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A Rorschach Investigation of Attachment and Anxiety in Antisocial Personality Disorder
Abstract
We investigated the constructs of anxiety and attachment in a group of 42 offenders who met the DSM-III-R criteria for antisocial personality disorder. Each antisocial subject's level of psychopathy was assessed with the Hare Psychopathy Checklist (PCL). Three Rorschach variables related to attachment, anxiety, and coping were compared between subjects scoring greater than or equal to 30 (N = 21) on the PCL and subjects scoring less than 30 (N = 21). Comparison Rorschach variables are also presented from a sample of 60 antisocial personality-disordered offenders. Moderate psychopaths (PCL score, less than 30) produced texture and diffuse shading responses at a significantly greater frequency than severe, or primary, psychopaths (PCL score, greater than or equal to 30). There was no significant difference in the two groups' propensity for producing vista responses. Although there were no significant differences between the coping index scores, the trend suggests less conflictual functioning in the severe psychopaths. A virtual absence of texture responses in the severe psychopaths, and a significantly greater frequency of diffuse shading responses in the moderate psychopaths, add construct validity to the lack of attachment in psychopaths and the role of anxiety in differentiating secondary from primary psychopathy. We view the presence of vista responses in this population as a measure of a failed grandiose self-structure, and note that it often occurs in the records of moderate psychopaths who also present achromatic color responses.
... Research on borderline traits has found a link with both anxious attachment (Carol & Davies, 1995;Levy, 2005;Nakash et al., 2021;Smith et al., 2020) and fearful attachment (Choi-Kain, et al., 2009). Psychopathic traits, on the other hand, have been found to relate to avoidant (Gacono & Meloy, 1991;Gacono et al., 1992;Gambin et al., 2018;Meyer et al., 2001;Schimmenti et al., 2014) and fearful attachment styles (Schimmenti et al., 2014). Overall, there is a clear link between these traits and insecure attachment. ...
... The previous literature supports this finding in that borderline traits were related to both anxious (Linehan, 2018) and fearful attachment styles (Choi-Kain et al., 2009). The literature also supports psychopathic traits (factor 2) being related to fearful (Schimmenti et al., 2014) and avoidant (Gacono & Meloy, 1991;Gacono et al., 1992;Gambin et al., 2018;Meyer et al., 2001;Schimmenti et al., 2014) attachment styles. This may point to attachment being a large part that has been affected within the individual by way of adverse events within childhood that can further lead to problematic personality traits, and depending on the adversity, perhaps this may lead to differential attachment behaviours and, as a result, differential personality traits. ...
... As there is a dearth of literature, we cautiously extrapolate that it is possible that since participants were retrospectively reporting on adversity as well as their attachment to their parents, and that these have unfolded over time, attachment style may have changed. Perhaps over time and through various life events and emotional experiences, participants' attachment styles with their parents fluctuated and did not remain static (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991;Gacono & Meloy, 1991;Gacono et al., 1992;Gambin et al., 2018;Meyer et al., 2001;Schimmenti et al., 2014). It would make sense that an individual would not have the same relationship with their mother or father as a child as they would in adulthood. ...
Purpose
Previous research suggests that childhood adversity is related to borderline and psychopathic traits indirectly through insecure attachment. Because these personality traits and insecure attachment are also associated with a lack of mindfulness, the purpose of the present study was to determine the exact nature of the impact of mindfulness within this model (mindfulness was examined as an additional mediator and also as a moderator in the indirect relationships described above).
Method
Participants (n = 299) completed questionnaires on Amazon Mechanical Turk measuring childhood adversity (Childhood Trauma Questionnaire), attachment (Trent Relationship Structures Questionnaire), mindfulness (Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills), and borderline (Borderline Symptom List) and psychopathic (Self Report Psychopathy Scale 4) traits. Data were analysed using Bayesian methodology in the R software platform.
Results
As expected, the relationships between childhood adversity and borderline and psychopathic traits were indirect through insecure attachment, replicating previous findings. Furthermore, mindfulness was found to be a mediator in the relationships between adversity and borderline, factor 1, and factor 2 psychopathic traits. In terms of moderated mediation, mindfulness did not moderate any of the indirect relationships.
Conclusions
The results support the idea that mindfulness may be an additional mediator in the relationship between childhood adversity and borderline/psychopathic traits and also support further exploration of mindfulness and attachment as potential areas for intervention.
