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The efficacy of ultrasonic pest controllers for fleas and ticks

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Abstract

Two ultrasonic pest controllers, a pet-collar unit and a large unit for household use, were tested for their efficacy in repelling fleas and ticks in a choice chamber. Neither unit had any affect on the distribution of fleas or ticks in the choice chamber up to 24 h exposure, and activity of fleas, ticks and cockroaches was unimpaired. The study extends and supports previous findings that ultrasound is ineffective as a means of controlling common pests of households and pets.
Article/Artikel
THE EFFICACY OF ULTRASONIC PEST
TICKS
C R BRO$7N* and B D LE$7IS*
CONTROLLERS FOR FLEAS AND
INTRODUCTION
Ultrasound generally refers to high fre-
quency sound inaudible to the human ear
(above approximately 20 kHz). Although
inaudible to humans, some insects are
capable of detecting ultrasound. In par-
ticular, some moths respond, by evasion,
to ultrasound in the 20-40 kHz range, the
range used for prey detection by many in-
sectivorous batst r3. Such observations
provided an early stimulus for in-
vestigating the use of ultrasound for the
control of agricultural insect pests.
Results of field trials, mainly on cotton
bollworffi, tobacco budworm and cabbage
looper moths, are conflicting, some show-
ing promise6 12 and others no effect at allt
2 . In contrast, there is no a priori reason to
suggest that ultrasound will be effective
in repelling other insects, in particular
common household pests (rnainly
cockroaches and fishmoths) and pests of
domestic pets (fleas and ticks). There is
Iittle evidence that domestic insect pests
have receptors capable of detecting ultra-
sound, although fleas may be capable of
detecting ultrasonic frequencies in the
region of 100 to 10 000 kHzi. This is far
*Department of Zoology and Entomology, Rhodes
University, P.O. Box 94, 6140 Grahamstown,
Republic of South Africa
Received: April 1991 Accepted: June 1991
110
above the 20-60 kHz output of commer-
cial ultrasonic pest repellers. Never-
theless, the idea of non-chemical control
of household pests is an attractive one,
and a wide range of ultrasonic pest con-
trollers claiming to repel insect pests in
the domestic environment, is available in
the United States and Europe. The eF
ficacy of some of these devices has been
the subject of several investigations, both
in the laboratory4 5 10 14 and under more
natural conditions8 r0 15. Most of these
studies suggest that ultrasonic devices are
ineffective in controlling domestic pest
populations, although there is still some
controversy on the matterT.
It is only relatively recently that
ultrasonic pest controllers have become
available on the South African market,
mainly through mail order companies
advertising in newspapers and magazines.
Subiective reports from purchasers that
these devices are effective, led us to test
the repellent effects of 2 such devices on
fleas and ticks in a choice chamber.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Adult cat flea s (Crenocephalides felis) were
collected from domestic cats and dogs.
Fleas were either used on the day they
were collected, or kept overnight in a
glass jar with animal hair. Fleas were not
fed and fresh fleas were used for each
trial.
Adult Rhipicephalus simus ticks were
supplied by the Tick Research Unit at
Rhodes University, (Grahamstown,
Republic of South Africa) and sup-
plemented with adult ticks recovered
from domestic dogs in the Grahamstown
area. Because only limited numbers were
available, some ticks were used in more
than one trial, but none more than 3
times over the entire period of the ex-
periments and not in successive trials.
Two ultrasonic devices, purchased
from mail order companies, were tested.
The smaller unit, a flea and tick collar
unit for pets is made in Taiwan but bears
no brand name. It is designed for attach-
ment around the neck of a cat or dog, or
to be placed in a kennel or pet basket.
The instructions claim that the high fre-
quency sound will work by repelling
pests within a range of 4 feet (lr2 m). It
further claims that fleas within this range
will stop jumping within seconds and so
will not iump onto pets fitted with the
device.
The larger unit also carries no brand
name, nor is there any indication of its
country of origin. It is designed for house-
hold use and is powered by two 9V batte-
ries or supplied mains adapter. The speci-
fications claim that the unit sweeps con-
tinuously over 30 to 6 5 kHz, has a sound
pressure level of 130 dB, and is effective
in an area of 2 000 to 2 500 square feet
(180-225 mr). The rate at which the
device sweeps its frequency range is ad-
justable by the user. Both devices were
tested before and after the experiments to
confirm that they were producing ultra-
sound.
