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Mongoose Rabies in the Caribbean
Abstract
Mongooses (Herpestes auropunctatus) have been introduced into most of the larger Caribbean islands, some notable exceptions being Dominica, Tobago, and Montserrat. Rabies in Caribbean mongooses is present in Puerto Rico, Cuba, the Dominican Republic (and presumably Haiti), and Grenada. Bat rabies is known on Cuba, Grenada, and Trinidad, although mongooses found on Trinidad are free of the disease. None of the other islands is known to have rabies, although it could be present in sequestered bat populations. All reported case numbers of mongoose rabies in the Caribbean are underestimates, and available information is at best incomplete and at times fragmentary. Nevertheless, data are presented from the four affected islands. Mongoose reduction campaigns have been undertaken on Cuba and Grenada. In Cuba strychnine sulfate inoculated into labeled eggs is used, whereas in Grenada sodium fluoroacetate (1080) has been used in boiled cowhide baits. Mongoose poisoning is unsatisfactory and ineffective in the long-term. Because many mongooses naturally exposed to rabies virus develop serum neutralizing antibodies and are considered to be immunized, possibly for life, vaccination in the wild has been under consideration since the mid-1970s. Early attempts to produce a pill coated with ERA vaccine for enteric absorption in mongooses were not very successful, but new modified vaccines and recombinant techniques hold considerable promise.
... Haiti was also included in this effort as a target country, as it has the highest case burden in the Americas. For example, between 1970 and 1986, 998 rabies cases were recorded among domestic carnivores in the country [121]. The PAHO initiative resulted in more than 90% decline in canine rabies cases across the region [119,120], with a 99% reduction in human cases to date as the world approaches the 2030 global canine rabies elimination milestone [122]. ...
... However, hindered by environmental, political and economic challenges, rabies virus is still transmitted by dogs to various degrees in Haiti, the Dominican Republic and Cuba [80]. In Cuba, dogs were displaced as the main animal rabies reservoir in 1982 [121,123], while in the Dominican Republic although similar declines in canine cases were observed, canine rabies still predominated during the 1980s [121,124]. ...
... However, hindered by environmental, political and economic challenges, rabies virus is still transmitted by dogs to various degrees in Haiti, the Dominican Republic and Cuba [80]. In Cuba, dogs were displaced as the main animal rabies reservoir in 1982 [121,123], while in the Dominican Republic although similar declines in canine cases were observed, canine rabies still predominated during the 1980s [121,124]. ...
Today, rabies is enzootic in North, Central and South America. In contrast to the mainland, the Caribbean represents the largest region of the Americas that seems to be generally free of this zoonosis, with very few countries reporting enzootic rabies. An introspection of the human and animal populations on these islands provides a historical footnote to the origins of canine and wildlife rabies. The Caribbean islands were populated for thousands of years by Amerindians, prior to the arrival of Europeans. Domesticated dogs and several species of bats were indigenous on multiple islands, although vampire bats are extant only on Trinidad. Despite the presence of such potential reservoirs throughout the archipelago, there is scant Pre-Columbian evidence of rabies, in contrast to post-colonization. Bat rabies was likely present before European settlement and may extend beyond the vampire bat endemic island of Trinidad due to natural bat movement. Canine rabies appeared in the West Indies during the mid-eighteenth century. To date, the disease perpetuates with canine and mesocarnivore variants in Cuba, Grenada, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico. After centuries of colonial introduction and ecological exacerbation, major challenges remain throughout this region related to the global elimination of canine rabies and the apparent risks posed by wildlife rabies to agriculture, conservation biology, and public health.
... Another feliform, the Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus), has been introduced to certain islands in the Caribbean based on the presumption that it would prove effective in the control of rodents and snakes in cane-fields; populations have been established which subsequently became a reservoir for various strains of the Cosmopolitan rabies virus circulating in the Americas as a result of spill-overs (Everard and Everard, 1992;Nadin-Davis et al., 2008;Zieger et al., 2014). Studies on the small island of Grenada (≈ 310 km 2 ) over the period 1968-1972 found that the incidence of mongooses with rabies infections (based on a brain fluorescent-antibody test) varied between 0.5% and 3.7%; on the other hand, high rates of transmission within the population were evidenced by serum neutralising antibodies being found in 18.9% of the animals tested (Everard et al., 1972(Everard et al., , 1974. ...
... Studies on the small island of Grenada (≈ 310 km 2 ) over the period 1968-1972 found that the incidence of mongooses with rabies infections (based on a brain fluorescent-antibody test) varied between 0.5% and 3.7%; on the other hand, high rates of transmission within the population were evidenced by serum neutralising antibodies being found in 18.9% of the animals tested (Everard et al., 1972(Everard et al., , 1974. There was little evidence for transmission to domestic dogs (where there had been a vaccination drive) and cats or livestock as an expanded reservoir, so that spill-overs into humans were direct (see also Everard and Everard, 1992). 55 The authors found that more than half of road-kills had evidence for ongoing brain infections; and that samples caught in baited traps "frequently found fluorescence in the brain of mongooses which apparently showed no abnormal … behaviour, although this was sometimes difficult to interpret in a small trap in strange surroundings. ...
... … The fact that these mongooses entered traps for food suggests that the disease had not progressed to the point of causing disorientation characteristic of attacking animals; nevertheless, it is presumed that they would eventually have died of rabies" (Everard et al., 1974). Behavioural changes associated with overt evidence for rabies infection were mainly of the 'furious' kind (see also Everard and Everard, 1992). Subsequent studies (Everard et al., 1981) found evidence for a progressive inverse relationship between the proportions of antibody-positive and rabies-positive mongooses over 1971-1974, with long-term survival of antibody-positive individuals over a period of up to 35 months. ...
... Mongoose rabies was first recognized in Puerto Rico in 1950 [45], but suspicious clinical signs have been observed in mongooses since the beginning of the 20th century [46]. The disease was subsequently confirmed in the mongoose populations of Grenada (1955) and Cuba (1956) [46,47], where they remain the primary reservoir, and in mongooses in the Dominican Republic (1950) [48], which only became a significant reservoir for transmission events in the 1980s [46]. ...
... Mongoose rabies was first recognized in Puerto Rico in 1950 [45], but suspicious clinical signs have been observed in mongooses since the beginning of the 20th century [46]. The disease was subsequently confirmed in the mongoose populations of Grenada (1955) and Cuba (1956) [46,47], where they remain the primary reservoir, and in mongooses in the Dominican Republic (1950) [48], which only became a significant reservoir for transmission events in the 1980s [46]. Although this species was not noted as an animal reservoir in Haiti, given the shared land boundaries with the Dominican Republic, it is very likely to also exist in Haitian mongooses [46,48,49]. ...
... Mongoose rabies was first recognized in Puerto Rico in 1950 [45], but suspicious clinical signs have been observed in mongooses since the beginning of the 20th century [46]. The disease was subsequently confirmed in the mongoose populations of Grenada (1955) and Cuba (1956) [46,47], where they remain the primary reservoir, and in mongooses in the Dominican Republic (1950) [48], which only became a significant reservoir for transmission events in the 1980s [46]. Although this species was not noted as an animal reservoir in Haiti, given the shared land boundaries with the Dominican Republic, it is very likely to also exist in Haitian mongooses [46,48,49]. ...
Rabies virus is the only Lyssavirus species found in the Americas. In discussions about rabies, Latin America and the Caribbean are often grouped together. Our study aimed to independently analyse the rabies situation in the Caribbean and examine changes in rabies spatiotemporal epidemiology. A questionnaire was administered to the 33 member countries and territories of the Caribbean Animal Health Network (CaribVET) to collect current data, which was collated with a literature review. Rabies was endemic in ten Caribbean localities, with the dog, mongoose, and vampire bat identified as enzootic reservoirs. The majority of animal cases occurred in Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti, while human cases only consistently occurred in the latter two areas. Rabies vaccination was conducted for high-risk animal populations with variable coverage, and rabies diagnostic capacities varied widely throughout the region. Illegal importation and natural migration of animals may facilitate the introduction of rabies virus variants into virus-naïve areas. Passive surveillance, together with enhanced methods and serological screening techniques, can therefore be of value. The insularity of the Caribbean makes it ideal for conducting pilot studies on reservoir host population management. Best practice guidelines developed for these reservoir hosts can be individually modified to the epidemiological status and available resources within each locality.
... Since the mid-twentieth century, the species has been identified as a rabies reservoir on some of the Caribbean islands it has been introduced to, i.e. Cuba, Dominican Republic, Grenada and Puerto Rico [2]. As with other wildlife rabies reservoirs, attempts to control mongoose rabies in the Caribbean through culling have so far failed [1,2]. ...
... Cuba, Dominican Republic, Grenada and Puerto Rico [2]. As with other wildlife rabies reservoirs, attempts to control mongoose rabies in the Caribbean through culling have so far failed [1,2]. Hence, oral vaccination of mongoose against rabies has been suggested as a more promising alternative [3,4] and is presently under investigation in Puerto Rico [5]. ...
... It has also been introduced to many islands in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, the Caribbean and Adriatic seas and to continental South America and Europe; predominantly in the late 19th and early twentieth century [1,31]. In the Caribbean, the small Indian mongoose is present on 33 islands [1], but only on 4 islands rabies in mongoose has been reported; Grenada, Dominican Republic, Cuba and Puerto Rico [2]. The first major outbreak attributed to the small Indian mongoose started in 1950 in Puerto Rico [32]. ...
Background:
Oral vaccination of the small Indian mongoose against rabies has been suggested as a potential tool to eliminate mongoose-mediated rabies on several Caribbean islands. A recently developed oral rabies virus vaccine strain, SPBN GASGAS, has already been shown to be efficacious in this reservoir species. Since, all available oral rabies vaccines are based on replication-competent viruses and vaccine baits are distributed unsupervised in the environment, enhanced safety standards for such vaccine types are required.
