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| Trans-boundary human-elephant conflict in the Indo-Nepal Terai Landscape |
TRANS-BOUNDARY HUMAN-ELEPHANT CONFLICT IN THE
INDO-NEPAL TERAI LANDSCAPE by Jayanta Kumar Mallick
Introduction
In northern West Bengal (India), the habitat of
the endangered Indian elephant (Elephas
maximus indicus Cuvier, 1798) lies in Darjeeling
(terai) and Jalpaiguri (duars) districts spread over
1,828.35 km2 of forests (Elephant Census, 2010)
and divided by major rivers into three zones: 1)
Terai (Mechi-Teesta) - 339.96 km2; 2) Western
duars (Teesta-Torsa) - 482.54 km2; and 3) Eastern
duars (Torsa-Sankosh) - 1,005.85 km2.
The east-west ecological range of the terai
elephant population extends from the Teesta char
(Baikunthapur Division) through Mahananda
Wildlife Sanctuary (MWLS) under Wildlife
Division-I and southern forests of Kurseong
Division, up to Bahundangi Village Development
Council, Jhapa district, Nepal, on the western
border. In recent years, this landscape,
interspersed with human habitations, has become
an extensive human-elephant conflict (HEC) zone
in terms of human mortality, crop depredations and
loss of properties.
Study area
The study area, lying between the Teesta
catchment area and Bahundangi across the Mechi,
is the westernmost elephant habitat and impact
zone. The only protected area (PA) in this zone is
MWLS (Latitude 26°23’33" - 26°47’54" North;
Longitude 88°23’36" - 88°23’31" East) covering
158.04 km2, with National Highway 31A (Siliguri-
Gangtok) on the east, National Highway 55
(Siliguri-Darjeeling) on the west, the plains of
Laltong to the south and Latpanchar of Kurseong
hills to the north at elevations of 150–1,150 m
above sea level.
The forest types are riverain Khair-Sisoo-Simul,
Eastern Bhabar Sal, Eastern Terai Sal, Lower Hill
Sal and Pure Sal, intervened by Dry Mixed, Wet
Mixed, Lower Hill Dry Mixed, Lower Hill Wet
Mixed and Middle Hill forests. These forests are
dotted with many forest/revenue villages, military
cantonments and tea garden (TG) colonies. A 12
km segment of the broad-gauge railway track
(Siliguri– Alipurduar) cuts through MWLS
(Gulma-Sevoke). Across the Nepal border, the 54
km2 area of densely populated Bahundangi
(Latitude 26°74´ North; Longitude 88°16´ East) is
situated at an altitudinal range of 125–381 m above
sea level. The forest is thin and fragmented without
any carrying capacity to contain a large elephant
herd.
Justification of the study
North Bengal is an age-old HEC area (O’Malley,
1907; Fawcus, 1943; Lahiri-Choudhury, 1975; Bist,
1977; Lahiri-Choudhury and Bardhan Roy, 1983;
Santiapillai and Jackson, 1990; Dey, 1991; Barua,
1995; Barua and Bist, 1995; Bist, 1996; Singhal,
1996; Chowdhury et al., 1997; Bist, 1998; Datta
Roy, 2003; Sukumar et al., 2003; Mangave, 2004;
Venkataraman et al., 2005; Roy et al., 2009). A
few literatures also highlight the HEC in
Bahundangi, Jhapa (Velde, 1997; Yadav, 2002;
Bhandari, 2004; Shrestha, 2007). But no exclusive
account is available for the whole of the Indo-
Nepal terai region, which is considered a ‘high
conflict zone’ during recent years.
One of the important problems identified by the
Elephant Task Force (Ministry of Environment and
Forests, India) in the conservation of elephants is
the lack of sufficient research on conflict–related
issues that can inform action on the ground
(Shahabuddin, 2010). Hence, a one-year study on
the status of HEC was conducted in the terai during
2010 with the assistance of the local forest
department staff to bridge this knowledge-gap.