The test chamber comprised a
Y-shaped plywood box with a broad base
(16 x 10 x 8 cm) and two narrow arms (30
x 8 x 8 cm). The broad base of the Y was
partly divided by a cardboard baffle, ef-
fectively dividing the chamber into a left
and right side. A 3-piece perspex lid
allowed for observation and easy access to
the chamber. Linen-covered rectangular
holes (6 cmz) cut in the ends of the arms
allowed the ultrasonic devices to be plac-
ed immediately outside the chamber with
their transponders facing into the
chamber. The chamber was lined with
dressmaker's batting, covered with white
linen, to absorb the ultrasound and
restrict it, as far as possible, to one arm of
the chamber. Tests with an ultrasonic bat
detector (QMC Mini Bat Detector)
0038-22809 Tydskr.S.Afr.aet.Ver. (1991) 62(3): 1 10-1 1 3
Table l: Effect of the
chamber. NS pet-collar ultrasound
= not significant unit on the distribution of Ctenocephalides felis in a choice
Trial
No. No. of
fleas Initial distribution
quiet arm unit arm Final distribution
quiet arm unit arm x2 Significance
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
l9
2l
28
L7
33
29
20
30
11
T2
5
8
l6
ll6
l6
8
9
23
9
l7
l8
t4
L4
8
9
5
8
l7
5
7
23
l1
l2
23
9
16
24
t3
7
1,349 NS
1,215 NS
0,061 NS
0,059 NS
0,030 NS
4,431 P < 0,05
0,060 NS
5,659 P < 0105
Pooled 197 85 tt2 82 ll5 0,129 NS
established that no ultrasound from the
pet-collar unit penetrated to the end of
ih. "quiet" arrn-of the chamber. With the
large unit in position, ultrasound in the
"quiet" arm of the chamber was still de-
tectable, but was substantially less than in
the arm with the unit, attenuation being
estimated at 80 to 90V0. Trials were car-
ried out in a constant environment room
at 24oC with a l2L l2D light cycle.
Fleas or ticks were introduced into the
chamber at the base of the Y. The
number of insects used varied depending
on availability, but was never fewer than
I I fleas and l0 ticks. Fleas and ticks were
left for at least 60 min to distribute them-
selves in the chamber and their distri-
bution (left or right arm) noted (initial
distribution). The ultrasonic unit being
tested was then placed at the end of one
of the arms of the chamber and switched
on. Initially, the unit was placed at the
left and right arms at random based on
odd (left) and even (right) numbers
generated by a random number
generator. In a second trial of the large
unit with fleas, the unit was sometimes
deliberately placed in the arm containing
the most fleas.
After the unit was switched oo: the
chamber was left undisturbed for 24 h. At
the end of the trial, the number of fleas or
ticks in each side was again counted (final
distribution). Overall, 8 trials were car-
ried out on fleas with the pet-collar unit
and 7 on ticks. Fourteen and 6 trials were
carried out with the large unit on fleas
and ticks, respectively.
Chi-square (X,) tests, corrected for
continuity,u, were carried out for each in-
dividual trial to establish any significant
differences between initial and final dis-
tributions of fleas and ticks in the
chamber and, where X2 values were
homogeneous, pooled X2 were obtained
by summing the initial and final distribu-
tions.
RESULTS
Electronic analysis showed that the pet-
collar unit produced pulsed ultrasound at
a frequency of 35 kHz, giving a 2 mrllise-
cond (ms) tone burst every 40 ms. The
sound pressure level (SPL) of the unit
could not be measured, but output from
the unit was virtually undetectable with
the bat detector at ranges > 30 cm.
The larger unit produced modulating
sound which cycled between 20 and 37
kHz with no break in modulations. SPL
was not measured, but the unit was detec-
table with a bat detector for at least 10 m.
Of 8 trials with the pet-collar unit
against fleas, 6 trials showed no signifi-
cant difference in the distribution of fleas
before and after the unit had been switch-
ed otr: one trial showed a significant
change in distribution towards the unit
and one trial away from the unit (Table
l). Overall, there was no significant
change in the distribution of fleas after 24
h exposure to ultrasound (pooled Xz =
01129, P > 0,50).
Ticks also showed no response to ultra-
sound generated by the pet-collar unit, all
7 trials showing no significant differences
in their initial and final distributions
(pooled Xr=0,006; P > 0,75) (Table 2).
Four out of 6 trials on fleas using the
large unit, showed a significant change in
distribution after 24 h exposure.