Results:
The results of safety studies, including overdose, repeated doses, dissemination and different routes of administration, in the target species are presented. It was shown that the construct was apathogenic, irrespective of dose and route of administration. Even when it was inoculated directly in the brain, it did not induce rabies infection. Furthermore, the vaccine strain did not spread within the target species after direct oral instillation beyond the site of entry.
Conclusion:
The vaccine strain SPBN GASGAS meets the safety requirements for live rabies virus vaccines in this target species, the small Indian mongoose.
... Given that rabies is endemic in Asian mongoose populations, it was initially suspected that RABV had translocated with the animals to the Caribbean. However, mongoose rabies was never reported in the (source) mongoose population in Jamaica (41). Of all the islands to which these animals were disseminated, rabies has only been reported on Puerto Rico, Cuba, Grenada and the Dominican Republic (41). ...
... However, mongoose rabies was never reported in the (source) mongoose population in Jamaica (41). Of all the islands to which these animals were disseminated, rabies has only been reported on Puerto Rico, Cuba, Grenada and the Dominican Republic (41). Furthermore, in light of the common border, mongoose rabies may be present in Haiti. ...
Rabies is one of the oldest recorded pathogens, with the broadest distribution of any known viral zoonosis. Antarctica is believed to be free of all lyssaviruses, but no laboratory-based surveillance has taken place to support this supposition. Re-introduction of the disease is possible in Pacific Oceania, as evidenced by a historical outbreak in Guam and the translocation of rabid bats to Hawaii. Australia is the only inhabited continent with enzootic rabies, without the presence of rabies virus. Europe and North America have broken the cycle of dog-mediated rabies, with a few remaining focal points in Latin America and the Caribbean, but wildlife rabies predominates. The greatest burden resides in the 'Old World'. The elimination of human rabies mediated via dogs by 2030 in Africa, Asia and the Middle East will not be simple, rapid or inexpensive, but it may be achievable through the use of widely available tools and the application of lessons learned during the course of the 20th century.
... and Campylobacter spp. have been reported in free-ranging mongooses on Barbados (Rhynd et al. 2014;Matthias and Levett 2002), and although rabies is not present in Hawaii, the mongoose is the primary rabies reservoir on Puerto Rico, Cuba, Grenada, the Dominican Republic, and most likely Haiti (Everard and Everard 1992;Zieger et al. 2014;Berentsen et al. 2015). ...
... Morton (2005) describes trap and removal efforts to protect native iguana (Iguana iguana) nesting sites on St. Lucia. Kill-trapping and acute toxicants such as thallium sulfate, strychnine, sodium mono uoroacetate (Compound 1080), and even ground glass were used historically in the Caribbean (Pimentel 1955b;Everard and Everard 1992;Barun et al. 2011). Currently there is no islandwide control program for mongooses on any islands in the Caribbean. ...
The small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) is a diurnal opportunistic omnivore native to parts of the Middle East, India, and Asia (Corbet and Hill 1992; Lekagul and McNeely 1977; Veron et al. 2007). Much of what is known about the species comes from records of populations where they were introduced to control rodents on sugarcane plantations (predominantly the Caribbean Islands and Hawaii) rather than their native range (Horst et al. 2001). In published research, the introduced mongoose is alternately, and often synonymously, identied as H. auropunctatus or H. javanicus. However, research by Veron et al. (2007) suggests that H. auropunctatus and H. javanicus are distinct taxa with unique biogeographic ranges: H. auropunctatus from the Middle East to Myanmar and H. javanicus from Myanmar and east, throughout Southeast Asia. Myanmar represents the eastern and western limits of H. auropunctatus and H. javanicus, respectively (Veron et al. 2007). Given documentation by Espeut (1882) that the mongoose’s introduced to the Caribbean, and later Hawaii, originated from Calcutta, India, it is now generally accepted that the mongoose species introduced to North America is H. auropunctatus.
... Mongooses are now pests throughout Puerto Rico. Besides impacts on native fauna (Pimentel 1955), especially endangered Puerto Rican parrots (Amazona vittata; Engeman et al. 2006a), mongooses are a primary rabies reservoir in Puerto Rico (Everard & Everard 1988, 1992. ...
... The first confirmed case of rabies in mongooses in Puerto Rico was in 1950 (Tierkel et al. 1952). Suspect mongooses tested from 1986 to 1990 revealed 71 per cent exposure to rabies virus, although prevalence of active infection was 2.6 per cent (Everard & Everard 1992). Velez (1998) found 19.3 per cent of mongooses positive for rabies exposure, and Berentsen et al. (2015) found prevalence up to 40 per cent in some regions. ...
A wide array of sizes, ecosystems, cultures, and invasive wildlife are represented among inhabited islands. Here, six cases from the United States of America (US) are selected to illustrate the high diversity of invasive animal management issues and objectives. We outline the background, define the problems and management objectives. We identify the management approaches and discuss the results and influences as they specifically relate to inhabited islands. The examples are: (1) Gambian giant pouched rats on Grassy Key, Florida; (2) coqui frogs on Kaua’i, Hawai’i; (3) feral swine on Cayo Costa Island, Florida; (4) rodents and monitor lizards on Cocos Island, Guam; (5) black spiny-tailed iguanas (ctenosaurs) on Gasparilla Island, Florida; and (6) mongooses on Puerto Rico. The outcomes of the programs are discussed, particularly in relation to the impact of human habitation on success.
... Mongooses also present a health risk to humans as hosts of leptospirosis in Hawaii (Alicata and Breaks 1943;Alicata 1958;Minette 1964;Higa and Fujinaka 1976;Wong et al. 2012) and the Caribbean (Pimentel 1955a, b;Everard et al. 1976), and as a rabies reservoir on several islands in the Caribbean (Everard and Everard 1992;Zieger et al. 2014;Berentsen et al. 2015). Hawaii has the highest prevalence of leptospirosis in humans requiring medical treatment in the USA (Wong et al. 2012). ...
... A myriad of techniques, including shooting, trapping, toxicants, etc., have been deployed around the world to protect rare and endangered ground-nesting native birds, invertebrates, reptiles and amphibians from mongoose predation (Pimentel 1955b;Everard and Everard 1992; Barun et al. 2011), with mixed results. ...
The small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) is an invasive pest species responsible for damage to native avian, reptile, and amphibian species on Hawaii, Croatia, Mauritius, and several Caribbean Islands, among other regions. Mongoose control has been pursued through a variety of means, with varying success. One toxicant, diphacinone, has been shown to be effective in mongooses and is co-labeled in a rodenticide bait for mongoose control in Hawaii; however, preliminary observations indicate low performance as a mongoose toxicant due likely to poor consumption. We evaluated the efficacy and palatability of 10 commercial rodenticide baits, technical diphacinone powder, and two alternative acute toxicants against mongooses in laboratory feeding trials. We observed poor acceptance and subsequent low overall mortality, of the hard grain-based pellets or block formulations typical of most of the commercial rodenticide baits. The exception was Tomcat® bait blocks containing 0.1% bromethalin, an acute neurotoxin, which achieved up to 100% mortality. Mortality among all other commercial rodenticide formulations ranged from 10 to 50%. Three-day feedings of 0.005% technical diphacinone formulated in fresh minced chicken achieved 100% mortality. One-day feedings of para-aminopropiophenone (PAPP), a chemical that reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood, achieved 100% mortality at concentrations of 0.10 to 0.15%. Bait acceptance of two sodium nitrite formulations (similar toxic mode of action as PAPP) was relatively poor, and mortality averaged 20%. In general, commercially produced rodenticide baits were not preferred by mongooses and had lower mortality rates compared to freshly prepared meat bait formulations. More palatable baits had higher consumption and achieved higher mortality rates. The diphacinone bait registered for rat and mongoose control in Hawaii achieved 20% mortality and was less effective than some of the other commercial or candidate fresh bait products evaluated in this study.
... The next reports note that between 1970 and 1986, Haiti recorded 998 rabies cases among dogs and cats (59 per year) and in 2013-2014 recorded 101 rabid animals (50 per year). 7,8 In many Latin American countries, through primary intervention methods implemented in the 1970s, dog-mediated human rabies deaths decreased from 350 per year to less than 10 from 1980 to 2010. 9 Unfortunately, this success was not mirrored in Haiti, where between 1980 and 1986, 18 human rabies deaths were reported (2.6 per year). ...
... 9 Unfortunately, this success was not mirrored in Haiti, where between 1980 and 1986, 18 human rabies deaths were reported (2.6 per year). 7 Reported rabies human deaths seem to have only increased over time as a passive human rabies surveillance system in Haiti currently detects approximately 7-17 human rabies deaths each year. 10 Despite these counts being highest among all Western Hemisphere countries, it is largely recognized as a significant underrepresentation of the true burden as there is no laboratory-based surveillance for human rabies and medical provider awareness for this disease is low. ...
Haiti, a Caribbean country of 10.5 million people, is estimated to have the highest burden of caninemediated human rabies deaths in the Western Hemisphere, and one of the highest rates of human rabies deaths in the world. Haiti is also the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere and has numerous economic and health priorities that compete for rabies-control resources. As a result, primary rabies-control actions, including canine vaccination programs, surveillance systems for human and animal rabies, and appropriate postbite treatment, have not been fully implemented at a national scale. After the 2010 earthquake that further hindered the development of public health program infrastructure and services, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention worked with the Ministry of Public Health and Population and key health development partners (including the Pan-American Health Organization) to provide technical expertise and funding for general disease surveillance systems, laboratory capacity, and selected disease control programs; including rabies. In 2011, a cross-ministerial rabies consortium was convened with participation from multiple international rabies experts to develop a strategy for successful rabies control in Haiti. The consortium focused on seven pillars: 1) enhancement of laboratory diagnostic capacity, 2) development of comprehensive animal surveillance system, 3) development of comprehensive human rabies surveillance system, 4) educational outreach, 5) sustainable human rabies biologics supply, 6) achievement of sustained canine vaccination rates of ≥ 70%, and 7) finalization of a national rabies control strategy. From 2010 until 2015, Haiti has seen improvements in the program infrastructure for canine rabies control. The greatest improvements were seen in the area of animal rabies surveillance, in support of which an internationally recognized rabies laboratory was developed thereby leading to an 18-fold increase in the detection of rabid animals. Canine rabies vaccination practices also improved, from a 2010 level of approximately 12% to a 2015 dog population coverage level estimated to be 45%. Rabies vaccine coverage is still below the goal of 70%, however, the positive trend is encouraging. Gaps exist in the capacity to conduct national surveillance for human rabies cases and access to human rabies vaccine is lacking in many parts of the country. However, control has improved over the past 5 years as a result of the efforts of Haiti's health and agriculture sectors with assistance from multiple international organizations. Haiti is well situated to eliminate canine-mediated human rabies deaths in the near future and should serve as a great example to many developing countries struggling with similar barriers and limitations. Copyright © 2017 by The American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.