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Vol. 39: No. 4 October-December 2012
Methods
Information was obtained from published literature,
newspaper reports and records available from the
Forest Department. Primary data were collected
through field surveys, interviews with the local
villagers and departmental staff.
Results and discussion
The home range of the terai elephant population
is about 500 km2. Two (eastern and western)
important elephant corridors have been identified
within this range (Tiwari, 2005):
(1) Apalchand–Teesta char–Mahananda (Lat
26°47´–26°49´ N, Long 88°31´–88°35´ E).
Length: 10–11 km; width: 3 km; settlements:
Naya basti (200 houses), labour lines of TGs,
Laltong (18 houses), Shaugaon (200 houses)
and Dhumsigara village. Used by bulls and
large herds of 40–80 elephants during July–
November (Route: Apalchand RF–river Gish
(near Gazaldoba)–Sonali TG–river Lish–
Kolagaiti TG–river Teesta–Laltong RF).
(2) Mahananda–Kolabari (Lat 26°46´–26°48´ N,
long 88°11´–88°19´ E). Length: 1.2-13 km;
width: 1–1.5 km; settlements: Mahananda-
Mechi Terai (225–230 families), Nepunia basti
(500–600 families), Owaldangi (70 families),
Tukra basti (35 families), Chenga basti, Srasath
Seema Bal (SSB) army camp and labour
colonies of tea gardens. Used by bulls and
herds during maize (May to July) and paddy
(October to February) seasons (Route:
Mahananda–Lamagumba RF (near
Sukiakhola)–Rohini TG–Bamanpokhri RF–
Garidhura TG–Balason extension forests–
river Balason [near Hatidhura]–Tartari RF–
Barachenga–Belgachia– Nipania–Ashapur
TGs–Kolabari RF–river Mechi–Nepal or
Tukriajhar RF via Bengdubi–Naxalbari–
Uttam Chander Chat forests].
HEC in the Darjeeling terai has a century-old
history. O’Malley (1907) first recorded the
movement of a herd of at least 30 elephants into
Nepal by crossing rivers Teesta, Mahananda,
Balason and Mechi. “… south of the district is
infested by wild elephants, sweeping through it in
large herds or roaming singly (which) are a
veritable scourge to the people; and for the last
few years, the Tarai has had a melancholy record
of persons killed, crops destroyed and villages
ruined by them. Indeed, the depredations of these
animals in this part of the district have become so
serious a menace to life and property that there is
a danger of much of the land being thrown out of
cultivation and relapsing into jungle.”
Fawcus (1943) reported that the large herds of
the region had become smaller and less numerous
due to encroachment for tea cultivation and
agriculture. He, however, made no reference to
herds operating west of the Teesta and the
migration of elephants into Nepal. It may be
inferred that at that time either this migration had
ceased to occur or the amount of depredations
was minimal.
In north Bengal, the pocketed elephants used to
change their locations (ranges) with the passage
of time to adapt themselves to the changing
environment, by moving on to new areas and
adopting new routes (Barua and Bist, 1995).
During the mid-twentieth century, elephants were
reportedly sighted in Kurseong Division only during
the summer months. The Annual Report of the
Wildlife Preservation (1955-56) recorded the
presence of only ten elephants in Sukna and Sevoke
ranges of Mahananda (Game) Sanctuary. There
was no report of any residential elephant population
in this PA during 1957-1967. Guhathakurta (1966)
recorded elephant–encounters in Mahananda, but
did not mention the population status. The
elephants were, however, more common in the
eastern part of the river Teesta, where the habitat
was extended up to Bhutan through Kalimpong
(Guhathakurta, 1964).
There were no records of big herds of elephants
west of the river Teesta until the early 1970s (Dey,
1991). Lahiri-Choudhury (1975) quoted Prakritish
Chandra Barua (Lalji)’s report about occasional
movement of a small herd numbering about 12
elephants between Kurseong and Nepal. During
1971-81, 117 elephants, forming over 40% of their
population, were captured in north Bengal (Bist,
1998). But instead of mitigation, the problem
worsened in 1980s (Dey, 1991). It was observed
that factors such as habitat loss and biotic
interferences rather than the overpopulation were
| Trans-boundary human-elephant conflict in the Indo-Nepal Terai Landscape |
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responsible for the depredations (Barua, 1995).
