No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Observations of Parent Reactions to Sex-Stereotyped Behaviors: Age and Sex Effects
Child Development
Abstract
To examine differential socialization of boys and girls by mothers and fathers, home observations were completed for families of 92 12-month-old children, 82 18-month-old children, and 172 5-year-old children. Mothers gave more instructions and directions than did fathers, while fathers spent more time in positive play interaction. Differences in parents' reactions to 12- and 18-month boys and girls were as expected, with the exception that boys received more negative comment for communication attempts than did girls. The suggestion in the literature that fathers would be more involved in sex typing than mothers was not confirmed in this study. The only 2 significant sex-of-parent x sex-of-child effects occurred at 18 months; fathers gave fewer positive reactions to boys engaging in female-typical toy play, and mothers gave more instruction to girls when they attempted to communicate. We argue that the second year of life is the time when children are learning many new skills and when parents are still experimenting with parenting styles and may well use stereotypical responses when unsure of themselves.
... For example, some parents choose room decorations in line with gender stereotypes (MacPhee & Prendergast, 2019), provide children with gender-stereotypic toys and activities Leaper & Bigler, 2018), and use gendered language (Gelman et al., 2004) and corresponding emotional expressions (Aznar & Tenenbaum, 2015;Leaper et al., 1998). Parents also tend to encourage play behaviors that are consistent with gender stereotypes (e.g., by being more engaged), and to discourage stereotypically inconsistent behaviors (Endendijk et al., 2013;Fagot & Hagan, 1991). ...
... Cohen's d = 0.40. Thus, consistent with the literature (e.g., Fagot & Hagan, 1991;Spivey et al., 2018), fathers, compared to mothers, enacted more gender-typing of their children (as expressed in their choice of toys). ...
... Gendered parenting encompasses a wide range of parental behaviors and choices, such as selecting room decor in alignment with gender stereotypes (MacPhee & Prendergast, 2019), using gendered language (Gelman et al., 2004), and expressing corresponding emotions (Aznar & Tenenbaum, 2015;Leaper et al., 1998). It also includes encouraging play behaviors that conform to gender stereotypes (e.g., through more active engagement) and discouraging behaviors that challenge these stereotypes (Endendijk et al., 2013;Fagot & Hagan, 1991). Future work could expand to encompass additional dimensions of gendered parenting. ...
Gendered parenting refers to parents’ tendency to promote gender-stereotypic behaviors of their young children. We claim that a central source of gendered parenting is parents’ support for social hierarchy (as captured by their social dominance orientation [SDO]). This is expected because parents high on SDO are more likely to think of gender as a biological dichotomy (gender essentialism), and to believe that men and boys belong in different domains than women and girls (a non-egalitarian gender ideology). Israeli parents to preschool children were surveyed ( N = 400 in Study 1; N = 401 in Study 2). Across studies, parents were asked to choose a gift for their child as a behavioral measure of gendered parenting. Results supported the predictions, such that parents’ SDO predicted gendered parenting through two sequential mediators: higher levels of gender essentialism and a non-egalitarian gender ideology. We discuss the relevance of these findings for understanding the roots of gendered parenting.
... The Socio-cognitive of Gender Differentiation and Development Theory (SGDDT) suggests that gender-related roles and behaviors are acquired through modeling, of experiments and direct teaching it is influenced by the stage of development in which the child is [7]. The behavioral repertoire stereotyped and related to their sex is acquire through play that presents differences in its complexity, structure and rules [8][9][10]. Research indicates premature, abandoned and mentally retarded children demonstrate stability in play and play [11]. ...
... It was decided to use the play method as a strategy to play access contents related to the notion of gender identity in the groups because the children naturally acquire the stereotyped behavioral repertoire related to their sex through play that presents differences in their complexity, structure and rules [7,9,10]. ...
... The patterns of responses obtained and the upward curve accompanying the increase in the age presented by the boys of the control group corroborated the descriptions and studies in the area, who affirm that gender identity comprises a set of meanings and symbols that are built internally. The perception of sexual difference will be employed in the understanding of the world and the social relations and that this behavioral repertoire stereotyped and related to their sex will be acquired naturally through games [7,9,10]. ...
In accordance with the developmental theories, the formation of gender identity is subject to an interactive logic in which biology, social coexistence and culture are considered as an inseparable unit. When studying clinical conditions of multifactorial origin and with specific characteristics it has become essential consider the impact the formation of gender identity, mainly when maintains a direct relationship with the incidence of certain disorders. The purpose of this study was to verify if boys with Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD) develop gender identity through the choices of toys and games. The empirical study was carried out on a sample of 99 boys aged four to six years and six months (M=5,24, DP=0,80), from cities in the States of São Paulo (66,7%) and Bahia (33,3%). The boys were divided into three groups, considering their clinical characteristics: Control Group - boys with normal development (n=33); Clinical Group - boys with Autistic Spectrum Disorders - ASD (n=33) and Clinical Group - boys with Mental Retardation - MR (n=33). The instruments used were the Autistic Trait Scale (ATS), the Columbia Mental Scale and the Gender Apperception Test - GAT. The results indicated differences related to the clinical characteristics of the boys who composed the groups (effect size η2=0,25).
... Stories were created using Pixton Comics and presented on a laptop. Given differences in gender socialization around harm (e.g., Björkqvist, 1994;Fagot & Hagan, 1991;Goldstein et al., 2002;Murray-Close et al., 2006), we counterbalanced the gender of the perpetrator (girl or boy) and victim (girl or boy) of the stories. ...
... Children were most likely to choose emotional harm as worse than physical harm when the victim and perpetrator were both girls. This finding parallels past research suggesting parents and teachers more often socialize boys to engage in physical harms and girls to engage in relational harms (e.g., teasing, exclusion, rumor spreading) (e.g., Björkqvist, 1994;Fagot & Hagan, 1991;Goldstein et al., 2002). to cases in which only the harmful intention or only the harmful outcome is present. ...
An understanding of harm is central to social and cognitive development, but harm largely has been conceptualized as physical damage or injury. Less research focuses on children's judgments of harm to others' internal well-being (emotional harms). We asked 5- to 10-year-old children (N = 456, 50% girls, 50% boys; primarily tested in Central New York, with socioeconomic diversity, but limited racial/ethnic or linguistic diversity) to compare emotional and physical harms. In Experiment 1, children compared simple harms (intended and completed) and then scenarios in which the perpetrator's intention did not match the outcome (intended emotional harm, but caused physical harm, or vice-versa). Assessments of the severity of emotional (vs. physical) harm increased with age and depended on the perpetrator's intentions. In Experiment 2, children saw emotional and physical harms that were: Simple (intended and completed); Incomplete (intended, but not completed); or Accidental (not intended, but completed). Children evaluated physical and emotional harms in isolation and then compared the two. Judgments of the relative severity of emotional harm increased with age, but only when intentions and outcomes were both present. This reflected an increase with age in children's perceptions that emotional harm was hurtful, whereas perceptions of physical harm were relatively stable across development. With age, children also increasingly associated emotional harms with longer-term impacts (being remembered and reoccurring). These findings suggest reasoning about the severity, underlying intentions, and duration of emotional harm shifts with age. The results hold implications for moral development, law and psychology, and emotional-harm-related interventions including those addressing bullying. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
... Alternatively, many have suggested that environmental factors may play a role in gendered toy preference (Bandura, 1977;Ehrhardt & Meyer-Bahlburg, 1981;Fagot & Hagan, 1991;Langlois & Downs, 1990;Martin, 1999;Martin, Wood, & Little, 1990). Roopnarine (1986) hypothesized that caretakers may contribute to the gender-specific socialization of their infants. ...
... The establishment of gender-specific toy preferences has also been argued to be largely dependent on postnatal influences from the ambient environment (Bandura, 1977;Ehrhardt & Meyer-Bahlburg, 1981;Fagot & Hagan, 1991;Langlois & Downs, 1990;Martin, 1999;Martin et al., 1990). Experiment 2 reported a small but not robust correlation between parental attitudes and infants' gender-specific toy preferences. ...
In contrast to the anecdotal claim that “male infants like cars and female infants like dolls,” previous studies have reported mixed findings for gender‐related toy preferences in infancy. In Experiment 1, we explored the emergence of gender‐related preferences using face–car pairs (Experiment 1a, n = 51, 6–20 months) or face–stove pairs (Experiment 1b, n = 54, 6–20 months). In Experiment 2 (n = 42, 14–16 months), we explore the effect of toy properties, infants' past toy exposure, activity levels, and parental attitudes on such preferences using a wider range of toys. For both studies, infants demonstrated a general preference for faced stimuli over other objects, except for male infants who showed no preference between dolls and cars at around 15 months. Infants' prior experience participating in motor‐intensive activities, with wheeled toys and parental attitudes appeared to relate to female infants' preferences for dynamic toys. These results indicate a range of factors influence gendered toy preferences and suggest that nurture plays an important role.