... Despite the prevalence of rabies in the mongoose population in Grenada and other Caribbean islands (Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Hispaniola), to date, more than a century after the introduction of the small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) into Trinidad (1870s), this invasive species still remains on record as rabies-free [30]. In 1955, Dr. Malaga-Alba, a World Health Organization (WHO) rabies expert, detected Negri bodies in a mongoose carcass during his visit to Trinidad [31]. ...
... Unlike several other Caribbean islands [30], mongoose rabies has not been documented in Trinidad. Relative to these islands, Trinidad has a lower mongoose population density, which may have allowed the population to remain apparently disease-free [77]. ...
Vampire bat-transmitted rabies was first recognized in Trinidad during a major outbreak reported in 1925. Trinidad is the only Caribbean island with vampire bat-transmitted rabies. We conducted a literature review to describe the changing epidemiology of rabies in Trinidad and give a historical perspective to rabies prevention and control measures on the island. The last human case of rabies occurred in 1937 and although no case of canine-transmitted rabies was reported since 1914, sporadic outbreaks of bat-transmitted rabies still occur in livestock to date. Over the last century, seven notable epidemics were recorded in Trinidad with the loss of over 3000 animals. During the 1950s, several measures were effectively adopted for the prevention and control of the disease which led to a significant reduction in the number of cases. These measures include: vampire bat population control, livestock vaccination, and animal surveillance. However, due to lapses in these measures over the years (e.g., periods of limited vampire control and incomplete herd vaccination), epidemics have occurred. In light of the significant negative impact of rabies on animal production and human health, rabies surveillance in Trinidad should be enhanced and cases evaluated towards the design and implementation of more evidence-based prevention and control programs.
... The mongoose can follow a scent as far as 500 meters so devices such as Haguruma cage traps can be set in a 200-meter grid, which is approximately one trap per hectare , along village boundaries. Pilot programs to test various baits have identi ied tinned sardines (Peters et al. 2011), ish sausages (Yamada 2011), ish meal (Creekmore et al. 1994), cat food (Peters et al. 2011), eggs (Everard and Everard 1992), and chicken parts (Everard and Everard 1992) as effective. Using nontoxic bait in the live traps allows other species caught in the traps to be released unharmed (Barun et al. 2011), and the captured mongooses can be used as food if desired. ...
... The mongoose can follow a scent as far as 500 meters so devices such as Haguruma cage traps can be set in a 200-meter grid, which is approximately one trap per hectare , along village boundaries. Pilot programs to test various baits have identi ied tinned sardines (Peters et al. 2011), ish sausages (Yamada 2011), ish meal (Creekmore et al. 1994), cat food (Peters et al. 2011), eggs (Everard and Everard 1992), and chicken parts (Everard and Everard 1992) as effective. Using nontoxic bait in the live traps allows other species caught in the traps to be released unharmed (Barun et al. 2011), and the captured mongooses can be used as food if desired. ...
The small Indian mongoose is among the worst of invasive alien species, yet the implications of managing the species are poorly understood. To address concerns of interest to practitioners and policymakers, we analyze survey data to document the impacts of this species in Fiji and conduct a cost-benefit analysis of management approaches that are both culturally appropriate and readily implementable: live trapping, kill trapping, and hunting. We find that the monetized benefits of kill trapping exceed the benefits of live trapping and hunting. Still, all of these management options are preferred to the status quo of no management. Copyright 2015 Northeastern Agricultural and Resource Economics Association.
... The small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) was introduced to the Caribbean Islands in the 1870s, primarily to control rat (Rattus spp.) damage to sugarcane (Hoagland et al. 1989). Mongooses are now considered pests throughout most of their introduced range and are the primary rabies reservoir on several Caribbean Islands (Everard and Everard 1992). In Puerto Rico, mongooses account for up to 75% of reported rabies cases (Krebs et al. 1998;Dyer et al. 2014). ...
... In Puerto Rico, the first laboratory-confirmed rabies-infected mongooses were reported in 1950, although references to rabies date back prior to mongoose introduction (Tierkel et al. 1952). Between 1986 and1990, 71.5% (236/330) of suspect mongooses tested in Puerto Rico were positive for rabies virus, as were 2.6% (4/152) of randomly trapped mongooses (Everard and Everard 1992). In comparison, Everard et al. (1981) reported rabies infection in 1.3% of .11,000 ...
The small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) was introduced to several Caribbean Islands to control rat (Rattus spp.) damage to sugarcane plantations. Mongooses failed at suppressing rat populations and are now considered pests throughout most of their introduced range. Importantly, mongooses are rabies reservoirs on several Caribbean Islands. In Puerto Rico, mongooses have been implicated in up to 70% of reported animal rabies cases. There is no rabies vaccination program for wildlife in Puerto Rico, and data on rabies in mongooses are limited. We conducted a serosurvey of mongooses in two different ecologic environments in Puerto Rico: El Yunque National Forest and Cabo Rojo National Wildlife Refuge. We collected 119 serum samples from 112 mongooses, 44 (39.3%) of which were positive for rabies virus-neutralizing antibodies. We also collected oral swabs from 147 mongooses, including 88 from which we also collected serum. No oral swabs were positive for rabies virus RNA. Our data support previous research suggesting rabies virus is circulating within the mongoose population on Puerto Rico.
... Springer, Mosaic Eco Consult, personal communication). Island-wide mongoose population reduction efforts for attempted rabies control on Cuba and Grenada demonstrated low long-term success (Everard and Everard 1992). ...
The small Indian mongoose ( Urva auropunctata ) is a non‐native invasive species throughout the Caribbean and the primary terrestrial wildlife rabies reservoir on 4 islands in the region. In the 1970s and 1980s, island‐wide attempts to control and eliminate mongoose rabies through culling or poisoning in Cuba and Grenada proved unsuccessful. On some islands, localized population reduction of mongooses is used to mitigate predation on endangered species or to reduce the nuisance and frequency of interactions with humans. However, the short‐ and medium‐term demographic responses of mongooses to local population reduction and the impacts for infectious disease transmission remain unexplored. We conducted an experimental removal of mongooses across a 0.42‐km ² area of dry forest in St. Kitts. Employing capture‐mark‐recapture techniques, we quantified the demographic and behavioral responses of mongooses within the study area. We collected individual‐level data using an automated radio‐telemetry system, monitoring the daily presence of 19 collared mongooses for 7 months before and up to 7 weeks after experimental removals. The mongoose population density rebounded to pre‐removal levels within 7 weeks of the removal, primarily because of the influx of reproductively active females. The proportion of juveniles increased from 1–3% before removals to 14% at 7 weeks after removals yet returned to baseline levels at 6 months after removals. The local immigration of mongooses to the site was evident through changes in capture per unit effort, observed as early as the first week after removals. Tagged mongooses that frequented the study area during the pre‐removal period increased their daily presence for 5–30 days after removals. Our results indicate that a localized and intensive mongoose removal program targeting a high‐density population has short‐term but not long‐term residual impacts to the population. Further investigation into contact rates among mongooses and space use among resident and immigrating individuals is essential to advance our understanding of the impacts of localized removals on short‐ and long‐term mongoose population disease dynamics.
... Offshore, early indications that dog rabies was in Puerto Rico stem from an edict issued in 1841, ordering animals exhibiting signs of hydrophobia to be killed [65,66]. A rabies outbreak was documented in 1874, and in 1896 two human rabies cases were reported. ...
The history of rabies in the United States is intricately associated with the peoples who settled the land and their knowledge and beliefs about the disease. More importantly, much of the history of rabies is tied to what early settlers brought with them: dogs that introduced and drove the spread of rabies in the New World. Patterns of movement of early Old World explorers and settlers and their canine companions are reflected in the genetic and epidemiological patterns of rabies viruses seen today. As cases of this feared disease mounted to distressing levels in some areas, settlers relied upon treatments and prevention methods tied to their homelands. By elucidating the paths and timelines of rabies virus spread in the United States, stories are revealed of progressive prevention efforts, new laboratory diagnostic and research tools, effective pre- and post -exposure prophylaxis measures, and the means to efficiently deliver them to rapidly growing populations migrating across the continent. Innovative approaches such as mail order vaccination kits and mass vaccination campaigns to stamp out dog rabies led to the turning point to gain control over the virus. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention declaration of the elimination of dog rabies in 2007 represented a monumental achievement but revealed more significant challenges to control sylvatic rabies that still remain today. Recognition of the presence and diversity of rabies virus variants in bats and their contribution to human rabies deaths is another piece of this story. This chapter, gleaned from a compilation of facts, anecdotes, and historical reports, synthesizes our understanding of the origin and spread of rabies in the United States and of the significant advances in diagnostics, epidemiology, and the tools to prevent and control this important public health problem.
... In addition to being a perceived threat to native wildlife, mongooses are a reservoir of rabies, leptospirosis and other diseases (i.e. Salmonella) on islands of the Caribbean (Benavidez et al., 2019;Everard & Everard, 1992;Miller et al., 2014). Although the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classifies the mongoose as one of the top 100 worst invasive species, some researchers have suggested that the mongoose has become naturalized to Puerto Rico and should be considered part of the faunal composition of the island (Lugo et al., 2012). ...