However, the movement was towards the
ultrasound (Table 3). Xz values for in-
dividual trials were not homogeneous and
were therefore not pooled. A further
series of 8 trials with substantially more
Table 2: Effect of the pet-collar ultrasound unit on the distribution of Rhipicephalus sitnus in a choice
chamber
Trial
No. No. of
fleas Initial
quiet arm distribution
unit arm Final distribution
quiet arm unit arm Xz Significance
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
20
24
20
20
39
24
20
8
t3
8
9
22
t4
ll
L2
ll
t2
1l
l7
l0
9
10
t2
9
10
2l
t2
10
l0
l2
ll
10
l8
l2
l0
0,469 NS
0,040 NS
0,052 NS
0,273 NS
0,026 NS
0,386 NS
0,05I NS
0038-2809 Jl S.Afr.uet.Ass. (1991) 62(3): 1 10-1 13
82 84 83 0,006 NS
111
Pooled 167 85
fleas showed no significant difference
between initial and final distributions
after 24 h exposure to ultraso,rnd in any
individual trial (Table 4), or overall(Xz =
0,082; P > 0,75).
There was no significant diflerence in
the initial and final distributions of ticks
in any of the 6 individual trials (Table 5)
or overall (72 = 01219; P ) 0150).
strongly suggesting that the devices are
ineffective for repelling fleas and ticks.
These results are consistent with previous
studies on ultrasonic pest controllers. For
example, several studies have shown that
cockroaches are unaffected by a wide
range of ultrasonic frequenciesa 5 e 10.
More specifically, Rust & Parkerl4 found
no movement of fleas away from an
evidence that they are not adversely af-
fected by ultrasound. Similarly cockroach
nymphs have been found inside
ultrasonic pest repellers after trials in
apartment builditrBS, showing that
cockroaches were even using the devices
for harbouragelo.
The claim in the instructions accompa-
nying the pet-collar unit used in the pre-
Table 3: Effect of
chamber the large ultrasound unit on the
during the first series of trials distribution of Ctenocephalides felis in a choice
Trial
No. No. of
fleas Initial
quiet,arm distribution
unit arm Final distribution
quiet arm unit arm X2 Significance
I
2
3
4
5
6
24
34
L7
18
42
11
2l
18
3
9
2l
6
3
16
t4
9
2L
5
8
8
2
I
18
I
16
26
15
l7
24
10
59,520 P < 0,001
10,655 P < 0,001
0,010 NS
12,500 P < 0,001
0,595 NS
7,425 P<0,001
Table 4: Effect of the large
chamber during the ultrasound unit on the
second series of trials distribution of Ctenocephalides felis in a choice
Trial
No. No. of
fleas Initial distribution
quiet arm unit arm Final distribution
quiet arm unit arm x2 Significance
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
43
42
39
2l
33
45
37
46
3l
30
30
11
6
6
5
34
t2
L2
9
10
27
39
32
t2
32
33
3l
t6
3
5
2
34
1l
9
8
5
30
40
35
t2
0,029 NS
0,729 NS
0,036 NS
3,866 P < 0102
1,273 NS
o,o4g NS
1,445 NS
0,028 NS
Pooled 306 t53 r53 t56 150 0,082 NS
DISCUSSION
Ultrasonic sound is rapidly attenuated by
distance and is diffracted by solid obf ects.
In the present study, absorption and at-
tenuation was such that either no or very
little ultrasound was present in the
"quiet" arm of the choice chamber. If
ultrasound generated by the devices
repelled insects as claimed, one would ex-
pect a significant movement of fleas and
ticks away from the ultrasonic units into
the sound shadow of the "quiet" arm.
Such movement was not observed,
112
ultrasonic device in a cardboard tube.
Furthermore, Dryden et ai8 and Schein et
alts showed that pet-collar devices were
ineffective in reducing flea numbers on
cats and Schein et alt5 found no difference
between numbers of fleas and ticks initial-
ly placed on dogs with ultrasonic pet-
collars and on control dogs, even after 14
d exposure.