... Because much of the most frequently-cited literature on sex role and gender socialization stems from the same period (e.g. Fagot & Hagan, 1991;Lytton & Romney, 1991;Pomerantz & Ruble, 1998), our analysis enhances our ability to interpret this still heavily-cited literature. We also suspect that our results retain significance for contemporary child-rearing practices. ...
... The emergence of intentional behavior moves the child from the domain of "Significance in the World" to the lower left quadrant of Figure 13: "operational closure in the individual". In terms of gender/sex, we define operational closure as the multi-month process during which children acquire linguistic labels, the ability first to label gender/sex of self and others passively, then actively and over time to acquire the concepts of gender/sex constancy and gender/ sex stability (Bem, 1989;Fagot & Hagan, 1991;Fagot, Hagan, Leinbach, & Kronsberg, 1985;Fagot & Kavanagh, 1993). According to Varela, operational closure gives rise to a global property (what we call identity) without requiring "a central controller" such as an identity gene or a special group of identity cells in the brain. ...
In this paper we tried to loosen the following knot: at some
point in mid toddlerhood, children evidence a gender/
sex—a personal sense of group belonging which also
predicts individual behaviors and wants—play, dress and
peer preferences. Yet at birth, although individual pattern
differences in embodied responses to new stimuli exist,
these do not appear to correlate with gender/sex (Kagan,
1994), and few measurable differences exist between
female-designated and male-designated infants. As gender/
sex becomes visible and measurable, it already seems to
emanate from deep within the body. How does individual—
apparently non-gender/sex-correlated-- variability turn
into individual gender/sex identity? How do measurable
gender/sex-related group differences appear? In this essay
we contrast process-based theories of gender/sex identity
and development with theories that posit identity as an
inherent trait. From our own research, we offer data that
demonstrate differences in behavior and infant handling
in mother-son compared to mother-daughter dyads. We
use these findings and others in the literature to develop a
theory of embodiment and conclude with a proposal
to refocus research in the field of infant gender/sex
development. Specifically, we urge the use of longitudinal,
multi-disciplinary research designs and analytical tools that
emphasize emerging properties and developmental process.
Keywords: identity, gender/sex, infant development,
dynamic systems, process theory, embodiment
... Parents often interact with their children in gendered ways based on their assigned sex at birth, which is typically assumed to correspond to their gender identity later in life (Butler 1993;Meyer-Bahlburg et al. 2016). As such, we, like many researchers, propose that gender-typed toy preferences are in part influenced by parental socialization practices (i.e., modeling and reinforcement) (Bussey and Bandura 1999;Fagot and Hagan 1991;Langlois and Downs 1980) and that it is during infancy that the foundations for these preferences are constructed. ...
... For example, the quality of parents' play with their male infants and toddlers has been observed as highly physical in nature (e.g., rough and tumble play) (Haight et al. 1997;Mize 2000, 2001), whereas parents' play with their female infants and toddlers tends to be gentle and involve pretend play that is female gender-role oriented (e.g., playing house) Mize 2000, 2001). Furthermore, observational research demonstrates that when parents are with their infants in playrooms with gender-typed toys, parents, especially fathers, are more likely to choose gender-typical toys for their infants and respond positively to their child playing with gender-typical toys (Caldera et al. 1989;Fagot and Hagan 1991;Jacklin et al. 1984;Snow et al. 1983). ...
Gender socialization influences children at early ages, shaping their developing identities. The toys provided by parents deliver some of the earliest gender-based messages by encouraging children to engage in activities associated with, for example, dolls and trucks. In the current study, we measured the influence of parental socialization by assessing 5- and 12 ½-month-old infants’ exposure to dolls and trucks and by experimentally manipulating parents’ encouragement to play with these toys. We found that infants displayed gender-typical toy preferences at 12 ½, but not 5 months, a pattern characteristic of previous studies. However, brief encouragement by a parent to play with toys from each category was ineffective in altering infants’ preferences. Rather, the types of toys present in the home predicted preferences, suggesting that at-home exposure to toys may be influential in the development of toy preferences. These findings reveal that socialization processes may indeed play a role in the formation of early gender-typical toy preferences and highlight the importance of equal toy exposure during infancy to ensure optimal development.
... Research suggests that the gender of both parent and child play a role in how gendered beliefs are passed across generations; however, there is conflicting evidence regarding the nature of these relationships. On one hand, a study of 346 infants, toddlers and 5-year-olds and their parents concluded that fathers' communication about gender roles is directed more toward sons than daughters, and that ideologically traditional fathers enforce more traditional behavior in children (Fagot & Hagan, 1991). In a related study of 134 Israeli families with adolescents, Kulik (2002) found that fathers and sons have stronger ideological agreement than fathers and daughters. ...
... If traditional fathers caution their sons against engaging in feminine behavior, it would hold that sons of traditional men have more knowledge of these feminine stereotypes than sons of egalitarian men. Furthermore, because fathers have been found to react less positively to 18-month-old boys' play with stereotypically feminine toys than with stereotypically masculine toys (Fagot & Hagan, 1991), it is possible that fathers dictate gendered play even earlier in their sons' lives. This would explain why fathers' early ideology predicted boys' attitudes above and beyond concurrent ideology. ...
The current study utilized longitudinal, self-report data from a sample of 109 dual-earner, working-class couples and their 6-year-old children living in the northeastern United States. Research questions addressed the roles of parents’ gender ideology and gendered behaviors in predicting children’s development of gender-role attitudes. It was hypothesized that parents’ behavior would be more influential than their ideology in the development of their children’s attitudes about gender roles. Parents responded to questionnaires assessing their global beliefs about women’s and men’s “rightful” roles in society, work preferences for mothers, division of household and childcare tasks, division of paid work hours, and job traditionality. These data were collected at multiple time points across the first year of parenthood, and during a 6-year follow-up. At the final time point, children completed the Sex Roles Learning Inventory (SERLI), an interactive measure that assesses gender-role attitudes. Overall, mothers’ and fathers’ behaviors were better predictors of children’s gender-role attitudes than parents’ ideology. In addition, mothers and fathers played unique roles in their sons’ and daughters’ acquisition of knowledge about gender stereotypes. Findings from the current study fill gaps in the literature on children’s gender development in the family context—particularly by examining the understudied role of fathers in children’s acquisition of knowledge regarding gender stereotypes and through its longitudinal exploration of the relationship between parents’ gender ideologies, parents’ gendered behaviors, and children’s gender-role attitudes.
... Gender nonconformity is significantly associated with a lack of parental warmth and paternal, maternal, and peer rejection in childhood (Landolt et al., 2004). As early as 18 months old, children receive fewer positive reactions to gender role atypical play and more positive reactions to gender consistent play from parents (Fagot and Hagan, 1991). In preschool classrooms, boys receive peer and teacher criticism and have less positive social reactions when engaging in stereotypic feminine behaviors (Fagot, 1977). ...
Background: Recent research has found that gender parity (i.e., the ratio of women to men) in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) disciplines is associated with sexual violence (SV) victimization for women. This finding may reflect a type of backlash wherein SV is a means of punishing women who are perceived to be violating their gender roles and threatening the male hegemony. Sexual minorities, who are likewise disproportionately victims of SV, report experiencing heterosexist hostility and harassment in STEM disciplines. There is reason to suspect that the combination of these marginalized identity positions (i.e., sexual minority woman in gender balanced STEM) may amplify perceived gender role violations and exacerbate the risk of SV victimization.
Methods: Data were collected from undergraduate women at five institutions of higher education in the United States. Sampling was stratified by STEM vs. non-STEM majors and male dominated vs. gender balanced majors. Sexual violence was measured via the revised Sexual Experiences Survey. We tested the interaction of sexual minority status and gender parity in STEM on SV via fixed effects OLS regression.
Results: Sexual minority women in gender balanced STEM were most frequently victims of SV. Women in male dominated STEM majors were at no greater risk of SV victimization, regardless of sexual minority status, than their peers in non-STEM majors.
Implications: These findings suggest the possibility of a compound form of backlash, wherein women are exponentially victimized because their sexual identity and their membership in these STEM fields are seen as dual challenges to the male hegemony. If true, this could exacerbate health disparities rather than promote health equity for these sexual minority women. Findings point to the ongoing need to challenge hegemonic gender norms, focus prevention programs on populations most at risk, and ensure they are provided the appropriate resources for support.
... This view suggests that sex-specific behavior emerges when concepts about gender identity are socially constructed or built by interactions with other people. For instance, despite self-reports that they treated their sons and daughters similarly, parents were more engaged and provided more positive feedback to their sons and daughters for playing with sex-typical toys and more discouragements for playing with a cross-sex toys [32][33][34]. At 4 years old, preschoolers are already aware of social expectations of genders and adjust their toy preferences accordingly [35]. ...