... The RIM adds to and refines hypotheses generated from history, behavioral observations, and the PCL-R (Gacono, 2002a(Gacono, , 2002bGacono & Meloy, 1991, 1994. It provides information concerning problem-solving and response style (Lambda, introversive, extratensive), processing (Zd), reality testing (X-%), perceptual accuracy (F+, X+), controls and current stress levels (D/AdjD), levels of emotionality and how the patient deals with them (FC:CF+C, Afr; i.e., avoidance), self-perceptions (W:M, Fr+rF, MOR), coping resources (EA, CDI), desire for affectional relatedness (Exner, 1993(Exner, /2001 clusters and constellations are readily organized within the organizational framework described earlier (Monahan et al., 2001). ...
... Through a series of studies (Gacono, 1990;Gacono, Meloy, & Heaven, 1990;Gacono & Meloy, 1991, 1994, the Rorschach has proven to be a sensitive instrument to discriminate between psychopathic and nonpsychopathic subjects. Psychodynamic differences include more pathological narcissism and sadism (Gacono, Meloy & Heaven, 1990), less anxiety, and less capacity for attachment (Gacono & Meloy, 1991). ...
... Through a series of studies (Gacono, 1990;Gacono, Meloy, & Heaven, 1990;Gacono & Meloy, 1991, 1994, the Rorschach has proven to be a sensitive instrument to discriminate between psychopathic and nonpsychopathic subjects. Psychodynamic differences include more pathological narcissism and sadism (Gacono, Meloy & Heaven, 1990), less anxiety, and less capacity for attachment (Gacono & Meloy, 1991). Personality organization (Kernberg, 1984) is predominately at the borderline level (Gacono, 1990). ...
In the present chapter, we discuss the role of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) and Rorschach in forensic psychological assessment. We stress the importance of using a multi-method over a mono-method assessment approach and advocate for the incremental validity of psychological testing over interviews alone as an essential aspect of assessment practice. The ability to integrate the nomothetic strengths of the PCL-R with the idiographic potential of the Rorschach allows for conclusions to be refined into nuanced person-context interactions most useful in areas such as risk assessment, forming diagnostic impressions, and determining treatability. A case example involving an incarcerated antisocial male with a history of exclusively affective violence is presented.
... Researchers have provided considerable evidence for the Rorschach's validity in the assessment of psychopathy (Gacono, 1990;Gacono & Meloy, 1991, 1992a, 1992bGacono et al., 1990;Gacono et al., 2001;Meloy & Gacono, 2000). Specifically, there is evidence in support of the Rorschach's ability to differentiate between a psychopathic and a non-psychopathic individual as well as discriminate between severe psychopathy and moderate psychopathy. ...
... A number of Rorschach variables have been studied with a male ASPD and/or psychopathy population. These include reflections, pairs, personalized responses, impressionistic responses, T, V, Y, and the egocentricity index (Gacono, 1990;Gacono & Meloy, 1991, 1992a, 1992bGacono et al., 1990). The AG response has not been examined by researchers, with the exception of research on the development of additional aggressive responses. ...
... In general, the Rorschach profile of psychopathic males is consistent with the presence of a grandiose self-structure that defends against anxiety, an inability and lack of interest in forming attachments, and a severe and pathological form of narcissism. The absence of anxiety has provided evidence in support of differentiating primary and secondary psychopathy (Gacono & Meloy, 1991). Cunliffe & Gacono (2005) First, in Cunliffe and Gacono's (2005) study, female psychopaths produced elevated egocentricity indexes without reflection responses. ...
The personality disturbance of psychopathy is one of the most researched and debated conditions in psychopathology and has been considered one of the most important constructs in the criminal justice system. This syndrome has been widely examined in males but remarkably less attention has been given to females, even though contemporary researchers and theorists have suggested that there is a different expression of psychopathy based on gender. The current study utilized the Rorschach Inkblot Method and the Psychopathic Personality Inventory-Revised (PPI-R) to explore the personality characteristics of 77 incarcerated females. Participants were imprisoned for a variety of offenses and were recruited from a medium-security state prison. The level of psychopathy, as determined by the PPI-R, was compared to a select number of Rorschach variables that measure self-perception and interpersonal functioning. In addition, a Rorschach composite score of the variables used in the study was created with the aim of developing a profile for psychopathic females. The association between psychopathy and these variables was investigated using Pearson correlations and hierarchical regression analyses. Results partially confirmed the hypotheses of the study in that certain, but not all, hypothesized Rorschach variables were related to level of psychopathy. In general, results suggested that females do not display disturbance in self-perception and instead demonstrated evidence of psychological mindedness. Most results regarding interpersonal relationships were consistent with prior research findings that psychopathic females are more interpersonally-oriented and seek out attention from others, but also experience dysfunction in their interactions. As a whole, results provided some additional support to the growing notion that psychopathic females have a histrionic/hysteric personality organization, as opposed to the grandiose, narcissistic personality structure of their male counterparts. Explanations for and implications of these results were discussed, and directions for further research were explored.