Novel species assemblages in tropical islands present ecologists with the opportunity to explore ecosystem function and faunal community resilience to invasive species. Introduced mammalian predators to islands have a disproportionately large role in species extinctions and their variation in patterns of foraging can influence the assembly of biological communities. In this article, I argue for the need for experimental studies to elucidate the role of invasive species within faunal assemblages in Puerto Rico with a focus on the introduced small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus). I conducted a preliminary assessment to define best possible study sites for obtaining an understanding of mongoose influence on Puerto Rico's terrestrial vertebrate food web. Mongoose occurrence and high species richness on sites with moderate habitat modification coincide on 3% of the island's land area, and mostly located on the southwest coastal dry forest. A deeper understanding of mongoose influence on Puerto Rico's terrestrial vertebrate food web is paramount for biodiversity management and to grasp community resilience to biotic invasion.
Resumen-Los ensamblajes noveles de especies en islas tropicales proveen la oportunidad de explorar la función de estos ecosistemas y la capacidad de recuperación de comunidades bióticas frente a la presencia de especies invasoras. Los mamíferos que han sido introducidos a ecosistemas de islas asumen un rol importante en las extinciones de especies. La variación en patrones de forrajeo de dichas especies pueden influir en el ensamblaje de las comunidades bióticas presentes en las islas. En este artículo, indago sobre la necesidad de estudios experimentales para dilucidar el rol de las especies invasoras dentro de las comunidades de fauna en Puerto Rico con un enfoque específico en la mangosta de la India (Herpestes auropunctatus). En este artículo presento una evaluación que identifica potenciales sitios de estudios a través de un análisis de los patrones espaciales de presencia de la mangosta y la riqueza de especies en la isla. La presencia de mangostas y riqueza de especies en sitios con modificación moderada del hábitat coinciden en el 3% de la superficie terrestre de la isla, y se encuentran principalmente en el bosque seco costero del suroeste. Un entendimiento sobre la influencia de la mangosta en la red trófica de vertebrados terrestres de Puerto Rico es primordial para el manejo de la biodiversidad y comprender la resiliencia de comunidades a la invasión biótica.
... enzootic, phylogenetic reconstruction indicates a complex history of independent introductions of cosmopolitan canine rabies virus which happened after the introduction and establishment of mongoose populations across islands 13 . Rabies has remained enzootic on these islands despite intensive dog (Canis lupus familiaris) vaccination and prior rabies control focused on local mongoose population reduction has been largely unsuccessful 12,14 . ...
The small Indian mongoose (Urva auropunctata) is the primary terrestrial wildlife rabies reservoir on at least four Caribbean islands, including Puerto Rico. In Puerto Rico, mongooses represent a risk to public health, based on direct human exposure and indirectly through the transmission of rabies virus to domestic animals. To date, the fundamental ecological relationships of space use among mongooses and between mongooses and domestic animals remain poorly understood. This study is the first to report mongoose home range estimates based on GPS telemetry, as well as concurrent space use among mongooses and free roaming domestic dogs (FRDD; Canis lupus familiaris). Mean (± SE) home range estimates from 19 mongooses in this study (145 ± 21 ha and 60 ± 14 ha for males and females, respectively) were greater than those reported in prior radiotelemetry studies in Puerto Rico. At the scale of their home range, mongooses preferentially used dry forest and shrubland areas, but tended to avoid brackish water vegetation, salt marshes, barren lands and developed areas. Home ranges from five FRDDs were highly variable in size (range 13–285 ha) and may be influenced by availability of reliable anthropogenic resources. Mongooses displayed high home range overlap (general overlap index, GOI = 82%). Home range overlap among mongooses and FRDDs was intermediate (GOI = 50%) and greater than home range overlap by FRDDs (GOI = 10%). Our results provide evidence that space use by both species presents opportunities for interspecific interaction and contact and suggests that human provisioning of dogs may play a role in limiting interactions between stray dogs and mongooses.
... In Puerto Rico, the first laboratory-confirmed rabid mongooses were reported in 1950 (Tierkel et al. 1952). Between 1986 and1990, over 70% (236/330) of suspected rabid mongooses submitted for rabies diagnosis in Puerto Rico were rabid (Everard and Everard 1992), and mongooses accounted for over 70% of annually reported animal rabies cases in Puerto Rico during 2020 (Ma et al. 2022). In 2015, Puerto Rico documented the first human rabies fatality directly linked to a mongoose bite (Styczynski et al. 2017), highlighting a need to enhance rabies prevention and control strategies in Puerto Rico, and for applied research in support of an oral rabies vaccination (ORV) program targeting mongooses. ...
The small Indian mongoose (Urva auropuncata) is a rabies reservoir in Puerto Rico and accounts for over 70% of reported animal rabies cases annually. The presence of rabies virus-neutralizing antibodies (RVNA) is often used as a tool to measure exposure to rabies virus in wildlife populations. We conducted a serosurvey of mongooses at 11 sites representing six habitat types across Puerto Rico. We collected a serum sample from 464 individual mongooses during 2014-21. Overall, 80/464 (17.0%; 95% confidence interval, 14.1-20.9%; 55 male, 23 female, and two sexes not recorded) of individual mongooses sampled across all habitats were RVNA positive. The geometric mean (SD) RVNA titer for 80 unique seropositive animals was 0.58 (2.92) IU/mL. Our models indicated that the probability of mongooses being RVNA seropositive mostly varied by habitat, with some influence of sex in the individual-level analyses. Population-level RVNA seroprevalence is dynamic in mongoose populations, but these data may shed light on rabies virus transmission across regions to help inform rabies management activities in Puerto Rico.
... Mongooses have been found to carry and spread diseases such as rabies (Pimentel 1955;Everard and Everard 1992) and leptospirosis (Pimentel 1955). Mongooses have also been blamed for economic losses due to predation on livestock and game species (Seaman and Randall 1962;Cheke 1987). ...
... As these animals share their habitat with foxes, they have been shown to be successfully immunized using bait vaccines [50], hence decreasing the number of positives due to ORV [49]. Another invasive mammal species worth mentioning in this context is the small Indian mongoose (Herpectes auropunctatus), the most common carrier of rabies in the Caribbean [51]. This species was brought to the Croatian Island of Mljet as early as 1910 to reduce the number of snakes [52]. ...
The objective of this paper is to provide an overview of the current status of rabies in Europe, with special emphasis on Croatia and Southeast and East Europe. Due to the systematic implementation of a rabies eradication program by oral vaccination of wild animals, by the end of the 20th century, most West and Central European countries were rabies-free. The EU goal was to eradicate rabies in wildlife and domestic animals by 2020. No matter how achievable the goal seemed to be, the disease is still present in the eastern part of the EU, as was notified in 2020 by two member states—Poland and Romania. Croatia has been rabies-free for the last seven years but given that it borders a non-EU country in which a case of rabies was confirmed in 2020, it will continue to contribute to the maintenance of the rabies-free region. A rabies-free EU can only be achieved by continuous oral vaccination, coordination and a regional approach. The prevention of reintroductions from bordering countries in which rabies has not been eradicated yet, and the support for the eradication efforts made by these countries, are goals still pending.
... This opportunistic carnivore rapidly became invasive in Caribbean ecosystems, where it caused substantial damage to native fauna [3]. Moreover, in Puerto Rico, Cuba, Grenada, and the Dominican Republic, mongooses are the primary reservoir for canine rabies [4][5][6]. The first rabies outbreak in the Western hemisphere attributed to the small Indian mongoose was reported in Puerto Rico in 1950 [7]. ...
We applied the model-guided fieldwork framework to the Caribbean mongoose rabies system by parametrizing a spatially-explicit, individual-based model, and by performing an uncertainty analysis designed to identify parameters for which additional empirical data are most needed. Our analysis revealed important variation in output variables characterizing rabies dynamics, namely rabies persistence, exposure level, spatiotemporal distribution, and prevalence. Among epidemiological parameters, rabies transmission rate was the most influential, followed by rabies mortality and location, and size of the initial infection. The most influential landscape parameters included habitat-specific carrying capacities, landscape heterogeneity, and the level of resistance to dispersal associated with topography. Movement variables, including juvenile dispersal, adult fine-scale movement distances, and home range size, as well as life history traits such as age of independence, birth seasonality, and age- and sex-specific mortality were other important drivers of rabies dynamics. We discuss results in the context of mongoose ecology and its influence on disease transmission dynamics. Finally, we suggest empirical approaches and study design specificities that would provide optimal contributing data addressing the knowledge gaps identified by our approach, and would increase our potential to use epidemiological models to guide mongoose rabies control and management in the Caribbean.
... The small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) is a non-native, invasive pest species and rabies reservoir in Puerto Rico and several other Caribbean islands (Everard andEverard 1992, Berentsen et al. 2015). No oral rabies vaccination (ORV) program exists for mongooses but research suggests ORV may be possible (Vos et al. 2013). ...
Black rats are among the world's most invasive rodent species and are responsible for considerable agricultural losses and risks to human health through zoonotic disease. In Puerto Rico, rats may also compete with the primary rabies reservoir (the small Indian mongoose) for baits during oral rabies vaccination (ORV) programs. We evaluated black rat population density and home range size on the Cabo Rojo National Wildlife Refuge, southwestern Puerto Rico. We fitted 10 rats with VHF transmitters and tracked them using radio telemetry for approximately 4 weeks. We entered locations into ArcGIS and obtained minimum convex polygon (MCP) home range estimates. We established two plots of 55 snap traps and performed removal for 5 consecutive days during January and July, to correspond roughly with wet and dry seasons for this region. To calculate abundance, we entered snap trap data using a removal model approach in Program MARK. We calculated the effective trapping area by creating a buffer around the trapping area based on the square root of mean home range estimate. We divided the abundance calculated in MARK by the effective trapping area to calculate the estimated population density. Mean MCP home range estimate was 0.28 ha (SE: 0.05, range: 0.07-0.50 ha). Population density estimates were 114.7 (SE: 201.80) and 19.3 (SE: 6.85) per ha for January and July, respectively. To reduce the potential for rat consumption of ORV baits, wildlife managers should consider conducting ORV activities in Puerto Rico during periods of lower rat abundance or density.