Background:
As interest in evaluating sex differences in nonhuman animals grows, the finding that male and female monkeys have toy preferences that differ, and that parallel those documented in human children, has garnered significant attention and is leveraged as an argument in favor of a biological contribution for human sex differences. To date, however, only two studies have investigated sex differences in monkeys' toy preferences, both documenting that males prefer toys considered to be "masculine" (such as vehicles) and females prefer toys considered to be "feminine" (such as dolls). Monkeys in these studies were tested in their social groups, making it hard to determine if the sex differences reported reflect actual individual preferences or result from social dynamics present at the time of testing.
Method:
Here, we assessed the preferences of 14 rhesus macaques (N = 7 males; N = 7 females) who were singly tested in a choice test with a variety of toys characterized as masculine (hard non-zoomorphic wheeled toys), feminine (zoomorphic soft toys), neutral (hard non-zoomorphic toys) and ambiguous (zoomorphic or plush vehicles) based on criteria from previous studies.
Results:
Males and females showed similar preferences for neutral and "masculine" toys and preferred them (i.e., were more likely to interact with them) to "feminine" and sex-ambiguous toys. When they interacted with the toys, both males and females interacted more with neutral than with "masculine" toys. Females, but not males, interacted more with neutral and "masculine" toys than with "feminine" toys. The highest frequency of interaction for any single toy for the male monkeys was with the doll-standing is stark contrast to previous findings.
Conclusions:
Our results contrast greatly with the previous study in rhesus monkeys, as well as findings in human children, suggesting that the previously documented sex differences are likely context dependent, and question the existence of a strong biological basis to sex differences in toy preferences.
... She concluded that parents who were authoritative in style (use of high control, responsiveness, reasoning, warmth and communication) had more competent children than parents who were more authoritarian (use of high control, strictness, coercive power and demand for obedience) and parents who were permissive (warmth, no demand and control). Later studies concluded that parenting styles and practices affect children's social, emotional and cognitive development (Baumrind, & Black, 1967;Bronfenbrenner, 1986;Connell & Prinz, 2002;Dornbusch et al., 1987, Fagot, 1978Fagot & Hagan, 1991;Fung, 2022;McGillicuddy-De Lisi, 1996;Pinquart, 2016;Sigel & McGillicuddy-De Lisi, 2002). It is often found that while authoritative parenting is more advantageous, authoritarian parenting may The Mediating Effects of Child Mastery Motivation 53 present some challenges for child outcomes (Pinquart, 2016;Shumow et al., 1998). ...
The focus of the study was to explore how parenting and children’s motivation to learn would influence preschool children’s readiness to learn at school. Two-hundred-thirty-two mother-father dyads reported on their socioeconomic status (SES), child rearing practices and perceptions of their preschool age children’s mastery motivation (gross-motor persistence, object persistence, social symbolic persistence and mastery pleasure). The preschool teachers reported on children’s readiness measured by five domains (physical well-being, emotional maturation, social competence, language and cognitive competence and communication and general knowledge) and children’s mastery motivation. Structural equation modeling (SEM) analyses revealed that mastery motivation in children was a significant and a positive predictor of children’s school readiness; and the effects of parenting was mediated by mastery motivation.
... Moreover, parental socialisation of sex typing is \^;ry likely to be age-and behaviour-specific, that is, it will be greatest during periods of transition when the child is learning new behaviours (Fagot & Hagan, 1991). ...
p>This thesis tested the first part of a new theoretical model, aiming to contribute to the understanding of sex differences in the prevalence of Disruptive Behaviour Disorders (DBDs) in boys and girls. Specifically, gendered perceptions of DBDs, as expressed by parents and prospective educators, were examined.
An analogue methodology using written descriptions of child disruptive behaviour followed by rating scales assessing several perceptual dimensions like severity and untypicality was used, along with the SDQ (Goodman, 1997) and rating scales of adults’ emotional reactions and sense of self-efficacy.
The first of four studies demonstrated that perspective educators consider DBDs as more untypical in girls rather than boys. This finding was replicated in all studies. The second study showed that prospective educators consider hyperactivity as more severe in boys, whereas the third study established that mothers rate DBDs as equally severe in both sexes. The fourth study showed that correlates of severity and untypicality are different in quality and strength for mothers and prospective educators. For mothers, ratings of severity are mostly related to the emotions evoked by the child’s behaviour, whereas, for prospective educators, they are mostly related to their sense of self-efficacy to handle the child’s behaviour, which is lower in the case of hyperactive boys.
To summarise, this thesis has shown that parents and prospective educators have several gendered perceptions of child disruptive behaviour, with higher untypicality conferred to girls’ hyperactive behaviour. Moreover, the role of the adult toward the child and the specific DBD subtype examined seem to influence these differences. Implications of these findings for socialisation practices and referral attitudes that might relate to the reported sex difference in the prevalence of DBDs are discussed.</p
... Boys begin to learn acceptable "masculine" behavior through punishment and reinforcement at an early age. For example, fathers provide fewer positive reactions to 18-month-old boys who engage in stereotypical feminine play and both mothers and fathers give more positive social interactions for boys who engage in male-typical play relative to girls (Fagot & Hagan, 1991). Beginning at age five, children begin to follow and enforce gender role norms (Devarakonda, 2012). ...
Masculine gender role norms (i.e., masculinity), in particular those related to patriarchal or hegemonic masculinity, are widely recognized as a risk factor for sexual violence perpetration among boys and men. Toward the goal of better understanding the intersection between masculinity and sexual violence among boys and men, this chapter: (1) reviews the associations between cultural constructions of traditional masculinity and the perpetration of sexual violence, (2) discusses the ways in which masculinity is communicated to boys and men across developmental stages and the social ecology, (3) considers how this messaging can serve to propagate sexual violence against women and SGM, (4) discusses how this knowledge of masculinity can be used to develop prevention strategies for sexual violence, and (5) concludes by delineating gaps in the research and discussing potential next steps for research and practice.
... The emergence of intentional behavior moves the child from the domain of "Significance in the World" to the domain of "Operational Closure in the Individual" (Figure 2: lower left quadrant). In terms of gender/sex, we define operational closure as the multi-month process during which children acquire linguistic labels, the ability first to label gender/sex of self and others passively, then actively, over time acquiring the concepts of gender/sex constancy, and gender/sex stability (Fagot et al., 1985(Fagot et al., , 1986(Fagot et al., , 1992Bem, 1989;Leinbach, 1989, 1993;Fagot and Hagan, 1991). According to Varela, operational closure gives rise to a global property (what we call identity) without requiring "a central controller" such as an identity gene or a special group of identity brain cells. ...
From birth to 15 months infants and caregivers form a fundamentally intersubjective, dyadic unit within which the infant’s ability to recognize gender/sex in the world develops. Between about 18 and 36 months the infant accumulates an increasingly clear and subjective sense of self as female or male. We know little about how the precursors to gender/sex identity form during the intersubjective period, nor how they transform into an independent sense of self by 3 years of age. In this Theory and Hypothesis article I offer a general framework for thinking about this problem. I propose that through repetition and patterning, the dyadic interactions in which infants and caregivers engage imbue the infant with an embodied, i.e., sensori-motor understanding of gender/sex. During this developmental period (which I label Phase 1) gender/sex is primarily an intersubjective project. From 15 to 18 months (which I label Phase 2) there are few reports of newly appearing gender/sex behavioral differences, and I hypothesize that this absence reflects a period of developmental instability during which there is a transition from gender/sex as primarily inter-subjective to gender/sex as primarily subjective. Beginning at 18 months (i.e., the start of Phase 3), a toddler’s subjective sense of self as having a gender/sex emerges, and it solidifies by 3 years of age. I propose a dynamic systems perspective to track how infants first assimilate gender/sex information during the intersubjective period (birth to 15 months); then explore what changes might occur during a hypothesized phase transition (15 to 18 months), and finally, review the emergence and initial stabilization of individual subjectivity-the period from 18 to 36 months. The critical questions explored focus on how to model and translate data from very different experimental disciplines, especially neuroscience, physiology, developmental psychology and cognitive development. I close by proposing the formation of a research consortium on gender/sex development during the first 3 years after birth.
... one respondent said ,"it is very difficult if girls do something wrong we do not forgive but we forgive bigger mistakes of our boys ,because that is our culture and family traditions Theme 3: Liberty to Decision Making In response to question regarding giving equal freedom and involvement in decision making related to different important matters of the family respondent almost all answered that all important decisions are taken by the male members of the family. Fagot and Hagan (1991) specially matter related to property ,marriage, getting admission or having jobs .while respondent J said ,"I some time take suggestions from my daughter also but most of the time male takes decisions Lisa Warth (2012) find the same results ." ...