... Attachment deficits and minimal anxiety are hypothesized to be core components of psychopathic and antisocial disturbance (Meloy, 1988;Meloy, 1992). Through a series of studies, we attempted to assess these anomalies in conduct-disordered (CD) children, CD adolescents (Weber, Meloy, & Gacono, 1992;Smith, Gacono, & Kaufman, 1996), and antisocial personality disordered (ASPD) adults (Gacono & Meloy, 1991;. SumT (FT, TF, T) and SumShad (FY, YF, Y) were used as general measures of attachment and anxiety, respectively. ...
... Antisocial females wee less likely to produce T (T > 1 = 29%) than borderline females (T > 1 = 100%; Berg, Gacono, Meloy, & Peaslee, 1994). Adult male antisocial psychopaths (P-ASPDs) evidenced less attachment capacity (T) and experienced less anxiety (Y) than non-psychopathic antisocial (NP-ASPDs; Gacono & Meloy, 1991), narcissistic (NPD), or borderline personality disordered males (BPD; Gacono, Meloy, & Berg, 1992). ...
... We found this to be true in several studies. Nonpsychopathic ASPD males (PCL-R < 30; NP-ASPD) produced less borderline content indices (Gacono, 1990), were less narcissistic (Gacono, Meloy, & Heaven, 1990), and evidenced more anxiety and attachment capacity (Gacono & Meloy, 1991) than psychopathic ASPD males (PCL-R > 30; P-ASPD). These psychodynamic findings were convergent with behavioral differences noted between high PCL-R scorers and low scorers (Hare, 1991) and provided support for the PCL-R's two-factor structure (Harpur, Hare, & Hakstian, 1989;Hart & Hare, 1989).* ...
Depuis des décennies, les cliniciens se sont intéressés à l’utilisation du Rorschach dans le diagnostic de la psychopathie. Pourtant, c’est seulement depuis une quinzaine d’années que ce type d’investigation est devenue vraiment pertinente à travers des recherches valides et fiables, grâce aux progrès réalisés dans l’évaluation de la psychopathie et la technologie du Rorschach.
En 1984, armés de cette “nouvelle” technologie, nous avons entamé nos recherches sur les personnalités antisociales et psychopathiques. Utilisant le Trouble de la Personnalité Antisociale (TPA) et la Psychopathie comme mesures indépendantes, et les variables Rorschach comme mesures dépendantes, nous avons tenté de comprendre le continuum antisocial d’un point de vue psychodynamique et développemental, tout en tenant compte des aspects psychobiologiques, psychodynamiques et de style cognitif.
Nous avons posé plusieurs questions: le Rorschach peut-il “établir la carte” du fonctionnement de la personnalité et de la structure intrapsychique des individus présentant des Troubles de la Conduite (TC) et des TPA, et est-ce que cette “carte” Rorschach validerait de manière empirique les modèles théoriques tels que la pathologie de l’attachement, l’absence d’anxiété, l’agressivité, et l’aspect grandiose qui sont associés à la psychopathie? Compte tenu des différences parmi les délinquants, le Rorschach saurait-il discriminer entre groupes TC et TPA d’après leurs niveaux de pathologie? Et encore, le Rorschach pouvait-il discriminer entre les TPA et les autres troubles de personnalité de Type B?
Nous avons obtenu un haut degré de concordance entre les données empiriques et la théorie. Nous avons trouvé des déficits de l’attachement (T = 0) chez 88% des troubles de comportement chez les enfants, 86% des adolescents TC, 71% des femmes TCA, 79% des hommes TCA, 91% des hommes psychopathes et 70% des hommes TCA schizophrènes. Les résultats du Y sont congruents avec le passage à l’acte considéré comme une défense contre l’angoisse dans les groupes d’enfants et adolescents TC. Contrairement aux enfants non consultants et aux adultes psychopathes, les enfants TC s’évaluent de manière négative lorsqu’ils se comparent aux autres (EGO < 0,33 = 72%).