... Mongooses have been implicated in the declines and extinctions of several species of reptiles, amphibians and birds throughout the Caribbean (Pimentel 1955, Seaman and Randall 1962, Coblentz and Coblentz 1985. Furthermore, they are recognized as a main reservoir for rabies virus (Everard and Everard 1992;Blanton et al. 2006). Data on mongoose management programs are sparse (exceptions see : Johnson et. ...
Invasive predators are among the most detrimental biological invaders of island ecosystems. However, information detailing the effectiveness of trapping for these invasive species is often underreported. Here, we quantified the influence of environmental features on mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) trapping success across five forest types in eastern Puerto Rico. Specifically, we evaluated how canopy and understory cover, woody debris, proximity metrics, and elevation influenced the likelihood of capturing a mongoose at a trap location. The likelihood increased in habitats that were farther from rivers (P = 0.003), farther from recreation areas (P = 0.06), closer to trails (P = 0.11), and closer to coastal shoreline (P = 0.01). Optimizing capture success via trap placement can help reduce both trapping effort and costs. Thus, our results can be used to prioritize locations for future trapping as a means to improve capture success.
... However, introduced mongooses decimated and continue to cause the decline of numerous native bird, mammal, amphibian, and reptile species on these islands (reviewed in Hays and Conant 2007;Barun et al. 2011;). In addition, mongooses pose human health risks as some of the introduced populations carry and transmit zoonotic diseases, including rabies and leptospirosis (Everard et al. 1976;Everard and Everard 1992;Wong et al. 2012;Zieger et al. 2014;Berentsen et al. 2015). Pimentel et al. (2000) estimated that mongooses caused approximately $50 million in damages each year in Puerto Rico and Hawaii. ...
The eradication or control of invasive small Indian mongooses from islands likely requires toxic baiting when removal by trapping proves insufficient. The one toxic bait currently registered for mongooses in the United States has relatively low palatability and efficacy for mongooses. Developing and registering a new pesticide can be very expensive, while funding for developing toxicants for mongooses is limited. Once registered, use of a toxic bait may be hindered by other factors, such as public opposition to an inhumane toxicant, poorer efficacy than expected, or if the toxic bait is difficult for applicators to apply or store. Therefore, we conducted a product feasibility assessment comparing the registration and use potential of toxic baits for mongooses containing either bromethalin, diphacinone, para-aminopropiophenone (PAPP), or sodium nitrite (SN). We estimated that a diphacinone bait would be the cheapest and fastest to register, and more application methods may be allowed compared to the others. On the negative side, we ranked diphacinone as the least humane toxicant of the four, largely due to a prolonged time to death following exposure and onset of symptoms. However, this interval also increases the probability that the antidote can be administered following an accidental exposure. If an alternative toxicant is required, use of a bromethalin, PAPP, or SN bait would likely be limited to bait stations or burrow baiting due to primary risks to non-target species. A bromethalin bait would be the cheapest and fastest to register of the three, particularly if a bait that is already commercially available proved efficacious for mongoose. However, we ranked bromethalin lower than PAPP or SN for overall humaneness. A PAPP bait would be slow and the most expensive to register. An SN bait would be challenging to formulate into a palatable bait with a reasonable shelf life. Although we focused on the U.S., mongooses are invasive in many parts of the world and the regulatory and use requirements for pesticides in other countries are generally comparable. In addition, our feasibility assessment can serve as a template or starting point for managers considering development of toxicant products for vertebrate pests.
... Rabies is endemic in both Zambia and Zimbabwe, with prevention attempts focusing on the strict use of vaccination and population control of dogs. Several wildlife carnivores such as jackals [2][3][4][5] and mongooses [6][7][8][9] have been implicated as reservoirs of rabies. However, in contrast to work in other regions, a study on the Selous mongoose (Paracynictis selousi) in Zambia ruled out the possibility of that carnivore being a wildlife reservoir of rabies in Zambia [10]. ...
Rabies is endemic in Zambia and Zimbabwe. The previously investigated strains of rabies virus in central Zambia belong to the Africa 1b lineage, with similar circulating virus strains found in the various tested hosts and regions. However, prior work assessed only limited regions and host species. Thus, this study aimed to more comprehensively determine the genetic diversity of rabies virus across regions of Zambia and Zimbabwe. RNA (n = 76) was extracted from positive direct fluorescent antibody test brain tissues from dog, cow, goat, cat, pig, human, and jackal collected from Zambia and Zimbabwe. The amplicons of the nucleoprotein and glycoprotein genes were obtained from all examined samples by nested RT-PCR and subsequently sequenced. A phylogenetic analysis of the N gene confirmed that all the endemic strains of rabies virus in Zambia and Zimbabwe belong to the Africa 1b lineage. The obtained viral gene sequences were phylogenetically divided into two clusters. Cluster II comprised only Zambian strains. In contrast, cluster I comprised both Zambia and Zimbabwe strains, with strains from Zimbabwe forming a distinct lineage from Zambian strains, implying viral genetic divergence due to geographical barriers. However, no evidence of clustering based on host or region was observed, implying the circulation of similar virus strains occurs in different hosts and regions of Zambia and Zimbabwe. The clustering of rabies virus strains from jackals with those from domestic animals provides evidence of similar virus strains circulating in both wildlife and domestic animals, and that the jackal might be one of the potential reservoirs of rabies virus infection. In this study, no strains circulating in Zimbabwe were detected in Zambia.
... 10,11 Injecting poisoning rats with brodifacoum, leg trapping, live chicken bait, mongoose proof fence, thallium sulfate, sodium monofluroacetate and strychnine sulfate is good for controlling mongoose. 12,13 Mongooses are highly susceptible to diphacinone LD 50 0.2mg/kg BW). The impact upon and cause the extinction of many species of birds, mammals and insects. ...
... 10,11 Injecting poisoning rats with brodifacoum, leg trapping, live chicken bait, mongoose proof fence, thallium sulfate, sodium monofluroacetate and strychnine sulfate is good for controlling mongoose. 12,13 Mongooses are highly susceptible to diphacinone LD 50 0.2mg/kg BW). The impact upon and cause the extinction of many species of birds, mammals and insects. ...
... A high frequency of abortive infection is clearly seen in the presence of antibodies in healthy bats [67][68][69] , spanning many species and geographic areas 52 . VNAs in non-bats are less well established but have been detected at varying levels in diverse reservoir and non-reservoir species, including human, cow and mongoose 45,[70][71][72] . These findings highlight major unanswered questions. ...
Rabies is a lethal zoonotic disease that is caused by lyssaviruses, most often rabies virus. Despite control efforts, sporadic outbreaks in wildlife populations are largely unpredictable, underscoring our incomplete knowledge of what governs viral transmission and spread in reservoir hosts. Furthermore, the evolutionary history of rabies virus and related lyssaviruses remains largely unclear. Robust surveillance efforts combined with diagnostics and disease modelling are now providing insights into the epidemiology and evolution of rabies virus. The immune status of the host, the nature of exposure and strain differences all clearly influence infection and transmission dynamics. In this Review, we focus on rabies virus infections in the wildlife and synthesize current knowledge in the rapidly advancing fields of rabies virus epidemiology and evolution, and advocate for multidisciplinary approaches to advance our understanding of this disease.
... Reductions or extinctions of populations of birds, reptiles, and amphibians caused by H. auropunctatus have been reported on islands worldwide, although there is controversy over whether the small Indian mongoose has genuinely been the main culprit (Lewis et al. 2011 ;Hays and Conant 2007 ). A secondary aspect of the deleterious impact of the species resides in its role of main reservoir for viruses (e.g., rabies) and parasites (e.g., Weil's disease) impacting wildlife and humans in several parts of the Caribbean (Hatcher et al. 2012 ;Everard and Everard 1992 ). This latter point remains undocumented in Europe. ...
The Mediterranean Basin (MB), connected by cultural exchanges since prehistoric times, provides an outstanding framework to study species introductions, notably in mammals. Carnivores are among the most successful mammalian invaders. As such, a number of middle-sized representatives (“mesocarnivores”) such as the domestic cat and mongooses have been pinpointed for their deleterious impact on the native fauna. In the MB, three species of mongooses (Herpestidae) and one genet (Viverridae) are or have recently been recorded and none of them has been considered native: the Indian grey mongoose Herpestes edwardsii, the small Indian mongoose H. auropunctatus, the Egyptian mongoose H. ichneumon, and the common genet Genetta genetta. In order to clarify the history of introduction and status of the mongooses and genet in Europe, I review various bodies of evidence including (1) their natural history and relationships with humans in their native ranges, (2) their history of introduction in Europe, (3) the enlightenments—and sometimes contradictions—brought by recent genetic analyses on their dispersal histories, and (4) their range dynamics and ecological interactions with the European fauna. The species of herpestids and viverrids present in Europe fall into three categories: (1) introduced and spreading (G. genetta, H. auropunctatus), (2) introduced and extinct (H. edwardsii), and (3) natural disperser and spreading (H. ichneumon). In view of the reviewed evidence, there is weak support for a deleterious impact of the mongooses and genet on the European fauna (except possibly on the herpetofauna of small Adriatic islands in the case of H. auropunctatus), notably in comparison with genuine invasive species such as the black rat and the domestic cat. Rather than inefficient control programs such as those targeting H. ichneumon in Portugal and H. auropunctatus in Croatia, we suggest that a greater attention is focused on the restoration of large Carnivores (the natural regulators of mesocarnivore populations), mesocarnivore communities and natural habitats, to contribute to a more sustainable way of “managing” the mongooses and genet in Europe.
... Thus, unnoticed spread of the disease among the susceptible wild animals is occurring and particularly the disease spread through small mammals like mongoose is very difficult to monitor and control. There were earlier reports on rabies spread by mongoose in the United States, Caribbean, Southern African countries, India, South province of Sri Lanka and Nepal (Tierkel et al., 1952;Pimentel, 1955;Nellis and Everard, 1983;Everard and Everard, 1992;Jagvir Singh et al., 2001;Patabendige and Wimalaratne, 2003;Gongal, 2006). ...