This study of the role and perception of mothers in developing gender discrimination is focused on analyzing mother's role, as their role in developing child personality and social behavior is proved by the researches. Present research is a mixed method research, mothers were the population , a total 183 mothers were selected, data was collected through questionnaire and 16 mothers were selected for personal interview through purposive and random sampling .Validity was ascertained through expert opinion and reliability through Cronbach alpha .Results indicated that mothers from rural and urban areas of Sindh Pakistan have almost similar and very obvious discriminative behavior for daughters and sons mother do not realized implications of their behavior and they presents many arguments to justify their gender discriminative behavior. We concluded that awareness of the consequences of their behavior and education should be emphasized to change discriminative behavior for minimizing gender gap.
... If (Fagot et al., 1991) and the m other's separation from the baby girl w ould be m ore difficult than the separation from the baby boy: ...
The present investigation was carried out on longitudinal bases in the London Parent-Child Project. It aims to investigate children's (N=89) patterns of exploration, at the age of 12 and 18 months in the presence and in the absence of their mothers and fathers, respectively, in the Strange Situation Procedure (Ainsworth et al., 1978), as an alternative measure of attachment security. The exploratory behaviour is coded in terms of the episodes in the presence and in the absence of the parents as well as after the first and the second separations from the parents. Furthermore, the present study correlates the children's levels of exploration with the children's previous classification of attachment to each parent. Overall results of exploration were analyzed taking into account the children's gender, temperament and scores of mental development (MDI), and also the parents' demographic variables, such as age, educational and socio-economic status, as well as security of attachment (AAI) and personality traits. The children's early patterns of exploration of the physical world at 12 months, in the presence and m the absence of the mother and after the separations from the mother, are associated with the children's later performance (at the age of five) in a joint story-telling task with the mother, taking into account both the mothers' and the children's security of attachment. The mother-child's co-construction of a narrative was initially coded by using the Oppenheim & Renouf Coding System (1991) and re-coded by using a newly developed system, the Exploring Parents' and Children's Strategies Coding System (Alves, 1993), which was developed as part of this thesis. Results support the notion that exploration in the Strange Situation can be used as a reliable alternative measure of attachment security. Different patterns of exploration during the experiment were shown to be related to the presence and to the absence of the parent and, furthermore, to the different ways in which the children react to the impact of the separations from the parent. The children's stable patterns of exploration across the investigations (at 12 and 18 months) were not subject to or related with the parents' security, personality trait or demographic variables. The children's patterns of exploration were related to their patterns of attachment to the parent involved in the experiment and also mediated by the children's temperament and gender. The discussion focuses first on the children's early patterns of exploration in the assessment with the mother (at 12 months) and then on the associations of these early patterns of exploration of the physical world and the children's later performance at the age of five, when co-constructing a narrative with their mothers. Associations and predictions were made depending on the children's classification of attachment with regard to specific sections of the co- construction. The results showed that securely attached children, more than avoidant children, performed better in the presence episode while the avoidant group performed better in the absence episode. Unexpectedly, though, the less the resistant group explored at 12 months, the better was its performance in the co-construction.
... First, the effect of character gender was significantly weaker (or absent) among the male children compared with any of the other groups. In contrast, previous literature has shown that boys have stronger explicit preferences and stereotypes for gender-typed toys than girls due to stricter norms around what they can play with (Carter & Levy, 1988;Fagot & Hagan, 1991). In addition, both parents and children showed persistent gaze biases to own-gender-typed objects. ...
... Children's toy preferences are likely to be influenced by gender-specific socialization and be augmented as knowledge of gender-typed behaviour, derived from observation of others, increases (Bussey & Bandura, 1999;Fagot & Hagan, 1991;Langlois & Downs, 1990). Adults may initiate and reward stereotypical play, but the extent of their influence is difficult to determine. ...
Many studies have found that a majority of boys and girls prefer to play with toys that are typed to their own gender but there is still uncertainty about the age at which such sex differences first appear, and under what conditions. Applying a standardized research protocol and using a selection of gender-typed toys, we observed the toy preferences of boys and girls engaged in independent play in UK nurseries, without the presence of a parent. The 101 boys and girls fell into three age groups: 9 to 17 months, when infants can first demonstrate toy preferences in independent play (N = 40); 18 to 23 months, when critical advances in gender knowledge occur (N = 29); and 24 to 32 months, when knowledge becomes further established (N = 32). Stereotypical toy preferences were found for boys and girls in each of the age groups, demonstrating that sex differences in toy preference appear early in development. Both boys and girls showed a trend for an increasing preference with age for toys stereotyped for boys. Theoretical implications of the findings are discussed with regard to biological predispositions, cognitive development and environmental influences on toy preference.
... Children's toy preferences are likely to be influenced by gender-specific social- ization and be augmented as knowledge of gender-typed behaviour, derived from observation of others, increases (Bussey & Bandura, 1999;Fagot & Hagan, 1991;Langlois & Downs, 1990). Adults may initiate and reward stereotypical play, but the extent of their influence is difficult to determine. ...
From an early age, most children choose to play with toys typed to their own gender. In order to identify variables that predict toy preference, we conducted a meta‐analysis of observational studies of the free selection of toys by boys and girls aged between 1 and 8 years. From an initial pool of 1788 papers, 16 studies (787 boys and 813 girls) met our inclusion criteria. We found that boys played with male‐typed toys more than girls did (Cohen's d = 1.03, p < .0001) and girls played with female‐typed toys more than boys did (Cohen's d = −0.91, p < .0001). Meta‐regression showed no significant effect of presence of an adult, study context, geographical location of the study, publication date, child's age, or the inclusion of gender‐neutral toys. However, further analysis of data for boys and girls separately revealed that older boys played more with male‐typed toys relative to female‐typed toys than did younger boys (β = .68, p < .0001). Additionally, an effect of the length of time since study publication was found: girls played more with female‐typed toys in earlier studies than in later studies (β = .70, p < .0001), whereas boys played more with male‐typed toys (β = .46, p < .05) in earlier studies than in more recent studies. Boys also played with male‐typed toys less when observed in the home than in a laboratory (β = −.46, p < .05). Findings are discussed in terms of possible contributions of environmental influences and age‐related changes in boys' and girls' toy preferences.
Highlights
Gender differences in toy choice exist and appear to be the product of both innate and social forces.
Despite methodological variation in the choice and number of toys offered, context of testing, and age of child, the consistency in finding sex differences in children's preferences for toys typed to their own gender indicates the strength of this phenomenon and the likelihood that has a biological origin.
The time playing with male‐typed toys increased as boys got older, but the same pattern was not found in girls; this indicates that stereotypical social effects may persist longer for boys or that there is a stronger biological predisposition for certain play styles in boys.
... Parents need to provide greater supervision and instruction in order to help their children to become more independent. Fagot and Hagan (1991) found that, for example, parenting changed from 12 to 18 months from positive and supportive to instructive and directive. Other research finds that as children age from one year to three years, mothers report less confidence about their parenting and greater dislike of the mess surrounding children (Waylen and Stewart-Brown, 2008). ...
This report examines parenting from babyhood to early childhood. We first consider what previous studies have revealed about the nature of good parenting and the determinants of parenting in the early years. Using data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children we then set out to establish whether the individual characteristics of mothers and children, and factors such as mothers’ social networks and marital relations, predict certain types of parenting behaviours. We do this by examining how 1,136 mothers interacted with their child when asked to share a picture book with them. This observation exercise, which measured parental warmth and teaching behaviours, took place when the child was aged one, then again at age five. Lastly, we address the implications of our findings for policy and practice.
... Örneğin, erkek çocuklarının bebeklerle oynamasını desteklemezken kız çocuklarını bebek oyunlarını oynamaya ve uysal ve şefkatli olmaya teşvik etmektedirler (Johnson, ve ark., 2005;Wood, Desmarais ve Gugula, 2002). Annelerle babalar kıyaslandığında, özellikle babaların erkek çocuklarının kız çocuklarıyla özdeşleştirilen oyuncaklarla oynamalarını tercih etmedikleri belirtilmiştir (Fagot ve Hagan, 1991). Cinsiyet faktörünün yanı sıra çocuk yaşının da anne babaların oyuna katılımlarını etkilediği belirtilmektedir. ...
Erken çocukluk döneminde oyun, çocuğun gelişim ve eğitimini desteklemekte önemli bir yere
sahiptir Bu çalışmada, anne ve babaların çocuklarının oyunlarına katılım düzeyleri ve onların
katılımını etkileyen faktörler incelenmiştir. Çalışmanın örneklemini Denizli ili merkezinde
anaokulu ve anasınıfı çocuğu olan 331 anne ve baba oluşturmaktadır. Veriler oyuna katılım anketi
kullanılarak toplanmıştır. Verilerin analizi sonucunda anne babaların oyuna katılımı üzerinde
eğitim düzeyi, çalışma durumu, cinsiyeti, çocuk cinsiyeti, yaşı ve sayısının etkili olduğu
saptanmıştır. Çalışmanın bulguları alan yazın ışığında tartışılmış ve öneriler sunulmuştur.