Les adolescents TC diffèrent aussi des adolescents dysthymiques et non consultants: ils montrent moins de capacité d’attachement, sont moins anxieux, et manifestent moins d’intérêt pour les autres en tant que des objets entiers et humains réels. Les adolescents TC psychopathes présentent les même déficits. Les psychopathes TCA adultes de sexe masculin montrent moins de capacité d’attachement, éprouve moins d’anxiété et sont plus grandioses que les TCA non psychopathes. Les psychopathes se montrent tout aussi grandiose que les hommes aux Troubles de Personnalité Narcissique non hospitalisés, tout aussi “limites” que les hommes aux Troubles de la Personnalité Limite, cependant qu’ils sont moins anxieux et moins attachés. Les femmes adultes antisociales, bien qu’elles manifestent plus d’affects dysphoriques que les hommes TCA psychopathes, montrent moins de capacité d’attachement et d’affect que les femmes aux Troubles de la Personnalité Limite. L’expression de l’aspect grandiose diffère entre hommes psychopathes, enfants TC et femmes TCA, ce qui suggère des différences dans les niveaux de développement et selon le sexe.
Bien que le Rorschach ne doive pas être utilisé de manière isolée à des fins de diagnostic psychologique, nos premiers résultats montrent tout l’intérêt qu’il présente pour comprendre la psychologie des personnalités antisociales et psychopathiques. Nos travaux sur le Rorschach constituent aussi un modèle pour l’étude d’autres troubles de personnalité.
... The potential association between psychopathy and Rorschach responses has attracted increasing interest during the past 20 years, due to the work of Carl Gacono and J. Reid Meloy, who published a series of empirical articles in the early 1990s (Gacono, 1990;Gacono & Meloy, 1991Gacono, Meloy, & Berg, 1992;Gacono, Meloy, & Heaven, 1990;, culminating in their influential book The Rorschach Assessment of Aggressive and Psychopathic Personalities . These six articles and the book drew on psychopathy data from a sample of male inmates, all of whom were diagnosed with ASPD. ...
... The methodology of Gacono and Meloy's (e.g., Gacono, 1990;Gacono & Meloy, 1991 articles was straightforward. Inmates were administered the original version or the revised version of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist (PCL, PCL-R; Hare, 1980Hare, , 1991, as well as the Comprehensive System for the Rorschach (CS;Exner, 1986). ...
... These findings were interpreted as consistent with the elevated narcissism and grandiosity characteristic of severe psychopathy. Gacono and Meloy (1991) also reported that severe psychopaths produced significantly fewer Texture (Sum T) and Diffuse Shading responses (Sum Y) on the Rorschach than did moderate psychopaths. These findings were interpreted as consistent with the view that severe psychopathy is characterized by a lack of attachment and low anxiety (Cleckley, 1941(Cleckley, /1982; but see Schmitt & Newman, 1999). ...
Gacono and Meloy (2009) have concluded that the Rorschach Inkblot Test is a sensitive instrument with which to discriminate psychopaths from nonpsychopaths. We examined the association of psychopathy with 37 Rorschach variables in a meta-analytic review of 173 validity coefficients derived from 22 studies comprising 780 forensic participants. All studies included the Hare Psychopathy Checklist or one of its versions (Hare, 1980, 1991, 2003) and Exner's (2003) Comprehensive System for the Rorschach. Mean validity coefficients of Rorschach variables in the meta-analysis ranged from -.113 to .239, with a median validity of .070 and a mean validity of .062. Psychopathy displayed a significant and medium-sized association with the number of Aggressive Potential responses (weighted mean validity coefficient = .232) and small but significant associations with the Sum of Texture responses, Cooperative Movement = 0, the number of Personal responses, and the Egocentricity Index (weighted mean validity coefficients = .097 to .159). The remaining 32 Rorschach variables were not significantly related to psychopathy. The present findings contradict the view that the Rorschach is a clinically sensitive instrument for discriminating psychopaths from nonpsychopaths.
... The psychopath's predatory violence, including sexual predation, was fostered by low levels of anxiety and autonomic hyporeactivity, chronic emotional detachment, lack of empathy, sensation seeking, fearlessness, manipulativeness, deception, criminal versatility, lack of guilt or remorse, and shallow affect. Gacono and Meloy (1991, 1994 have conducted detailed studies of Rorschach protocols obtained from psychopathic subjects. They found that primary psychopaths (PCL-R ! ...