Rabies is one of the most significant diseases in India with severe health implication to humans, domestic and wild animals. In the present study, four concomitant incidents of
rabies related deaths were recorded in the western province of India, Gujarat during 2012
- 2014. Brain samples were collected from two buffaloes, nilgai, and mongoose during these incidents and rabies virus was identified from these samples. Further genetic relationshipof these isolates was determined and the rabies virus transmission among the wild and domestic mammals was established. Molecular epidemiology based on the glycoprotein ecto-domain and complete nucleoprotein gene showed that all the four isolates belonged to Arctic-like 1 lineage which is predominant in India. Phylogenetic analysis and time scaled evolutionary tree analysis indicated that the wild animals are playing an important role in the maintenance and also transmission of the rabies virus in India.
... Thus, unnoticed spread of the disease among the susceptible wild animals is occurring and particularly the disease spread through small mammals like mongoose is very difficult to monitor and control. There were earlier reports on rabies spread by mongoose in the United States, Caribbean, Southern African countries, India, South province of Sri Lanka and Nepal (Tierkel et al., 1952;Pimentel, 1955;Nellis and Everard, 1983;Everard and Everard, 1992;Jagvir Singh et al., 2001;Patabendige and Wimalaratne, 2003;Gongal, 2006). ...
... Mongoose were introduced to Caribbean and Pacific Islands with established sugar industries during the late 1800s to control Rattus sp. (rat), which damaged sugar cane crops (Espeut 1882, Everard andEverard 1992). Mongoose failed to suppress rat populations and were quickly recognized to be detrimental to native species (Hays and Conant 2007, Philibosian and Ruibal 1971, Seaman and Randall 1962, Watari et al. 2008. ...
... Mongoose were introduced to Caribbean and Pacific Islands with established sugar industries during the late 1800s to control Rattus sp. (rat), which damaged sugar cane crops (Espeut 1882, Everard andEverard 1992). Mongoose failed to suppress rat populations and were quickly recognized to be detrimental to native species (Hays and Conant 2007, Philibosian and Ruibal 1971, Seaman and Randall 1962, Watari et al. 2008. ...
Background/Question/Methods
The small Indian mongoose, Herpestes auropunctatus, was introduced throughout most of the Caribbean and Pacific Islands by then end of the 19th century in order to control rat populations (Rattus sp.) in sugar cane plantations. Mongooses failed to suppress rat populations and in turn have significantly altered the food web in forests, becoming detrimental to other species and a vector for rabies virus. In El Yunque National Forest (YNF) in Puerto Rico, current management plans to control mongoose populations include the removal of individuals seasonally from human-frequented areas, but populations remain stable range-wide. The objectives of this study were: 1) to estimate mongoose abundance in four different forest types of YNF and an adjacent coastal site (NEC), and 2) to relate observed variation in mongoose abundance with habitat attributes.
Results/Conclusions
We used Capture-Mark-Recapture assuming a closed population in YNF and NEC. We established five capture nights per week during the summer of 2012. A total of 34 individuals were captured with 4 recaptures. An estimate of the population size was derived from four competing models (M0, Mb, MhChao, Mbh). Selected by AIC values and after bias correction, Mb (behavioral) model predicted an abundance of 44 individuals (SE 9.9) in YNF versus an estimation of 141 individuals in the costal forest adjacent to YNF. Among the four habitat types of YNF, habitats dominated by Sierra Palm (Prestoea montana) accounted for the largest population. Mongoose abundance was greater on those sites of lower elevation and human-frequented areas. Multiple regression analysis was performed in order test if vegetation cover and coarse woody debris can significantly predict captures frequencies throughout the park and coastal forest. The regression indicated that none of the factors explained capture frequencies for this study (R2=0.05, F(3,70)=1.331, p=0.3. Correct population estimatimates coupled with GIS data available for YNF, will provide managers with information on mongoose population structure, dispersal through the landscape, and demography at various spatial scales.
The small Indian mongoose (Urva auropunctata) is a rabies reservoir on several Caribbean Islands including Puerto Rico. In the continental United States, oral rabies vaccination (ORV) has been used to control and locally eliminate rabies viruses targeting meso-carnivores including raccoons (Procyon lotor), grey foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), and coyotes (Canis latrans), and has more recently been proposed to mitigate and control mongoose rabies in Puerto Rico. A fundamental understanding of the population density of the target species is an important factor in planning bait application rates prior to ORV operations. In Puerto Rico, most ecological studies on mongooses have been restricted to the rainforest region in the northeastern portion of the island. We calculated population density estimates for mongooses at seven sites representing four habitat types in Puerto Rico. We marked 445 unique mongooses across 593 capture events during 12,530 trap days during 2016–2021. Mean (SE, 95% CI) population densities were greater in closed to open broadleaved evergreen forest habitat (0.79 ±0.13, 0.67–0.92 mongooses/ha) compared to grasslands (0.43 ± 0.10; 0.35–0.55 mongooses/ha), rainfed croplands (0.26 ±0.10, 0.18–0.38 mongooses/ha), and shrub/herbaceous habitat (0.19 ±0.05, 0.15–0.25 mongooses/ha). We did not detect seasonal variation in mongoose population density (0.48 [0.06; 0.35–0.62] and 0.39 [0.06; 0.27–0.50] mongooses/ha measured in the wet (May–November) and dry (December–April) seasons, respectively. Multiple ORV applications may be needed annually for adequate population immunity, particularly in habitats with high mongoose population densities and rapid population turnover.
Wildlife disease management is a growing and challenging One Health paradigm for scientists and program managers working to resolve human-wildlife conflicts. Managing wildlife diseases is complex and accomplished primarily through the manipulation of populations at a landscape scale. Rabies lyssavirus (RABV) perpetuates in dogs and wildlife, including mesocarnivores and bats, with the greatest diversity of viral variants (e.g., independent epizootic or enzootic foci) associated with wildlife throughout the Americas. From Argentina to the Canadian Arctic, prevention and control of rabies in carnivores has historically focused on managing dog-mediated human rabies through public health messaging, implementation of local animal control strategies to reduce free-ranging dog populations and mass rabies vaccination campaigns and local vaccination clinics. Multiple host shifts of canine RABV variants to a diverse array of wildlife has occurred throughout the Americas, creating a suite of unique management challenges. Successful management of RABV at the animal source across broad and complex landscapes requires knowledge of how reservoir populations use these landscapes and the development of coordinated management strategies that effectively target mesocarnivores across a variety of habitats and population densities. Historically, attempts at disease control in furbearers used population reduction. By the mid-twentieth century, alternative techniques focused upon oral rabies vaccination (ORV) of free-ranging animals. In the Americas, management of wildlife RABV through ORV of mesocarnivore populations has not occurred outside of Canada and the United States. A limited ORV field trial is being planned targeting mongoose populations in Puerto Rico. For three decades, integrated ORV programs have focused on coyotes, red and gray foxes, raccoons, and striped skunks to manage RABV variants in North America. Key components of successful wildlife rabies management include communication and coordination, enhanced RABV surveillance, ORV, program monitoring, contingency actions, and applied research. Science-based adaptive management and the development of new tools and technology aligned with sustained public support are critical to continued progress in controlling and eliminating RABV variants in mesocarnivore populations at local, regional, and national scales.KeywordsAdaptive managementControlMesocarnivoreMonitoringOral rabies vaccinationEnhanced rabies surveillancePopulation reductionRabies virusWildlife management
This datasheet on Herpestes auropunctatus covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Further Information.
Jedan od strateških ciljeva Europske unije (EU) u području zdravlja životinja proglašenje je cjelokupnog prostora EU slobodnim od klasične tzv. „zemaljske“ bjesnoće do 2020. godine. Zahvaljujući uspješnosti oralnog cijepljenja, koje se u Europi provodi još od 1978., većina zemalja zapadne i srednje Europe slobodna je od bjesnoće još od 20.-21.og stoljeća. Zadnji slučaj bjesnoće u Hrvatskoj zabilježen je u proljeće 2014., nakon samo tri godine od početka provedbe nacionalnog programa oralnog cijepljenja protiv bjesnoće. Ono što nam slijedi je dobivanje službenog statusa zemlje slobodne od bjesnoće, a posljedično tome i prijelaz na novu politiku kontrole bjesnoće u zemlji. Međutim, shvaćajući bjesnoću kao globalnu prijetnju zdravlju, a posebice obzirom na prisutnost virusa u šišmiša potreban je njen stalni nadzor.
Lyssaviruses have unique and, in several cases, cryptic enzootic transmission cycles. They are neurotropic viruses that cannot be detected until onset of clinical illness and have diverged to circulate within a wide variety of reservoir mammalian populations with near-global distribution. There are 16 recognized Lyssaviruses, the majority of which are enzootic in bat populations. Rabies virus is the causative agent of nearly all Lyssavirus-related human deaths, estimated at 59,000 globally each year; a higher death burden than any other zoonotic pathogen. Domestic dog is the primary rabies virus reservoir species responsible for human infections; however, there are over 30 recognized rabies virus reservoir species globally and many more are presumed to be unrecognized due to poor-quality surveillance infrastructure. Rabies elimination is possible, by example of the elimination of canine rabies from most high-income countries through sustained dog vaccination and population management programs, as well as elimination of rabies virus from several wildlife populations, particularly raccoons in Canada and red foxes in Western Europe. The epidemiology of Lyssaviruses, particularly rabies virus, is geographically distinct and continues to evolve as global surveillance systems are expanded.
The evolutionary history of Rabies virus (RABV) has been dominated by cross-species transmission events, which led to the establishment of largely host species-specific transmission cycles. This chapter reviews lines of evidence from large-scale phylogenetic studies, outbreak investigations, and in vivo and in vitro infection experiments that have begun to identify microevolutionary changes that predispose RABV strains to infect new hosts or that are required for adaptation. We further discuss the still-enigmatic macroevolutionary origins and global spread of RABV in bats and carnivores. Finally, we illustrate the how the rapid evolution of RABV can be exploited to inform strategies to minimize the burden of this important zoonosis on human and animal health.