... That is, although neither modeling nor reinforcement from fathers was examined directly, sons' observations of their fathers formed the basis of their perceptions of their fathers' gender-related behavior. As such, we believe these results support previous research findings that high-light the important role of social learning in the gender role development of males (Fagot, 1978;Fagot & Hagan, 1991;Langlois & Downs, 1980;Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974;O'Leary & Donahue, 1978;Ruble, 1984) and add to the empirical literature examining the relationship between paternal gender roles and children's development (Biller, 1971;Lamb, 1980). ...
In this study, the authors hypothesized that men's own gender role strain and estimates of their fathers' gender role strain, would be associated with less attachment to, and more psychological separation from, their parents. Two hundred four college students completed the Gender-Role Conflict Scale, the Masculine Gender Role Stress Scale, the Parental Attachment Questionnaire, and the Psychological Separation Inventory. Results indicate that (a) men who perceived their fathers as having less gender role conflict and stress, and who viewed themselves with somewhat less gender role conflict, reported closer attachments to both parents and that (b) men who experienced lower levels of gender role conflict and stress, and who perceived their fathers experienced lower levels of gender role stress, reported less psychological separation from both parents.
... Gender roles are additionally molded by the force of prizes and discipline. The key procedures in operant molding Parents, instructors, associates, and others frequently fortify (more often than not with implicit endorsement) "gender suitable" conduct [39,40]. For instance, a young man who has harmed himself might be informed that "enormous young men don't cry." ...
ABSRACT: Current research aimed at investigating the psychological well-being of adolescent children belonging to working and non-working women. The sample of present research comprised of 200 adolescent children including 100 (male and female) children belonging to employed mothers and 100 (male and female) children belonging to non-employed mothers. It was assumed that adolescent children belonging to employed and non-employed mothers are not contrasted in their mental alteration. To begin with, Subjects were met by individual data survey, then Reynolds Adolescent Adjustment Screening Inventory (RAASI) was directed so as to determine the psychological well-being problems among adolescent children. Their responses were scored to determine the level of their mental alteration. t-test was calculated to test hypotheses of the study. The outcomes indicated insignificant difference between the adolescent children of employed and non-employed mothers in respect their psychological well-being.
... These gender expectations stem from the broader masculine gender role which is characterized by agency, ambitiousness, and dominance (Bem, 1974(Bem, , 1981Eagly & Wood, 1991). Cultural expectations for men to display masculine behaviors manifest as early as childhood and are reinforced by parents (e.g., Fagot, 1977;Rubin, Provenzano, & Luria, 1974), teachers (Fagot & Hagan, 1991), toy manufacturers (Feinman, 1981), and institutional systems (Zucker, Bradley, & Sanikhani, 1997). Across much of the life span, men have been reported to experience greater disapproval when engaging in gender-opposite behavior (Feinman, 1981), and to exhibit greater concern about being gender deviant than women (McCreary, 1994). ...
Men have higher morbidity and mortality rates than women across the life span. One potential explanation for this gap is greater pressure for men to express their masculine toughness. Situations that threaten masculinity often result in compensatory behaviors (e.g., binge drinking) geared toward proving toughness. The present research tested the hypothesis that threats to masculinity would lead men to behave in ways that express toughness to a greater extent if they were highly masculine, as measured by the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. Further, we anticipated that self-affirmation would ameliorate the compensatory responding exhibited by higher masculine men under threat. Participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 experimental cells in a 2 (Masculine Identity Threat: yes, no) × 2 (Self-Affirmation: yes, no) between-subjects factorial design. Results indicated that men expressed masculine toughness to a greater extent when facing a masculinity threat than when under no threat. Further, higher masculinity amplified the effect of threat in expressing toughness. Results also showed that the opportunity to self-affirm reduced expression of toughness among higher masculine men facing a masculinity threat. Theoretical contributions, implications, and future directions for this line of research are discussed.
... Children's toy preferences are likely to be influenced by gender-specific socialization and be augmented as knowledge of gender-typed behaviour, derived from observation of others, increases (Bussey & Bandura, 1999;Fagot & Hagan, 1991;Langlois & Downs, 1990). Adults may initiate and reward stereotypical play, but the extent of their influence is difficult to determine. ...
Many studies have found that a majority of boys and girls prefer to play with toys that are typed to their own gender but there is still uncertainty about the age at which such sex differences first appear, and under what conditions. Applying a standardized research protocol and using a selection of gender-typed toys, we observed the toy preferences of boys and girls engaged in independent play in UK nurseries, without the presence of a parent. The 101 boys and girls fell into three age groups: 9 to 17months, when infants can first demonstrate toy preferences in independent play (N=40); 18 to 23months, when critical advances in gender knowledge occur (N=29); and 24 to 32months, when knowledge becomes further established (N=32). Stereotypical toy preferences were found for boys and girls in each of the age groups, demonstrating that sex differences in toy preference appear early in development. Both boys and girls showed a trend for an increasing preference with age for toys stereotyped for boys. Theoretical implications of the findings are discussed with regard to biological predispositions, cognitive development and environmental influences on toy preference.
... Češće su i pomagale djevojčicama kada bi tražile pomoć, dok su dječake češće ignorirale i odbijale im pomoći. Fagot i Hagan (1991), promatrajući interakciju majki i djece, utvrdili su da su majke davale značajno više instrukcija djevojčicama nego dječacima. Rezultati istraživanja Leapera, Andersona i Sandersa (1998) pokazuju da majke školske djece više daju direktne upute u komunikaciji s djevojčicama nego s dječacima. ...
The aim of the study was to investigate maternal verbal strategies in the process of scaffolding their children to complete cognitive tasks in the zone of proximal development, and to examine whether mothers used different verbal strategies with children of different sex. The study was conducted with mothers (N = 80) and their children (41 boys and 39 girls) aged 5 to 7. The dyads were video recorded during interaction on problem-solving tasks and the recordings were analyzed. The analysis of maternal verbal reactions was conducted after child's correct and after child's incorrect answer when children provided first incorrect and, later, correct answers. In this study there were no significant differences between maternal verbal strategies used either in the process of scaffolding children of different sex on problem-solving tasks or after the children solved the problem correctly. When children offered an incorrect answer, the most frequent maternal strategy was to encourage girls to re-think and to use the technique of scaffolding for boys. When the correct answer was given after one or a number of failed attempts, the most frequent maternal verbal strategy for boys and girls was to confirm its correctness.
... Rezultati su ovog istraživanja pokazali da spol djeteta, a ne vrsta ponašanja, značajno pridonosi objašnjenju reakcije roditelja u djetetovoj dobi od 12 i 18 mjeseci. Odnosno, roditelji su češće pozitivno reagirali kada su se dječaci počeli ponašati agresivno, dok je agresivno ponašanje djevojčica bilo ignorirano, što je za malo dijete vrsta paradigme gašenja ponašanja (Fagot i Hagan, 1991). S druge strane, u djetetovoj dobi od 5 godina vrsta ponašanja a ne spol djeteta značajno je pridonosilo objašnjenju reakcije roditelja. ...
This paper provides a brief overview of the differences in etiological explanations and manifestations of delinquents with early and late onset through two theories of developmental psychopathology - Patterson's coercion theory and Moffitt's life-persistent and adolescence-limited delinquency theory. According to these two theories, there are two distinct developmental pathways of delinquent behavior: those with early and late onset. Patterson called the group with early onset early delinquents, and Moffitt life-course-persistent delinquents; whereas group with late onset Patterson called late delinquents, and Moffitt adolescent delinquents. In the case of early starters, behavior problems begin in the early years of development; early behavior problems give way to serious juvenile delinquency in the adolescent years, which evolves into a chronic and lifelong offending. Late starters, on the other hand, do not begin offending until middle to late adolescence and they typically desist from delinquent behavior by their early twenties. Regarding early-onset delinqunt behavior, Patterson's and Moffitt's theory emphasize the importance of parental behavior in development of this type of delinquent behavior. However, Moffitt's theory in development of early-onset delinquent behavior adds a role of biological factors, specifically neuropsychological deficits. According to Moffitt, neuropsychological deficits and disrupted family environment work together in a transactional process to produce life-persistent offending. Regarding late-onset delinquent behavior, a development of this type of delinquent behavior Patterson attributes to association with deviant peers that occurs because of reduced parental monitoring, while Moffitt attributes it to increased desire for autonomy that occurs during adolescence and association with deviant peers.
... Gender-typing is a process by which individuals develop the attributes that are consistent with their gender roles. Our results confirm that gender-typing is stronger in boys than in girls, which is in line with a number of previous studies [25,26]. Robots that were more frequently labeled as males were sketches A ( Fig. 1) and C (Fig. 3). ...