... These findings were consistent with Kernberg's (1975) assertion that narcissism is a core component of antisocial personality disorder. Gacono and Meloy (1991) compared a group of moderate psychopaths (PCL score < 30) with a group of severe psychopaths (PCL score ! 30) on Rorschach variables related to anxiety and attachment capacity. ...
... Twenty-five percent of our subjects produced V > 0. Gacono andMeloy (1991, 1992) have interpreted the presence of vista responses in psychopathic subjects as constituting a failure of the grandiose selfstructure (Kernberg, 1975), perhaps suggesting self-pity. Consistent with our results, Gacono and Meloy (1991) noted that vista responses were often accompanied by C' in their psychopathic samples (C' ¼ 1.09). Gacono and Meloy (1991) suggested that the presence of Vista and C' may represent a Rorschach correlate of the zero state of Yochelson and Samenow (1977). ...
Participants were 45 violent California male prison inmates scoring 30 or more on the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R; Hare, 1991, 2003). Inmates were evaluated using Rorschach and neuropsychological test data. The participants' intellectual functioning was within the low-average range and displayed a lack of flexibility. Rorschach data were not suggestive of chronic narcissism and anger as in other psychopathic samples. This group resembled Exner's normative sample of high Lambda adults. Consistent with previous studies, psychopaths demonstrated poor emotional modulation, diminished reality testing, little interest in people, and virtually no attachment capacity. Most utilized a simplistic, avoidant, and concrete style. This appeared to be consistent with the concrete thinking and fragmentation attributed to the criminal personality. Concrete thinking is based upon literal interpretations of events. Fragmentation is associated with attitudes that are situation specific and self-serving.
... None of the sobjects , however, were psychotic at the time of testing or judged to be mentallly retarded (IQ < 70) by the examiners. The Rorschachs for the psychopathic comparison group (n = 23) were randomly drawn from a large Rorschach sample of convicted and incarcerated antisocial personality-disordered (DSM-N) men (n = 82) described previously (Gacono & Meloy, 1991). This entire sample was assembled from various prisons and hospitals in California during the years 1984-1992. ...
... Interrater reliability for the sexual homicide Rorschachs was determined by the first two authors independently scoring the protocols and calculating percentage of agreements. Select Rorschach variables were compared between groups based on previous research (Gacono & Meloy, 1991 Gacono, Meloy, & Heaven, 1990;) and theory (Gacono, 1992; Meloy, 1988) and were clustered according to affects, cognitions, self-perception, and object relations. Variables were nonparametric and tested using either Mann-Whitney U (means comparison) or chisquare (frequency comparison). ...
... When significantly greater frequency of a particular variable is produced by the group with fewer overall responses, it strongly suggests the characterological influence of the variable (). (Gacono & Meloy, 1991 ). Both groups are strikingly different from nonpatient men where normative attachment (T = 1) is evident in 88% of the population (Exner, 1991). ...
A sample of incarcerated sexual homicide perpetrators (n = 18) were compared to a sample of non-sexually offending but violent male psychopaths (n = 23) on select Rorschach variables using the Comprehensive System (Exner, 1991). Results suggest that sexual homicide perpetrators are similar to psychopaths in their attachment abnormality, characterological anger, pathological narcissism, moderate and pervasive formal thought disorder, and borderline reality testing. They are distinguished, however, by a more frequent affectional hunger, a tendency to engage in more dysphoric rumination, and abnormal elevations of nonvolitional ideation (obsessional thoughts) due to unmet instinctual need states. They also show a greater interest in others as whole, real, and meaningful objects. Five psychodynamic factors, supported by the empirical findings, are proposed to partially explain the intrapsychic mechanisms involved in an act of sexual homicide.
... Importantly, people with disordered personalities tend to have insecure attachment styles (Brennan & Shaver, 1998;Crawford et al., 2007;Meyer et al., 2001;Nakash et al., 2021;Smith et al., 2020) specifically avoidant attachment style is correlated with psychopathic traits (Gacono & Meloy, 1991;Gacono et al., 1992;Gambin et al., 2018;Meyer et al., 2001;Schimmenti et al., 2014), fearful is associated with psychopathic traits (Schimmenti et al., 2014), and anxious is associated with borderline traits (Carol & Davies, 1995;Levy, 2005;Nakash et al., 2021;Patrick, et al., 1994;Smith et al., 2020). It would seem from previous research that the relationship between childhood abuse and neglect and disordered personality traits may be indirect through insecure attachment (see Figure 1; Cohen et al., 2017;Roters, 2019;Roters & Book, 2023a). ...