The public and veterinary health impact, as well as conservation of threatened and endangered species, provide rationale for attempts to control rabies virus (RABV) circulation at the animal reservoir source. Control programs targeting sylvatic reservoirs of RABV have operated since the middle of the 20th century, concurrent with the elimination of RABV circulation in domestic dogs throughout most of North America and Europe. The modern approach employed for the past 40 years focuses on immunization of wild carnivores, achieved through oral rabies vaccination (ORV), which involves broad-scale delivery of rabies vaccine baits for consumption by free-ranging sylvatic reservoir populations. The use of ORV has been credited with elimination of RABV from key mesocarnivore populations in Eurasia and North America. The tools and guidelines for execution of this management approach are now readily accessible, whereas the challenges include political will, financial support, long-term commitment, and intersectoral and multilateral coordination and collaboration.
An epizootic of rabies in mongooses ocurred in the village of Júcaro, located in the south of the province of Ciego de Avila, was studied. 5 cases were reported, in which 5 persons, 2 pigs and a dog were injured. The behavior of animal rabies in the territory from 1987 to 1997 was evaluated The precipitations and temperatures registered in the period 1967-1997 (historical) were analized. The appearance of record temperatures and precipitations in 1997 was evaluated. The possible relationship of this epizootic with climatic factors was analyzed.
This chapter provides an overview of the global epidemiology of rabies, focusing on major changes over the past half-century and highlighting recent discoveries. This chapter also describes the natural and iatrogenic routes of transmission, as well as the risk and necessary actions for the prevention of rabies following an exposure. It reviews the methods for rabies diagnosis and the biologics for prevention, in addition to differences in rabies prophylaxis recommendations among advisory committees. The chapter also considers epidemiology and trends in global human rabies and the dynamics of the corresponding mammalian reservoir hosts for each area. Furthermore, it considers the phylogenetics of rabies virus, other lyssaviruses, and specific rabies virus variants in the context of regional rabies and the potential for novel emergences. Special attention is paid to developed countries, where existing surveillance and diagnostic infrastructure have provided detailed insights into the nature changing patterns in rabies epidemiology-patterns expected to be increasingly relevant to other less-developed nations based on current trends. Special attention is afforded to canine rabies, as dogs remain responsible for over 99% of all human exposures to the virus, including the methods and problems associated with intentional and unintentional movement of dogs at national and international levels. Finally, the chapter discusses the economic burden of rabies in terms of human and infrastructure support.
Rabies is an acute central nervous system (CNS) disease of mammals that almost invariably results in death. Disease develops following productive infection with a bullet-shaped, enveloped virus that contains single-stranded, nonsegmented, negative-sense RNA.(169) Rabies virus is the type species of the Lyssavirus genus, family Rhabdoviridae. In the usual scheme of pathogenesis, virus gains entry to the host body via the bite of a rabid animal. Historically in the United States, the primary source of human exposure was the domestic dog, which still predominates as the major reservoir in developing countries. Now, wildlife are primarily affected in developed countries: current rabies reservoirs in the United States include raccoons, skunks, foxes, coyotes, and bats.(88) The incubation period in humans is variable, from <10 days to > 6 years, but usually on the order of 4–6 weeks following an animal bite.(136) During the incubation period, virus is nearly undetectable and may replicate locally in muscle tissue at the initial site of entry.(34,35) Alternatively, virus may proceed directly and centripetally through the axoplasm of peripheral nerves to the CNS. Once in the nervous system, virus replicates and spreads quickly,(127) with associated dysfunctional clinical signs partially dependent on the affected area and relative severity of infection. Overt disease is initially nonspecific, consisting of signs and symptoms in humans compatible with a “flulike illness,” such as fever, headache, and general malaise. Following the prodromal stage, an acute neurological phase may include intermittent insomnia, anxiety, confusion, paresis, percussion myoedema, excitation, agitation, hallucinations, cranial nerve deficits, chorea, dysphagia, hypersalivation, piloerection, priapism, paralysis, and sometimes maniacal behavior.(75) Clinical presentation may also include classic symptoms of paresthesia at the site of bite exposure and hydrophobia (a synonymous term for the human disease)(57) or aerophobia manifesting as phobic pharyngeal spasms following provocative stimuli. The clinical course is acute, with death usually ensuing within days. A form of the disease termed “dumb rabies” may also present as part of the clinical spectrum, with the general sparing of consciousness together with ascending paralysis, progressive unresponsiveness, coma, and death. Once clinical signs are present, there is no cure. Intensive medical support may prolong life, but ultimately death ensues. Exceptions to this are exceedingly rare with only four well-documented cases of human survival from clinical rabies (all with a history of either pre- or postex-posure therapy).(1,23,73,109) Two of the four survivors have significant residual neurological impairment. Acquired immunity in the rabies vector species, presumably following subclinical exposure, abortive infection, or survival of overt clinical rabies, is apparently rare, but lias been supported to an extent by serological surveys of wildlife and documented occurrences under laboratory conditions.(50,54)
In developing countries, brain tissues from rabies suspect animals are not always available for diagnosis for a variety of reasons, such as lack of transport to submit a carcass or the difficulty of removing an animal's head or brain under field conditions. To enable diagnosis in such cases, there is a need for a reliable method, using an alternative non-neural tissue, which can be removed and submitted to the diagnostic laboratory without special training or equipment. In human medicine, skin is used successfully for the detection of rabies virus antigen using RT-PCR technology. Little work has been done in animals using RT-PCR on skin or extracted hair follicles. The current study was conducted in Grenada on skin from 36 wild and domestic animals, in which rabies virus infection had been confirmed in brain tissue via the direct fluorescent antibody (DFA) test, and in 31 negative control animals. RT-PCR on skin yielded a sensitivity of 97.2% (35/36) and a specificity of 100% (31/31). It is concluded that the examination of skin samples via RT-PCR provides a valuable diagnostic alternative in those cases where brain tissue is not readily available.
The control of rabies in wild carnivores has evolved from culling operations targeting vector species, to parenteral and oral vaccination of free-ranging vector populations. In order for a rabies control program to be successful, many variables must be evaluated including the timing of control tactic implementation, the ecology of the rabies vector species, and the density of vaccine-baits required to immunize the target population at a level that will result in the control or eradication of rabies from the target zone. Key to the effective control of rabies in wildlife populations, and prevention of re-initiation of outbreaks following control, will be restrictions on the importation of wildlife species that are at risk of importing disease pathogens such as rabies. It has been proven, both in Europe and in North America, that large-scale oral rabies vaccination programs targeting wild carnivore populations can be cost-effective as well as effective at controlling and eliminating rabies. Key to continued success of wildlife rabies control operations will be the design of effective contingency plans to respond to re-emergence of the disease as well as rabies management plans formulated by multi-jurisdictional collaborations at the international level.
Due to the implementation of oral rabies vaccination (ORV) programmes, the European Union (EU) is becoming progressively free of red fox (Vulpes vulpes)-mediated rabies. Over the past three decades, the incidence of rabies had decreased substantially and vast areas of Western and Central Europe have been freed from rabies using this method of controlling an infectious disease in wildlife. Since rabies control is a top priority in the EU, the disease is expected to be eliminated from the animal source in the near future. While responsible authorities may consider the mission of eliminating fox rabies from the EU almost accomplished, there are still issues to be dealt with and challenges to be met that have not yet been in the focus of attention, but could jeopardise the ultimate goal. Among them are increasing illegal movements of animals, maintaining funding support for vaccination campaigns, devising alternative vaccine strategies in neighbouring Eastern European countries and the expanding distribution range of several potential rabies reservoir species in Europe.
Background/Question/Methods
Small mammals are considered one of the most detrimental biological invaders in island ecosystems. Conservation organizations and government agencies allocate a substantial amount of resources to manage these invasive species. However, lack of published information on the effectiveness of trapping and control techniques makes it difficult for conservation managers to devise population control strategies. I studied the introduced small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) population in eastern Puerto Rico to facilitate the implementation of trapping programs. I quantified the influence of localized habitat features on individual trap success in 5 different forest types (4 in El Yunque National Forest and 1 in the Northeast Ecological Corridor). At each trap we collected vegetation information (e.g., overstory canopy, downed wood, understory cover) and calculated distances (m) to: coastal shoreline, trails, roads, rivers, and recreation areas. I also included elevation (m) for each trap location. I developed a candidate model set (each model contained uncorrelated variables) and estimated the likelihood of capturing a mongoose at a trap location using logistic regression. I included a random effect for each trapping grid to account for spatial autocorrelation among traps within the same grid.
Results/Conclusions
Cover estimates differed among locations (understory cover, F4=8.4, P<0.001; overstory canopy cover, F4=13.1, P<0.001; and woody debris, F4=14.3, P<0.001) but that within a grid variability was low (SE<10%). On average, traps were located closer to roads, recreational areas, coastal shorelines, and trails when compared to the broader landscape, but farther from rivers however these measurements for any given covariate were highly variable. I trapped 34 mongooses and recaptured 4 marked individuals. I found 4 competing models for describing the likelihood of capturing a mongoose at a trap location that included positive relationships to distances from rivers and recreational areas and canopy cover but negative relationships for distances to trails and coastal shoreline. The top-ranking model (27% AICwt) included proximity to rivers and this parameter was significant (P=0.003). Models revealed that vegetation features in the vicinity of traps had no influence on the likelihood of catching a mongoose. Rather, I found significant support that distance metrics were the best predictors of mongoose capture probability within a trap grid. The ability to predict where to place traps and monitoring trapping outcomes are important for reducing efforts and costs and measuring progress towards the management goal.