The paper aims to examine children's preference of visual appearance and parents' attitudes towards assistive robots. Results show that children do prefer visual appearances of robots with round and smooth edges, compact and stocky body and with feminine characteristics. Gender differences have been found in robot sketch preference, as well as in ascribing gender to robots - boys tend to be more gender-typed. The dominant colour preffered for the robot is blue, which is a colour associated with positive emotional states, trust, and stability. Based on the results, the paper provides general suggestions and guidelines for creating a robot that the children would find likable. Parents have shown more positive than negative attitudes towards robots in general, as well as towards robots in the children's therapy. Gender differences have been found in potentially negative aspects of child-robot interaction, with mothers more concerned about negative consequences. Also, differences in educational levels have been found, with parents of higher educational level showing more positive attitudes towards robots.
... Nevertheless, analyzing these data holds current relevancy. Much of the most frequently cited literature on socialization stems from this same period or even earlier (e.g., Fagot & Hagan, 1991;Lytton & Romney, 1991;Pomerantz & Ruble, 1998). Our study thus enhances our ability to interpret this still heavily used literature. ...
Using the concepts of sensory and affective experience, this work relates the concepts of socialization and cognitive development to the embodiment of gender in the human infant. Evidence obtained from biweekly observations from 30 children and their mothers observed from age 3 months to age 12 months revealed measurable sex-related differences in how mothers handle and touch their infants. This work offers novel approaches to visualizing combinations of behaviors with the aim of encouraging researchers to think in terms of suites of action rather than singular sensory or motor systems. New avenues of research into the mechanisms which produce sex-related differences in behavior are suggested. (PsycINFO Database Record
... The differential reinforcement of children's behavior is one potential socialization mechanism. Confirming its importance, a meta-analysis by Lytton and Romney (1991) found that parents encourage gender-typical activity and discourage gender-atypical activity, especially for sons (see also Fagot & Hagan, 1991;Kane, 2006). As part of this process, parents assign gender-stereotypical household chores and provide gender-typical toys, clothing, and room decorations, thereby creating affordances for culturally feminine or masculine behaviors (Blakemore, Berenbaum, & Liben, 2009;Ruble, Martin, & Berenbaum, 2006). ...
The behavior of women and men varies greatly depending on situations, cultures, and historical periods. This flexibility emerges as men and women tailor their division of labor to local ecological and socioeconomic demands. The resulting division is supported by childhood socialization practices that, in interaction with sex differences in child temperament, help boys and girls to develop psychologies suited to their likely adult activities. Although responsive to local conditions, the division of labor is constrained by women's childbearing and nursing of infants and men's size and strength. Because these biological characteristics influence the efficient performance of many activities in society, they underlie central tendencies in the division of labor as well as its variability across situations, cultures, and history. Gender roles-that is, shared beliefs about the traits of women and men-track the division of labor because people infer these traits from their observations of the sexes' behaviors. Social perceivers often essentialize these traits by regarding them as inherent in the biology or social experience of women and men. Gender role expectations, which tend to be consensual within cultures, influence behavior through proximal social psychological and biological processes, whereby (a) other people encourage gender-typical behavior and individuals conform to their own gender identities and (b) hormonal, reward, and cardiovascular mechanisms enable masculine and feminine behaviors.
... Également, pour ces mêmes dyades (3 et 4) on enregistre un décalage de la durée d'exploration des dispositifs : cela s'explique surtout par le souci du père d'éveiller et de maintenir l'intérêt de l'enfant pour le dispositif, avec des interventions qui ont pour nous une valeur « d'impact tutoriel ».Concernant le choix des jeux appropriés au sexe de l'enfant(Snow, Jacklin et Maccoby, 1983), nous n'avons pas distingué de préférence des parents pour certains jeux ; cela pourrait s'expliquer par le caractère technique de l'ensemble des dispositifs présentés dans l'exposition. De même, en terme d'autorité parentale, le corpus ne nous fournit pas de renseignements : on ne peut donc pas parler de conduite sexuée(Fagot et Hagan, 1991) en ce qui concerne les dyades analysées.Si l'on n'observe pas de différences entre les hommes et les femmes impliqués dans l'étude, l'implication dans le débat n'est cependant pas la même selon les catégories sociales. L'incidence des dimensions sociologiques mériterait cependant d'être approfondie.11.3.2 ...
Taking into account the importance of the role of parents in accompanying their children (3-5 years old) through the discovery of an interactive scientific and technical exhibition, this research offers : (1) a typology of parents' practical attitudes according to their relevance to activities' context and children's capacities; (2) the elaboration of a Parents Training Scheme (PTS) aimed mainly at changing parents' attitudes towards their children, including a film to stimulate discussion and experience sharing among parents; (3) an evaluation of the PTS. The study was conducted within the "3-5 years old" exhibition of the Cité des enfants ("Children's corner") of the Cité des Sciences et de l'Industrie (Paris). A total of 67 parent-child couples were observed (60 for the development of the typology of practical attitudes and 7 for the evaluation of the PTS) and their spoken exchanges transcribed and analysed in reference to different models (tutorial acts, conversational pragmatics, and parents' distancing acts). The hypothesis suggesting that previous awareness of their role as tutor modifies the way parents accompany their children is verified. Analyses show a sharp and individualised evolution from their first visit to the museum to their second one, in between which the PTS intervened. These data are discussed in relation to previous studies on parent training.
Positive interpersonal adaptation helps to maintain college students’ interpersonal relationships and promote their social adaptation. Previous studies have found that positive family functioning and regulatory emotional self-efficacy facilitate interpersonal adaptation. The present study examined whether regulatory emotional self-efficacy mediated the relationship between family functioning and interpersonal adaptation and whether this mediating process was moderated by gender. Altogether, 895 (55.5% males, 17–23 years old) college students from different universities in China were interviewed. The results showed that family functioning significantly and positively predicted interpersonal adaptation. Mediation analysis indicated that regulatory emotional self-efficacy partially mediated the relationship between family functioning and interpersonal adaptation. Tests of moderated mediation further revealed that gender played a moderating role in the pathway between family functioning and regulatory emotional self-efficacy. Specifically, male students’ family functioning influenced on their regulatory emotional self-efficacy more than female students. The results of the study imply the need to pay attention to gender differences and to enhance the emotional connection in the process of educating adolescents at the family level. This has positive implications for the future social life and the concrete implementation of family education policies.
Maternal ratings of child temperament and observed maternal behaviors in the home were collected when children were 18 months old. Both variables were examined as predictors of mothers’ problem-solving behaviors with their toddlers at 30 months and the children’s independent problem solving at 5 years. Maternal instructional behavior in the home at 18 months and maternal ratings of temperament at 18 months predicted maternal behaviors when the children were 30 months old and child performance in a cognitive problem-solving task. Maternal cognitive assistance during the 18- and 30-month tasks also predicted child cognitive task performance in the laboratory at 5 years of age. These same maternal behaviors were related to the child’s performance on the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (D. Wechsler, 1967) at age 5, and lack of maternal assistance was related to teacher ratings of learning problems at age 5.
This article explores the meaning and origin of aggression in the early years of life. Eight ways of violent behavior are suggested, which originate in the early years of childhood. These include: the contribution of individual factors; the effects of broken family dynamics, parental characteristics and policies, the impact of exposure to violence, and the influence of attachment in relationships. Other influences, such as: aggression in relation to medical problems, the influence of neurological development, explanations of psychodynamics, such as aggression in relation to the reflective capacity of mothers, are also discussed. Aggression in the early years of childhood is not taken seriously, and is often considered to be part of the maturation process. To understand this fact, it is necessary to examine the central theme of aggression, individual socio-cultural aspects, versus aggressive behavior and the significance of aggression. The severity and frequency of aggressive behavior can be reduced by early intervention. In this sense, there is clear evidence, which attests in addition to an optimal psycho-emotional development of the individual, practically marking an improvement of the individual's life at all levels.
The aim of this paper is to present an overview of research on gender identity development of children raised either in same-sex families or by a non-heterosexual parent. Not only is it significant to explore whether the families under consideration socialise their children in any different way than heterosexual parents do. It is also worth investigating whether or not children from non-heteronormative families exhibit any traits stereotypically ascribed to their sex/gender to a greater extent than their peers from heterosexual families. As it turns out, stronger gender nonconformity of children from non-heterosexual families may be one of very few differences between children from these two family models.
Over the course of development, children acquire adult-like thinking about social categories such as race, which in turn informs their perceptions, attitudes, and behavior. However, children’s developing perceptions of race have been understudied particularly with respect to their potential influence on cross-race egalitarianism. Specifically, the acquisition of racial constancy, defined as the perception that race is a concrete and stable category, has been associated with increased awareness of racial stereotypes and group status differences. Yet, little work has investigated behavioral outcomes stemming from the acquisition of racial constancy beliefs. Here, we investigate whether the presence or absence of racial constancy beliefs differentially predicts inequality aversion with racial ingroup versus outgroup members for young children. White children (N = 202; ages 3–8) completed three sticker resource-allocation games with either a White or a Black partner shown in a photograph, after which racial constancy was measured. Results revealed that the acquisition of racial constancy interacted with partner race to predict inequality aversion outcomes in one game; however, age and gender also exerted strong effects.