... As expected, the relationship between childhood abuse and neglect and interpersonal manipulation and callous affect traits was indirect through avoidant attachment style. This finding is supported by the previous literature (Gacono & Meloy, 1991;Gacono et al., 1992;Gambin et al., 2018;Meyer et al., 2001;Schimmenti et al., 2014). While previous literature suggests that fearful attachment is also related to erratic lifestyle and antisocial behavior traits (Schimmenti et al., 2014), the relationship between childhood abuse and neglect and erratic lifestyle and antisocial behavior traits was not mediated by any of the insecure attachment styles. ...
Research has demonstrated that childhood abuse and neglect can negatively impact individuals into adulthood. Abuse and neglect are associated with insecure attachment, lower mindfulness, and disordered personality traits, including borderline and psychopathic traits. Objective: The purpose of our present study was two-fold; first, we wanted to replicate the finding that the relationships between abuse and neglect and these traits are partly indirect through insecure attachment. Second, we wanted to determine whether mindfulness is an additional mediator in these relationships. Method: A sample of 291 undergraduate students participated in the current study (Mage = 21.7, SD = 6.5). Results: Findings from a Bayesian Structural Equation Model supported the prediction that the relationship between childhood abuse and neglect and disordered personality traits was indirect through insecure attachment. More specifically, for borderline traits it was indirect through anxious attachment while interpersonal manipulation and callous affect psychopathic traits it was indirect through avoidant attachment. Importantly, mindfulness was not a significant mediator in the model for any of the outcome variables. Conclusions: Overall, there was support for the idea that insecure attachment was a potential mechanism in the relationship between childhood abuse and neglect and disordered personality traits, though there was no support for mindfulness as a potential mediator. Implications are discussed.
... Relatedly, attachment style tends to be insecure in people with disordered personality (Brennan & Shaver, 1998;Crawford et al., 2007;Meyer et al., 2001;Nakash et al., 2021;Smith et al., 2020). Specifically, anxious attachment has been linked with BPD (Carol & Davies, 1995;Levy, 2005;Nakash et al., 2021;Smith et al., 2020) and avoidant attachment with psychopathy (Christian et al., 2019a;Gacono & Meloy, 1991;Gacono et al., 1992;Gambin et al., 2018;Meyer et al., 2001;Schimmenti et al., 2014;Zouwen et al., 2018). Moreover, psychopathic and borderline traits have been associated with lower mindfulness (Barlett & Barlett, 2016;Didonna et al., 2019;Linehan, 2018;Lisá & Valachová, 2021;Velotti et al., 2016;Wupperman et al., 2008). ...
... Similarly, adversity was related to Factor 1 and 2 psychopathic personality traits through avoidant attachment, also in line with the literature ( (Christian et al., 2019a;Gacono & Meloy, 1991;Gacono et al., 1992;Gambin et al., 2018;Meyer et al., 2001;Schimmenti et al., 2014;Zouwen et al., 2018;Yang & Perkins, 2021). Additionally, mindfulness also acted as a mediator (Brett et al., 2018;Corcoran & McNulty, 2018;Tasca et al., 2013), for the relationship between both adversity and Factor 1 and 2 psychopathic personality traits (Barlett & Barlett, 2016;Lisá & Valachová, 2021;Ridings & Lutz-Zois, 2014;Velotti et al., 2016Velotti et al., , 2019. ...
