time targets were observed. The theoretical connections between perspective-taking and both stereotype and differential accuracy are discussed.
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Proposes a 2-stage model of empathic mediation of helping behavior, which holds that taking the perspective of a person in need increases empathic emotion; this in turn increases helping. Ss in 2 experiments learned of another person's need from taped radio broadcasts and were subsequently given an opportunity to offer help to that person. The experiments used different strategies for manipulating empathic emotional response to the other's plight. In Exp I, using 44 male and female undergraduates, the empathic emotion of some Ss was experimentally reduced by a misattribution of arousal technique; in Exp II, using 33 female undergraduates, the empathic emotion of some Ss was experimentally increased by a false feedback of arousal technique. Results of each experiment support the proposed model. Ss who experienced the most empathic emotion also offered the most help. Results of Exp I indicate that perspective taking did not directly affect helping; it affected helping only through its effect on empathic emotion. Motivational implications are discussed. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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A factor analysis of the Self-Monitoring Scale yielded 3 replicated factors: Acting, Extraversion, and Other-Directedness. Acting includes being good at and liking to speak and entertain. Other-Directedness is a willingness to change one's behavior to suit other people, and Extraversion is self-explanatory. Other-Directedness correlates positively with Shyness and Neuroticism and negatively with Self-Esteem. Extraversion correlates negatively with Shyness and positively with Self-Esteem and Sociability. Two of the scale's 3 factors, therefore, have opposite patterns of correlations with other personality dimensions. The 3 factors help to explain certain discrepancies found in previous research with the Self-Monitoring Scale. For future research, it is suggested that scores for each of the factors are more appropriate than full scale scores. It is concluded that there may be a gap between the construct of Self-Monitoring and the way it is operationalized in the scale. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)