On Grenada, the introduced Indian mongoose Herpestes auropunctatus is the direct or indirect source of the majority of rabies cases. Surveillance of the disease, now epizootic, is outlined for humans, dogs, cats, livestock and wildlife, and comments are made on mongoose ecology. -P.J.Jarvis
The European brown and black rats probably reached Jamaica by the earliest ships. In any case these prolific rodents, along with the equally prolific cane-piece rat, have always been a tremendous problem on sugar estates, and for several hundred years estate owners have found it necessary to expend large sums for rat catching.
From white-light photographs of solar granulation obtained with the SOUP instrument on Space Shuttle Flight STS-19 we have measured the motions of granules using local correlation tracking techniques. The granules are organized into larger-scale structures (mesogranular and supergranular) which exhibit outflow from upwellings, convergence into sinks, as well as significant vorticity. Magnetic fields follow these same flow patterns. We describe these velocity structures, and suggest that their effect on magnetic field structures may be important to the solar flare buildup process.
Between 1968 and 1977 one person died of rabies in Grenada and 208 people received postexposure antirabies treatment, 57 per cent of them following mongoose bites. The source of the one fatal case is unknown. There were also 41 cases of dog and cat rabies, but dog cases decreased following vaccination campaigns. Of 113 cases of livestock rabies, 53 per cent occurred in bovine animals. This loss could be reduced by immunization and by not tethering the animals. Four unvaccinated animals bitten by rabid mongooses on known days died between 20 and 40 days after the biting incident. Three unvaccinated animals that did not die after being bitten by mongooses showed rabies serum neutralizing antibody titers ranging from 1:14 to 1:32 a month or more after being bitten. There were 380 attacking (rabid) mongooses reported in the 10-year period, and another five rabies-positive mongooses were found run over on the roads. Of nearly 12,000 mongooses caught during surveillance trapping, 156 (1.3 per cent) were rabies-positive. Rabies in mongooses accounted for an average of 54 cases per year, or over 77 per cent of the total reported 699 rabies cases. In recent years there has been a decline in the proportion of trapped mongooses found to have rabies. Only three other cases of rabies of wildlife were reported during the 10-year period, two of them in nonvampire bat species and one in an opossum.
Rabies virus was detected by fluorescent-antibody and mouse inoculation tests in the brain of one bat, Artibeus jamaicensis, collected at La Tante, Grenada on 19 June 1974. No rabies virus was found in the brains and/or salivary glands of 411 other Grenadian bats of 6 species tested, including 56 A. jamaicensis. Rabies neutralizing antibody was detected by the rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test (RFFIT) in 27 of 353 Grenadian bats. Positives occurred in each of the 6 species sampled, with 40.5% prevalence in A. jamaicensis. In 11 of 86 Trinidadian bats of 4 species known to carry rabies, positive sera occurred only in A. jamaicensis (18.6%) and A. lituratus (18.1%). The potential use of the REFIT indetermining rabies activity is discussed.
The efficacy of a vaccinia-rabies recombinant virus (10(8) TCID50) contained in a machine-made baiting system has been tested in 22 captive young foxes which were divided into three experimental groups of six and a control group of four foxes. Each fox in groups 1, 2 and 3 were fed one, two and three vaccine-baits, respectively, on successive days. The four unvaccinated foxes were housed separately. As shown by the incorporation of a tetracycline biomarker into their bones, all the baited foxes ingested at least one bait. Thirty days after baiting seroconversion to rabies was observed in 15 (83 per cent) of the foxes and seroconversion to vaccinia in 14 (78 per cent). Sixteen of the 18 (89 per cent) baited foxes resisted a rabies challenge 30 days after baiting. One cub was protected against rabies despite the absence of detectable anti-rabies antibody. The results demonstrate that the bait-sachet system permits a good release of the virus suspension into the mouth.
The development of and the logistics used in campaigns for the oral immunization of foxes against rabies in the Federal Republic of Germany are described. The "Bavarian Model", which is outlined in detail, shows how local hunters were recruited for bait distribution and control measures at practically no cost. Over 10 million baits have been distributed in this way by hundreds of thousands of hunters in the Federal Republic of Germany as well as in the other European countries that participated in this large-scale field trial. As a result of the trial, rabies has been reduced or even eradicated in large parts of the Federal Republic of Germany.
Efficacy of an SC-administered commercial inactivated vaccine for prevention of rabies was evaluated in domestic ferrets. Ferret immunity was challenged by the IM inoculation of street rabies virus. All ferrets developed titers of rabies virus-neutralizing antibodies within 30 days of vaccination (geometric mean titer [GMT] = 154, n = 41) that were maintained for at least one year (GMT = 106, n = 36), compared with no seroconversion in controls (GMT less than 5, n = 39). Following rabies virus challenge inoculation, 89% (32/36) of vaccinated ferrets survived vs less than 6% (2/38) survival in control ferrets. These results demonstrate the protective efficacy of a commercial, inactivated rabies vaccine of at least one year's duration for domestic ferrets.
ERA rabies vaccine virus grown in BHK-21 13S cells (ERA/BHK-21) and street rabies virus were titrated in mice by intracerebral, intranasal and intramuscular inoculation. Mice were also given undiluted ERA/BHK-21 in baits. Skunks were given undiluted ERA/BHK-21 in baits and by intramuscular, intranasal and intestinal inoculation. Virus neutralizing antibody titers against rabies virus were measured over a three month observation period. The surviving skunks were challenged by intramuscular inoculation with rabies street virus from a skunk salivary gland suspension. When titrated in mice, ERA/BHK-21 had titers of 10(7.0), 10(5.2) and 10(3.9) median lethal doses per mL by the intracerebral, intranasal and intramuscular routes, respectively. All skunks (8/8) inoculated intranasally developed paralytic rabies by 12 days after exposure to ERA/BHK-21 virus. None of the skunks that developed vaccine-induced rabies had infectious virus in the submandibular salivary glands. Vaccine-induced rabies also occurred in 1/8 skunks in the intramuscularly inoculated group and in 1/8 in the intestinally inoculated group. The survival rates of challenged skunks in the various groups were as follows: intramuscular, 7/7; intestinal, 2/7; bait, 0/8; and control, 0/8. These results indicate that ERA/BHK-21 virus has a significant residual pathogenicity in mice and in skunks by some routes of inoculation. Skunks given vaccine intramuscularly were protected against challenge, while those skunks given the vaccine in baits were not.
An attenuated strain of canine adenovirus type-2 (CAV-2) was administered orally to 2 foxes (Vulpes fulva), 6 raccoons (Procyon lotor), a skunk (Mephitis mephitis), and a mongoose (Herpestus auropunctatus). Blood was collected weekly from the animals to monitor CAV-2 virus-neutralizing antibody titers. All animals had increases in titers. Sera from 8 foxes, 30 mongooses, 52 raccoons, and 22 skunks trapped in the field had naturally occurring antibody to CAV-2.
Rabies was found in 0.5 - 3.7% of mongooses (Herpestes auropunctatus) trapped in Grenada between 1968 and 1972. The difference in the proportions of rabid mongooses during this period was significant and suggested a fluctuation in the incidence of the disease. Serum neutralizing antibodies were found in 18.9% of animals examined, indicating a high transmission rate between mongooses. In addi- tion the behaviour of rabid mongooses is described, and the virus titers in organs from some of these animals are recorded. Human, domestic animal, and livestock involvement in the basic mongoose rabies cycle is discussed.
Rabies in Grenada wildlife is at present almost exclusively confined to the mongoose Herpestes auropunctatus, and it is currently estimated that 3·5% of the mongoose population is rabid. There have been 4 human deaths in the past
decade, and most of the rabies in dogs, cats, and domestic livestock is thought to originate from mongoose bites. In 1971
over 11,000 dogs were vaccinated, and 25 people received antirabies treatment as a consequence of bites. Although rabies is
not yet established in dogs, the presence of a large dog population poses a permanent threat, and dog vaccination campaigns
and attempts at mongoose eradication have provided only temporary relief from an increasing problem. The history of rabies
on the island up to the end of 1971 is considered, and the outlook for the future discussed.
During a four-year study on Grenada, 4,754 mongooses were examined, of which 100 (2·1%) were rabid. Of 1,675 mongooses tested
for rabies serum neutralizing (SN) antibody, 498 (30%) were positive. During these four years (1971–1974) the antibody prevalence
rate increased from 20·8% to 43·2%, whereas the number of rabid mongooses decreased from 3·5% to 0·6%. Naturally acquired
antibody was monitored in 20 captive mongooses for up to 35 months, and it was still circulating in 18 when monitoring ceased.
The highest titre recorded was 1:1,400, and the rate of fall was greatest in mongooses with high initial titres. High titres
of naturally acquired antibody suggest recent rabies activity. 14 mongooses vaccinated parenterally with 1·0 ml of attenuated
ERA vaccine showed substantial increases in antibody titres; most had titres greater than 1:1,000 one month later and maintained
a high titre for several months. The highest recorded was 1:34,800. The virus titres of brain material from rabid mongooses
ranged from 101·8 to 104·3 and, in some cases, were only slightly lower than those of salivary gland tissue (range, 101 to 105·6).
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WHO WORLD SURVEY OF RABIES 24 FOR THE YEAR 1988
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The present position of the mongoose in the West Indies
- Myers J. G.
Aspectos Demograficos, de Salud y Situacion de la Rabia en Republica Dominicana
- M. C. Vargas
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- E. D. Colon
Annual Summary for the United States, 1985. Centers for Disease Control
- Rabies Surveillance
Review of the Cuban National Rabies Programme for Controlling Mongooses
- C. O. R. Everard
Proceedings of the National Rabies Symposium
- E. E. Toro
Resultados de la Campana de desmangostizacion en el Municipo de los Arabos, Provincia de Matanzas
- F. A. Estupinan
- J. R. Fernandez
- J. Risco
The mongoose in Trinidad and methods of destroying it.
- Urich F. W.
Lessons from large‐scale wildlife rabies control research in Canada.
- Voight D. R.
Resultados de la Campana de desmangostizacion en el Municipo de los Arabos, Provincia de Matanzas
- Estupinan F. A.