In the present study, fleas and ticks
were observed on the linen at the end of
an arm of the choice chamber within one
cm of the transponder, supporting
sent study that fleas will cease fumping
within seconds of exposure to the collar,
is also unfounded. Fleas in the chamber
were regularly observed to iump and
previous studies have demonstrated that
ultrasound has no eflect on fleas' jumping
or on their normal circadian rhythm of ac-
tivityt I 14. Rust & Parkerla, however,
showed that bursts of CO2 did elicit in-
creased activity, os might be expected of
insects that rely on CO, concentration
and thermal and visual cues to locate
hosts. Ticks in the present study, on the
0038-22809 Tydskr.S.Afr.aet.Ver. (1991) 62(3):1 10-1 13
Table 5: Effect of the large ultrasound unit on the distribution of Rhipicephalus simus in a choice
chamber
Trial
No. No. of
fleas Initial distribution
quiet arm unit arm Final distribution
quiet arm unit arm x2 Significance
I
2
3
4
5
6
20
20
r4
10
30
20
9
10
4
4
18
L2
1l
10
10
6
l2
8
11
10
6
6
T7
10
0,455 NS
o,o5o NS
0,788 NS
0,938 NS
0,035 NS
0,469 NS
Pooled tt4 57 57 60 54 0,219 NS
other hand, showed little movement after
initially distributing themselves in the
chamber, even when they had settled
within one cm of the ultrasonic devices.
Gently exhaling in their vicinity,
however, did elicit movement showing
that they were not immobilised by the
ultrasound.
The leaflet accompanying the large unit
used in the present study also claims that
the unit will stun larger insects such as
moths, bees and cockroaches, rendering
them immobile and allowing them "to be
swept away at leisure". To test this claim,
a single trial with 7 cockroaches
(Periplaneta americana) was carried out.
The trial was conducted as described for
fleas and ticks, but cockroaches were pro-
vided with food and water and a card-
board tube was placed at the end of each
arm of the chamber as harbourage. Ultra-
sound from the large unit had no notice-
able effect on cockroach activity, cock-
roaches at night being especially active
with no signs of immobility. Although
there were too few cockroaches for
statistical purposes, there was also no
change in their distribution after 24 h ex-
posure to ultrasound, but after 48 h all 7
cockroaches were clustered in the tube
immediately in front of the ultrasound
unit, but immediately moved when dis-
turbed.
In addition-to activity, ultrasound has
also been shown to have no effect on
reproduction in either cockroachesto or
fleass to, the latter despite claims that the
use of ultrasonic pet collars inhibit flea
population growthz.
The present study demonstrates that
the 2 ultrasonic devices tested fall short
of claims in their specification and
instruction leaflets with regard to their
performance. Furthermore, the study has
failed to substantiate that these ultrasonic
devices have any efficacy in repelling
common household pests. On the con-
trary, this and other studies have shown
such devices to be ineffective for control-
ling fleas, ticks or cockroaches.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Prof. B Fwaz of the Tick
Research Unit at Rhodes University for
kindly supplying us with ticks and P E
Hulley and B Fivaz for commenting on
the manuscript. Mr J McKinnel carried
out the electronic tests on the units and
Mrs S Radloff provided statistical advice.
Financial assistance of the Joint Research
Committee of Rhodes University is grate-
fully acknowledged.
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of ultrasound. Journal of Medical Entomology
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15. Schein E, Gothe R, Hauschild S 1988 Ultra-
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0038-2809 Jl S.Afr.aet.Ass. (1991) 62(3): 1 10-1 13 113
... A lack of repellency was also reported with cockroaches [19,20], mosquitoes [21], fleas [22,23] and the common bed bug, Cimex lectularius L. [24]. For ticks, there are very few reports that have evaluated the effectiveness of ultrasonic repellents and the one study undertaken to date found such devices ineffective [25]. In spite of the lack of evidence for the efficacy of ultrasonic devices in repelling ticks, as noted above, they are still widely available. ...
... As more than 80% of the ticks were not repelled within the confined area, this level of repellency is clearly insufficient to provide adequate protection from a potential tick bite. Our results are comparable to previous reports whereby ultrasonic devices were found unable to repel pests [18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25]27,28]. Some studies have focused more on the repellency rate data obtained by statistical analysis rather than the behavior of arthropods after detecting sound waves from an ultrasonic device. ...
... In contrast, flea behavior was unaffected by ultrasonic devices [28]. Likewise, Brown and Lewis found that ultrasonic devices did not affect the behavior of the tick Rhipicephalus simus, even when the tick was within 1 cm of the device [25]. These authors also found that ticks under exposure to the ultrasonic frequency still responded to the external stimuli of a gentle exhalation from the experimenter. ...