RESUMENEl presente artículo analiza el posicionamiento de las familias hacia la igualdad de género en función de tres tipos de actitudes (bloqueadoras, adaptativas y coeducativas). Para ello, se examinaron las respuestas obtenidas por 83 padres y 92 madres en el cuestionario de actitudes hacia la coeducación de GONZÁLEZ-PIÑAL, RODRÍGUEZ y GARCÍA (2013); teniendo en cuenta variables como la edad y el sexo de los progenitores, núcleo familiar, nivel de estudios y nacionalidad. Los resultados obtenidos indican que la mayoría de las familias mostraron actitudes coeducativas, aunque las madres manifestaron actitudes más igualitarias que los padres. Un número importante de padres no respondieron de forma coeducativa a las cuestiones. Es necesario, por tanto, que los padres participen en programas educativos encaminados a despatriarcalizar la educación y a fomentar un trato igualitario en el ámbito familiar, que permita a los niños y niñas construir identidades libres de estereotipos de género.PALABRAS-CLAVE: Actitudes coeducativas. Familias. Despatriarcalización. Estereotipos de género.
The main purpose of this research is to examine the relationship between fathers' involvement, their gender perceptions, and the gender stereotypes of children. A relational survey model was used in this research. The sampling of the research is composed of 151 randomly selected 60 to 72-month-old children, who attended preschools in the centre of Muğla province in Turkey, and their fathers. As data collecting tools, Demographic Information Form, Father Involvement Scale (60), Perceptions of Gender Scale (3), and Gender Stereotypes Assessment Instrument (65) were utilized. According to research results, fathers’ equalitarian perspective regarding gender increases their involvement levels. On the other hand, it was determined that the gender of the child and the age of their father play a significant role in their father's involvement. It was determined that there is a significant positive relation between the gender stereotypes of the child and their father's arbitrary engagement, which is one of the sub-dimensions of the father involvement scale. It was also discovered that while the fathers’ income is significant in the gender stereotypes of children; factors like their occupation, age, gender perceptions, and their involvement levels are not.
Z Bu çalışmada, çocukların oyuncak tercihleri toplumsal cinsiyet bağlamında incelenmiştir. Çalışmada 118 çocuğun oyuncak tercihleri, oyuncağı tercih etmeme nedenleri ve bu nedenlerin toplumsal cinsiyet algısı ile ilişkisi ortaya koyulmuştur. Araştırmanın verileri araştırmacılar tarafından seçilen 22 oyuncak görseli ve yine araştırmacılar tarafından oluşturulmuş "Oyuncak Tercihi Görüşme Formu" üzerinden toplanmıştır. Araştırma sonucunda, kız ve erkek çocukların oyuncak seçimlerinin farklılaştığı ve çocukların toplumsal cinsiyetlerine uygun seçimlerde bulundukları belirlenmiştir. Çocuklarının yaşları arttıkça oyuncaklara ilişkin seçici davrandıkları ve oynadıkları oyuncak sayısının ve çeşitliliğin azaldığı belirlenmiştir. Çocukların yaşları ilerledikçe oyuncakları cinsiyetçi nedenlerden dolayı seçmedikleri; çocuğun yaşı büyüdükçe oyuncaklara ilişkin daha kalıp yargısal tercihlerde bulunduğu, bu tutumun küçük yaşlarda pek görülmediği belirlenmiştir. Ayrıca, çocukların oyuncak tercihlerinin oyuncağın rengi, aile, akran ve sosyal çevrenin bakış açısından ve ebeveynler arasındaki geleneksel rol paylaşımından etkilendiği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Öte yandan erkek çocuklarının oyuncaklara ilişkin daha kalıpyargısal ve cinsiyetçi yanıtlar verdikleri; kız çocuklarının tercihlerinin erkeklere oranla daha esnek olduğu belirlenmiştir. Anahtar kelimeler: Okul öncesi dönem, oyuncak, oyuncak tercihi, toplumsal cinsiyet
ABSTRACT In this study, toys preferences of children in the context of gender are examined. 118 children's toys preferences, the reasons of not preferring the toys and the relations between those reasons and gender perception are revealed in the study. The research data were collected thorough 22 toy image chosen by the researchers and the "Interview Form of Toy Preference" created by researchers. At the end of the study, it's found that children make their preferences according to their genders. Children are selective about toys with the increase of their ages. It's also identified that children make judicial and sexist preferences about toys when their ages increase. Moreover, it is found that toy preferences are affected by family, tradinational role sharing between parents, peer and social environment as well as toy color. On the other hand, it is found that boys give more judicial and sexist responses than girls.
Sex differences in behavior and developmental trajectories in human children are of great interest to researchers in a variety of fields, and a persistent topic of discussion and debate is the relative contribution of biological vs. social influences to such differences. Given the potentially large effects of cultural and social influences on human child development, nonhuman primates are important model species for investigating the biological and evolutionary roots of sex differences in human development. This Mini-Review briefly summarizes the existing literature on sex-biased behavior toward infant nonhuman primates by mothers and other social partners, followed by a review of findings on sex differences (or lack thereof) in primate behavioral development from a variety of species in wild and naturalistic settings. These include differences in physical and social development, including play, grooming, and object manipulation patterns, as well as nursing and the development of foraging behavior. The Mini-Review concludes by providing potential avenues for future research.
International and nationally there is evidence that a significant number of adolescents have some sort of problemInternational and nationally there is evidence that a significant number of adolescents have some sort of problem,
literature has shown that the presence of problems at an early age may be a precursor for future adaptation
problems during adulthood. The main purpose of this investigation was to identify the main problems reported
220 teenagers from high school in the state of Veracruz. To assess the problems of adolescents an adjusted
version of the Youth Self Report (Betancourt, 2007) was used. The results showed that the most frequent problem
reported by men and women was restlessness and the defiant behavior dimension had the highest mean. There
were significant differences by sex in externalizing problems and depression dimension. , literature has shown that the presence of problems at an early age may be a precursor for future adaptation problems during adulthood. The main purpose of this investigation was to identify the main problems reported 220 teenagers from high school in the state of Veracruz. To assess the problems of adolescents an adjusted version of the Youth Self Report (Betancourt, 2007) was used. The results showed that the most frequent problem reported by men and women was restlessness and the defiant behavior dimension had the highest mean. There were significant differences by sex in externalizing problems and depression dimension.
As children move from infancy through early childhood, their social and emotional competence forms the underpinnings of their mental health. Infant and early childhood mental health and development shape this chapter, which integrates research in the biology of social emotional development, its behavioral manifestations, and the importance of social relationships for its development. This chapter discusses some developmental milestones (e.g., object permanence and behavior inhibition) which support social and emotional development in the first years of life, which the infant acquires at a very early stage, beginning almost immediately after birth with parent-child bonding. Temperamental factors, the constitutional characteristics which do not change as a result of experience, are also addressed. Following the development of a sense of self, the child develops a rudimentary theory of mind as he or she encounters evidence that different people have different feelings and thoughts. In recent years, empirical research has suggested that concern for others, previously thought to emerge only during the second year, may already be present in the first year of life.
The purpose of the study is to determine the role of families in preschool children’s perception of gender. Participants are eight children from varying family structures of lower and middle socio-economic levels, attending the same nursery class, and their mothers. Data were collected through observation, interviews with the children and their mothers and the activities without any intervention. According to the findings of the study, it was determined that factors such as the children’s mothers being house wives, being subjected to domestic violence witnessed by their children, and the traditional distribution of domestic responsibilities are effective on children’s stereotype opinions concerning man and woman. Also, children whose mothers and fathers take joint responsibility in household labor are less stereotypical than those whose fathers do not participate in domestic responsibilities. Employment status of the mother generally does not impact children’s perception on men and women. It was also determined that children that are not oppressed by their fathers, that have a opposite sex sibling, and that are given toys peculiar to the opposite sex have less stereotypical preferences in terms of toys and play.
The dissertation uses a contemporary motivation theory, identity-based motivation, to predict when and how motivation can be leveraged to improve attainment among low-income, minority students. Identity-based motivation theory predicts that people prefer to act in identity-congruent ways but are sensitive to contextual cues that influence which identities come to mind, what these identities mean in context, and how difficulty is interpreted (e.g., Are people like me succeeding? When I experience difficulty with schoolwork, does that mean the work is impossible or important?). Following these predictions, the first paper examines gender as a identity that can be framed as congruent or incongruent with achievement success to increase or decrease motivation. In the second paper, I turn to interpretations of difficulty in the classroom and show that contextual cues about difficulty can improve or undermine motivation depending on whether students accept or reject the messages they communicate. Lastly, the third paper attempts to leverage students' and professionals' past experiences of success despite difficulty to promote interpretations of difficulty that support motivation in response to difficult tasks in the present. The final chapter provides a theoretical synthesis across these three papers and considers the implications of these results for intervention and policy to encourage student motivation and success.