Hence, such capture was stopped.
Since the mela shikar (elephant capture) was
confined mostly to the terrain east to the river
Teesta, the elephant herds from this zone started
moving towards the west. They became isolated
in MWLS and were frequently found in Kurseong
Division, leading to frequent depredations in the
civil areas. Tukriajhar Reserve Forest (RF) along
with Uttam Chandar Chant RF (southernmost
habitat in Darjeeling district) and Jhapa comprise
a seasonal elephant movement zone. This has led
to serious HEC from 1974-75 onwards.
In 1977-78, a herd of 60 elephants migrated to
Nepal through Panighata by crossing the river
Mechi, but soon returned to India due to military
intervention (Bahuguna and Mallick, 2010). Since
July 1978, as many as 5 elephants were captured
and 4 killed as rogues in Kurseong Division; 13
human beings were killed by elephants. Once
again, in November 1980, elephant depredations
became a serous issue in Naxalbari, where for
two months a herd of around 60 elephants would
take shelter during the day in the isolated forest
patch of around 22 ha (Uttam Chandar Chant)
and used to raid crops at night in the surrounding
villages (Lahiri Choudhury and Bardhan Roy,
1983).
Trained elephants (kunkis) were successfully
deployed in November 1980 and August 1981 to
chase away the marauding elephant herds
pocketed in Kurseong Division to MWLS - about
20 km away - after which no serious depredations
took place in the terai during the twentieth century.
Since the 1980s, the practice of converting the
natural forests into monoculture plantations of
commercially valuable species was stopped and
habitat improvement works like plantations of
fodder (bamboo and grasses like Saccharam sp.)
were taken up in MWLS. The sanctuary was
also extended by 30.82 km2 in 1996 by including
parts of Laltong block of Baikunthapur Division.
As a result, elephant herds again started
frequenting the terai landscape and one small herd
became resident in MWLS.
Santiapillai and Jackson (1990) identified the
elephant population west of the river Torsa as being
the most seriously threatened, but did not record
any observations on the terai population. In fact,
the elephant population of MWLS and surrounding
Kurseong forests appears to be fluctuating because
of their inherent trend to migrate seasonally from
one forest to another. An estimation during
November 1990 recorded a congregation of herds
of 102 elephants on the Teesta char
(Chamukhdanga/Laltong), but recorded only 8
elephants in MWLS and 5 solitaries in Bagdogra
Range of Kurseong Division (Dey, 1991). The
elephant census figure for 1993 increased to 50 in
MWLS. In April 2000, its population was reduced
to 37 (5 loners– two tuskers, one left tusker, two
maknas (tuskless males)– and two herds with 27
and 5 elephants respectively) in MWLS. Yadav
(2002) assessed the trans-boundary elephant
population as 50-75, including 15 tuskers and 7
calves. On 25th April 2005, 55 elephants were
counted in the terai. The 2007 census recorded
only about a dozen elephants in MWLS, indicating
dispersal of most of the elephants to the adjacent
habitats. However, the census in November 2010
estimated the terai elephant population as 83,
distributed in Baikunthapur (123.96 km2), Wildlife–
I (Mahananda 152.96 km2) and Kurseong (63.04
km2) Divisions. There were 17 elephants (11 adult
males, 3 adult females, 1 of unknown sex and 2
calves in Kurseong Division.
In December 2005, it was reported in the 3rd
Steering Committee meeting of the CITES MIKE
South Asia Programme that around 70 elephants,
originating from Mahananda, caused extensive
depredations in surrounding areas and also in
bordering villages in Nepal. About 50,000 people
were reportedly affected by these incursions and
30-50 people were killed by the elephants. Crop
and property loss due to elephant depredations was
valued at $50,000. The HEC is still continuing in
the study area and the impact was assessed during
the present study.