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The A-I acoustic sense cell in the tympanic ears of bollworm moths, Heliothis zea (Boddie), and tobacco budworm moths, Heliothis virescens (F.), responded to sound pulses at frequencies ranging from 10 to 100 kilohertz (KHz) , but was most sensitive to frequencies between 18 and 25 KHz. Free-flying moths of both species responded with similar evasive behavior when they were stimulated with pulses of ultrasound at frequencies of 21-22 KHz. However. in a preliminary field test, ultrasound at frequencies of 21-22 KHz and a rate of 10 pulses per second did not materially affect the populations of bollworms or tobacco budworms in cotton fields. Equipment failures were probably at least partially responsible for the lack of control.
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Pulsed ultrasonic sound was broadcasted over lettuce and broccoli crops to determine its effectiveness in reducing oviposition by the cabbage looper moth, Trichoplusia ni (Hübner). Three frequencies were used: 20, 30, and 40 kHz. Each was doubly pulsed: a low-frequency pulse (duration I second, interval 5 seconds), and a high-frequency pulse (duration 25 mseconds, interval 50 mseconds). The high-frequency pulse was generated during the on-time of the low-frequency pluse. Overall reductions in oviposition of 41, 23, and 30% were obtained in plots treated with 20, 30, and 40 kHz sound, respectively. However, sound intensities within each plot ranged from 30 or 40 to 80 or 90 db (re 0.0002 dynes/cm2). Linearregression analyses indicated that the greatest reduction in oviposition-up to 66%-occurred on plants receiving the highest sound intensities (70 to 90 db) .
Article
A previous morphological study of the trichobothria of the sensilium on the disto-dorsal surface of the flea abdomen has led us to surmise that these structures may serve as part of a flea-to-flea communication system using high frequency sound. Independent calculations based on the physical dimensions of the hair vs. the complex socket components of the sensory receptor indicate that the range of possible sound frequencies that can be transmitted or received is ca. 1 × 105 to 1 × 107 Hz.
Article
Adult cat fleas, Ctenocephalides felis (Bouché), were exposed to increasing sound frequencies from 1 kHz to 200 kHz, and activity counts and behavioral observations were made. There was no increased running or jumping activity in response to any particular sound frequency. Brief exposures to carbon dioxide caused significant increases in random jumping. Exposure to a pet collar device producing a continuous 50-Hz sound and short bursts of 40 kHz resulted in no increased activity or oriented movements toward or away from the device. Increasing the power of the 40-kHz sound to 3 watts did not affect the activity of the adult fleas. There is no apparent utility for the device or ultrasound in a flea management program.
Article
Nine commercially manufactured ultrasound pest control devices were evaluated for acoustical characteristics and for efficacy against German cockroaches, Blattella germanica (L.), and oriental rat fleas, Xenopsylla cheopis Rothschild. All devices tested produced ultrasound, but the quality of the sound differed for each device. German cockroaches entered ultrasound-treated rooms as readily as they did untreated rooms. Field efficacy testing demonstrated that German cockroach populations were not significantly reduced in ultrasound-treated apartments. Oriental rat fleas were capable of mating, oviposition, larval development, and pupation when reared in ultrasound-treated rooms. Results indicate that manufacturer claims of cockroach and flea control with ultrasound devices cannot be substantiated.
Article
The sensitivity of the A1 tympanic receptor of Caenurgina erechtea was measured by stimulation with artificial pulses 5 msec in duration and presented 10 times a second. The criterion response was 2–3 spike potentials per ultrasonic pulse. This response level required sound pressures of 0·02 to 0·03 dyn/cm2 when delivered at frequencies between 25 and 60 kHz (kc/s). Pressures +20 dB re this level were necessary below 15 and above 80 kHz. Levels of tympanic excitation approximating this criterion response are thought to cause naturally flying moths to turn and fly directly away from a source of faint ultrasonic pulses such as a distant bat. A field array, consisting of two microphones and a tympanic nerve preparation, was used to measure the maximum range of the tympanic organ of C. erechtea and Catocala spp. for the cries of approaching bats. The lower frequencies (25–30 kHz) in these sounds were detected by the moth ears up to ranges of 32 to 40 m. Data on the pulse structure and intensity of the cries made by bats flying in the field are discussed in relation to their reception at this range by the noctuid tympanic organ, and to the evasive tactics shown by moths flying in the field. The ability of this monoreceptor system to discriminate minimum signal from noise is compared with that of a hypothetical multireceptor system having similar receptor sensitivity.