Family deprivation and its correlation with attitude to oneself and parents in teenagers (n = 411) have been studied. The attempt to separate episodic and chronic family deprivation is realized. Differences in attitudes to father and mother in deprived and undeprived in childhood teenagers, as well as direct correlation between attitude to onseself and parents are revealed.
This article addresses the issue of women's right to autonomy and self-determination within Foucault's conceptual framework of power relations, resistance, and discipline. The main thesis of this article is that most of the options left to women who have dared to escape subjugation and resist the abuse and oppression they had been subjected to in patriarchal cultures were non-normative, that is, deviant. Adultery, theft, running away from home, killing their intimate partner, insanity, and suicide were some of the options left to women. As precursors of social change, these avant-garde protests point the way to reforms and policies that will empower women to infinitely create and recreate themselves.
Toys and games have a crucial role in determining the development of gender identity. Our contribution will present a review of the studies that have addressed gender differences in play activities and in choosing toys. The reasons underlying preference for toys among different age children and the ways in which the social context affects gender-typed play activities will be examined. The consequences of gender-typed play activities on the development of cognitive, motor, and social abilities will also be studied. Some implications of the debate on the biological vs. environmental origin of gender differences in play preferences and activities as well as implications related to the development of stereotyped gender identities will be explored.
The furnishings and toys of boys' and girls' rooms were canvassed on the assumption that differences, if found, would indicate parental ideas about appropriateness by sex. The children were 48 boys and 48 girls under 6 years of age, each having his own room. The results showed that the boys were provided more vehicles, educational-art materials, sports equipment, toy animals, depots, machines, fauna, and military toys. Girls were provided more dolls, doll houses, and domestic toys. The rooms of boys were more often decorated with animal motifs; those of girls, with floral motifs and lace, fringe, and ruffles. The differences do indeed show differences in parental behavior.
A meta-analysis of 172 studies attempted to resolve the conflict between previous narrative reviews on whether parents make systematic differences in their rearing of boys and girls. Most effect sizes were found to be nonsignificant and small. In North American studies, the only socialization area of 19 to display a significant effect for both parents is encouragement of sex-typed activities. In other Western countries, physical punishment is applied significantly more to boys. Fathers tend to differentiate more than mothers between boys and girls. Over all socialization areas, effect size is not related to sample size or year of publication. Effect size decreases with child's age and increases with higher quality. No grouping by any of these variables changes a nonsignificant effect to a significant effect. Because little differential socialization for social behavior or abilities can be found, other factors that may explain the genesis of documented sex differences are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Tested major hypotheses: (1) sex differences in play behavior are present in 3 yr. olds, (2) female teachers reinforce feminine behaviors, and (3) peers reinforce like-sex peers. 2 nursery school classes, comprised of 3 yr. olds, were observed on a sex-role behavior checklist intermittently throughout the year. Each class had 9 girls and 9 boys. Sex-appropriate behaviors were present in both the schools from the beginning of the yr. and were stable over time. Data showed that teachers consistently reinforced feminine-type behaviors more than masculine behaviors, and reinforced boys not girls when they performed opposite-sexed behaviors. Peers reinforced mostly same-sex peers. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
40 21–25 mo olds participated in ongoing play groups (with almost equal numbers of boys and girls in each group of 12–25 children) while observers studied them and noted the reactions of both peers and teachers to behaviors that could be identified and coded as male, female, or neutral. Teachers, both female and male, responded primarily to the category of behavior. Regardless of the sex of the child, they gave positive reactions to behaviors that were female-preferred or neutral but seldom to those that were male-preferred. Responses among the peer group were more complicated. Girls responded more positively to other girls than to boys, regardless of the category (male, female, or neutral) of the behavior. Boys responded to the category of the behavior and to the sex of their peer and gave more positive responses to other boys when the boys were engaged in male-preferred activities. Both girls and teachers were effective in changing the behavior of other girls, but neither could influence boys to change; boys were effective in influencing other boys but not in influencing girls. It is suggested that although reinforcements do appear to affect the likelihood of a behavior continuing, other factors must be at work, for behaviors are maintained even under conditions of no responses, and, most important, the reinforcements themselves are most effective when they have been processed in terms of gender. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
According to reciprocal role theory, the father's socialization behavior promotes sex-typing in children. While sex-typing is encouraged by both parents, the father makes a greater differentiation between sons and daughters. In this article, the research on differential socialization behavior is reviewed. Some studies have used multiple measures of parent-child interaction and often only a few of these have revealed differences related to the sex of the parent. However, as indicated both in a qualitative review of the literature and in a meta-analysis, results that are significant provide a modest degree of support for father-specific socialization behaviors. In 20 of 39 independent published studies, the father's ratings or treatment of boys and girls differed significantly. By contrast, the differences for mothers, if present at all, were comparatively few in any of the studies. The pattern of father-specific effects was most evident in the area of discipline and physical involvement and was weak in the areas of affection and everyday speech with infants and toddlers. Research on children's perceptions of parental socialization behavior is consistent with the existence of differential socialization practices used by the father in particular. Reciprocal role theory is discussed in terms of influences on parent-child interaction with regard to traditional and nontraditional family arrangements. Further research using within-family designs is required to examine fathers' differential treatment in the context of changing family and work roles.
The relation among children's ability to apply gender labels, their tendency to emit sex-typed behavior, and their parents' attitudes and reactions toward sex-typed behaviors was studied. The children were observed at home with their parents when the children were 18 months old, before any of them had passed the gender-labeling task, and at 27 months, when half had passed (early labelers) and half had not (late labelers). At 18 months, there were no differences in the children's sex-typed behavior, but parents of future early labelers gave more positive and negative responses to sex-typed toy play. By 27 months, early labelers showed more traditional sex-typed behavior than late labelers; parents of early and late labelers no longer differed in their responses. At age 4, when given an inventory of sex stereotyping, early labelers scored higher on Sex Role Discrimination; there were no differeces on Sex Role Preference scores.
34 children were observed in infant play groups. 2 sets of infant behaviors were coded: assertive acts and attempts to communicate with adults. No sex differences were observed at 13 to 14 months in any of these behaviors. However, adults attended to girls' assertive behaviors far less of the time than to boys' assertive behaviors. They attended more to girls' less intense communication attempts and to boys' more intense attempts. When 29 of the same children were observed in toddler play groups no more than 11 months later, there were sex differences in behavior. Boys were more assertive; girls talked to teachers more. Teachers no longer differentiated their responses to boys and girls. Peers reacted more to boys' assertive behavior than to girls.' We hypothesized that caregivers may use stereotypes to guide their reactions to infants because infant behavior is ambiguous. For the toddlers, behavior had become more defined, and caregivers reacted to the behaviors. By using the sex stereotype to guide their reactions to younger children, the caregivers may have perpetuated the stereotype.
The sex-differentiated socialization emphases of parents and other representatives of societal institutions are considered as they influence the personality development and behavioral orientations of males and females. Specifically, sex-differentiated socialization emphases, "shaping" behaviors, and teaching styles are evaluated with regard to the nature of the "meta-messages" conveyed to boys and girls during their early, formative years. These messages are assumed to differentially influence the self-concepts evolved, ego structures, personal goals, and the cognitive-adaptational heuristics of boys and of girls. Differences in the socialization environments experienced by the 2 sexes can be seen as related to gender differences in personality characteristics. To integrate the empirical findings surrounding gender differences in personality and socialization experience, some conjectures are offered regarding the different self- and world views our current culture may be creating and fostering in males and in females. The potential and even likely influence of biological factors conjoined with the bidirectional effects of child and parent interaction are recognized as confounded with an interpretation in terms of differential socialization. But also, it is noted that until the effects of differential socialization are specifically evaluated by cultural, subcultural, or individual family changes, the role of biological and bidirectional factors cannot be assessed.
In order to further understanding of the development of the father-infant relationship, patterns of mothering and fathering in 72 families were observed longitudinally (at 1, 3, and 9 months) and from the perspective of the family system. Analyses of variance revealed comparable developmental change in maternal and paternal behaviors, but striking differences between parents, with mothers engaging in far more interaction at all ages studied. Analyses of individual differences in maternal and paternal behavior revealed consistent stability over time, especially from 3 to 9 months, thereby highlighting points of similarity in mothering and fathering. Within-age correlational analyses revealed consistent positive associations between measures of father-infant and husband-wife interaction, yet little relationship between measures of mother-infant and spousal interaction. These findings and others are discussed in terms of similarities and differences in mothering and fathering.
- Fagot B. I.
- Belsky J.
Interactive behavior code. Unpublished instrument. (Available from B. I. Fagot
- B I Fagot