In all, 49 elephant mortalities were recorded in the
study area up to 2010 due to collisions with trains
(16), poaching (1), bullet injuries (16), electrocution
(10), poisoning (5) and elimination of rogues (1).
It appears that during the twentieth century, except
| Trans-boundary human-elephant conflict in the Indo-Nepal Terai Landscape |
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for one case, all other mortalities were due to
collision with the trains passing through
Mahananda.
The number of human beings killed by the elephants
in and around Wildlife-I and Kurseong Divisions
was 84 during 2003-2010. Up to 2010, 26 people
were also reportedly killed in Bahundangi by
elephants (Kuldip Giri, Secretary, Bahundangi
Village Development Committee, pers. comm.).
Besides, many more elephants and human
beingswere injured, a huge number of huts were
damaged and a large quantum of standing crops
destroyed. Compensation was paid by Wildlife-I
and Kurseong Divisions. The amounts disbursed
during 2008–2009 and 2009–2010 (Table 1) show
increased (60.27%) payment in Kurseong Division,
but reduced payments (20.56%) in Wildlife
Division-I.
Items Wildlife Division-I Kurseong Forest Division
2008-09 2009-10 2008-09 2009-10
Persons killed - 1 1 14
Persons injured - 3 7 18
Compensation paid
for human death
and injury
- 110,570.00 225,000.00 4,91,447.00
Livestock killed 1 4 - 9
Compensation paid
for li vestock killed 700.00 2,500 - 6,300.00
Hut damage 29 54 774 195
Compensation paid
for hut damage 2,18,250.00 58,400.00 386,900.00 553,200.00
Crop damage (ha) 10.000 90.000 122.025 95.500
Compensation paid
for crop damage 99,500.00 81,500.00 488,100.00 712,053.00
Total
compensation 318,450.00 252,970.00 1,100,000.00 1,763,000.00
| Trans-boundary human-elephant conflict in the Indo-Nepal Terai Landscape |
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was also brought from Bankura (south Bengal) to
expedite the driving operation. Herds were often
prevented from entering Nepal through intensive
patrolling along the river Mechi in November-
December, when farmers harvest their second
crop. But, due to heavy rains during the monsoon,
when the entire terrain becomes inaccessible to
vehicles, it is difficult to control their movement.
In addition, there were frequent political
disturbances in the region during the last few
years.
The Nepal police were approached for help and
cooperation through the SSB. Some informal
contacts were made during 2007 with the villagers
on the Nepal side with the help of some NGOs
(WWF-Nepal) and FPCs to sensitise them towards
protecting elephants. Some search lights and
firecrackers were given to the villagers to help
them keep elephants away from their croplands.
But this arrangement did not appear to work. As
far as conservation initiatives in Jhapa are
concerned, some activities were undertaken by
the District Forest Office, District Development
Committee, Village Development Committee and
District Administrative office. The local people
have also formed an organization called ‘Hatti
Niyantran Committee’ in order to tackle the HEC.
However, more effective integrated conservation
activities are lacking in the study area.
Conclusions
For managing elephant populations moving across
the Indo-Nepal border, preparation and
implementation of a joint action plan by the forest
departments of West Bengal and Nepal is
essential. There is also need for better coordination
among the forest officers of West Bengal (DFOs/
Wildlife Division I and Kurseong Division) and
DFO/Jhapa in Nepal to share information about
movement of elephant herds, existence of problem
elephants and activities of elephant poachers.
Trans-boundary meetings between Nepal and
India at the local level with respect to HEC should
be carried out regularly, at least every month during
the crop season. Radio-telemetry should be used
on a few elephants moving across the border for
giving advance warning to the forest staff and
villagers. A special elephant squad, along with a
Human-elephant conflicts have been going on for
generations in the study area, but there were no
reports of any retaliatory killing of the elephants
in the twentieth century; however, such incidences
have increased during the last few years. To curb
the elephant depredations, the local people in Jhapa,
Nepal have started killing the marauding elephants
by poisoning, electrocution and shooting
(Bahuguna & Mallick, 2010). Regular attacks and
firing on these migratory elephants have made the
animals hostile, increasing the risk of conflict in
the border areas in both the countries. Some have
been hit by ‘sophisticated bullets’ by the army/
police personnel of Nepal and the rest with crude
bullets, arrows and spears by the villagers.
The villagers have also taken up other measures
to cope with the HEC like chasing the elephants
with fire torches, setting off firecrackers, erecting
machans to keep regular watch and ward to guard
their crop fields, etc. Unfortunately, these measures
do not appear to be very effective.
The negative attitude of the affected people in
Darjeeling has been comparatively reduced
because the economic loss is compensated by
Wildlife-I and Kurseong Divisions, but no such
compensation is paid for depredations in Jhapa,
Nepal. Consequently, retaliatory killing of the crop-
raiders to reduce the number of problem elephants
is on the rise along the eastern boundary of Jhapa
district. It was observed that the villagers in Nepal
have been trying to prevent incursions of elephants
by using electrified wires, leading to the mortality
of some elephants. Elephants are also killed by
the Nepal police or BSF personnel at the insistence
of the harrassed villagers. The lack of participatory
conservation and development activities in this
vulnerable zone has led to such intolerant and
negative attitudes of the villagers.
Extensive efforts are also being made to keep the
elephants away from the river Mechi and confined
within the Indian territories by means of energized
fences, mobile squads, and driving the elephants
by the FPC members, forest staff and
departmental elephants (kunkis). A team of
mahuts, kunkis and experienced staff from
Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary was also sent to help
the local staff of Kurseong Division. A hulla party
(experts in elephant-driving) comprising 15 persons
| Trans-boundary human-elephant conflict in the Indo-Nepal Terai Landscape |
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Vol. 39: No. 4 October-December 2012
trained and efficient hulla-party, may be stationed
permanently at a convenient location nearer to the
problem area for driving the elephant herds back
to the designated area. Help of the SSB posted in
the locality (e.g., Tarabari camp), may also be
sought for this purpose. Army authorities should
also be approached for extending help and
cooperation at the time of exigency.
Awareness programmes among the local farmers
should be arranged by the forest departments of
both Nepal and West Bengal. Local NGOs may
volunteer to tackle HEC by actively participating
in such efforts of community participation as well
as monitoring and mitigation initiatives. Each local
village guarding group and the farmers should be
trained how to control and drive elephants from
their crop fields. The police and forest department
personnel should also be included in such groups.
Devices to frighten the elephants and night vision
binoculars should be provided to the driving teams.
Suitable infrastructure should be constructed for
controlling the crop raiders like watch towers,
electrified barriers, solar fencing and dyke
construction along the bank of river Mechi.
Permanent barriers (mechanical/elephant-proof
trenches) should be used in the vulnerable areas
for containing elephants within the designated
areas.
Moreover, the farmers may be encouraged to grow
alternate cash crops not liked by the elephants
such as tea, lemon, chilly, etc., instead of the
agricultural crops, particularly along the river bank,
and cultivation of staple foods (elephants fodder
species). The modalities for payment of
compensation for crop depredations, property
damage, human casualties and injuries in Jhapa,
Nepal, must be worked out. The transboundary
nature of elephant movements can only be
controlled through effective HEC management and
a collaborative transboundary approach at micro,
meso and macro levels, integrated through
appropriate policy and implementation
frameworks.
Acknowledgements
The author gratefully acknowledges all the
local forest department staff and villagers who
extended help and cooperation during the
study.
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Author’s address: Wildlife Wing
(Headquarters), Forest Directorate,
Government of West Bengal, Bikash Bhawan,
Salt Lake City, Kolkata, India;
jayantamallick2007@rediffmail.com
| Trans-boundary human-elephant conflict in the Indo-Nepal Terai Landscape |