Past research has shown that those with greater experiences of adversity (abuse and neglect) tend to exhibit insecure attachments, more borderline symptoms, higher psychopathic traits, and are lower in mindfulness. Similarly, there have been positive relationships between insecure attachment styles and borderline and psychopathic traits as well as lower mindfulness and borderline and psychopathic traits. Further, adversity can have a detrimental effect on physical and mental health, including attachment and personality, which necessitate examining this further. The purpose of this study was to examine the indirect relationships between childhood adversity and borderline traits, Factor 1, and Factor 2 of psychopathy all through lower mindfulness, anxious attachment, and avoidant attachment respectively. In this study, using youth retrospective data (N = 395, age range = 12–18, M = 14.64, SD = 1.52), 3 separate mediation models are examined. As expected, the relationship between adversity and borderline traits was indirect through anxious attachment (β = 0.075, p < .01) and lower mindfulness (β = 0.069, p < .01). For psychopathic traits, the relationship was indirect through avoidant attachment (Factor 1: β = 0.078, p < .05; Factor 2: β = 0.071, p < .05) and lower mindfulness (Factor 1: β = 0.074, p < .01: Factor 2: β = 0.076, p < .01). The results suggest that lower mindfulness and insecure attachment are important factors in the expression of disordered personality. Therefore, both mindfulness and attachment-focused interventions could mitigate the harmful effects of adversity and the subsequent expression of disordered personality symptoms.
... The texture response on the Rorschach is regarded as a measure of the need for interpersonal contact and closeness (Exner, 2003;Klopfer, Ainsworth, & Klopfer, 1954). Recent studies have consistently pointed out that the nature of the texture response is better understood from the framework of adult attachment theory (e.g., Berant, Mikulincer, Shaver, & Segal, 2005;Cassella & Viglione, 2009;Fowler, Brunnschweiler, Swales, & Brock, 2005;Gacono & Meloy, 1991;Iwasa & Ogawa, 2010). Adult attachment research and theory are derived from Bowlby's attachment theory, which is a life-span developmental theory of social interaction and emotion regulation (Bowlby, 1969(Bowlby, /1982(Bowlby, , 1973(Bowlby, , 1980Mikulincer & Shaver, 2010). ...
... Holaday, Moak, and Shipley (2001) observed that a mean of SumT of individuals with Asperger's disorder was significantly lower than the normative data (Exner, 1995). Gacono and Meloy (1991) reported that individuals with antisocial personality disorder characterized by severe psychopathy showed lower mean SumT compared to mildly psychopathic individuals with antisocial personality disorders. Loving and Russell (2000) found that T-less records were more frequently observed with juvenile offenders who were characterized by severe psychopathy than those characterized by mild and moderate psychopathy. ...
This study clarifies the psychological basis for the linkage between adult attachment and the texture response on the Rorschach by examining the mediational role of the accessibility of tactile knowledge. Japanese undergraduate students (n = 35) completed the Rorschach Inkblot Method, the Experiences in Close Relationship Scale for General Objects (Nakao & Kato, 2004) and a lexical decision task designed to measure the accessibility of tactile knowledge. A mediation analysis revealed that the accessibility of tactile knowledge partially mediates the association between attachment anxiety and the texture response. These results suggest that our hypothetical model focusing on the response process provides a possible explanation of the relationship between the texture response and adult attachment.
... Evaluators should also be familiar with a growing database of forensic Rorschach samples (Bannatyne, Gacono, & Greene, 1999;Cunliffe & Gacono, 2008;Gacono, Meloy, & Bridges, 2000Singer, Hoppe, Lee, Olesen, & Walters, 2008), keeping in mind how these samples differ from Exner's nonpatient and clinical norms (Exner & Erdberg, 2005). A series of studies with antisocial and psychopathic patients (Gacono, 1988(Gacono, , 1990Gacono & Meloy, 1991, 1992, 1994Gacono, Meloy, & Heaven, 1990;Meloy, Gacono, & Kenney, 1994;Young et al., 2000) have validated the use of the Rorschach as a nomothetically sensitive instrument in discriminating between psychopathic ASPD and nonpsychopathic ASPD subjects (also see Smith, Gacono, &Kaufman, 1995, andRussell, 2000, for an extension of these findings to conduct-disordered adolescents), and supported the assertion that these individuals ...
... function at a borderline level of personality organization (Kernberg, 1984;Meloy, 1988Meloy, , 2001. Compared to nonpsychopathic ASPDs, psychopathic ASPDs exhibit more pathological narcissism Young et al., 2000), less anxiety, less capacity for attachment (Gacono & Meloy, 1991), and some indications of increased sadism . Their Rorschach protocols indicate a virtual absence of idealization and higher-level neurotic defenses, coupled with a reliance on primitive defenses such as devaluation, denial, projective identification, omnipotence, and splitting (Gacono, 1990;Gacono, Meloy, & Berg, 1992). ...
The assessment of antisocial and psychopathic personalities presents special challenges for the forensic evaluator. This chapter emphasizes use of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R), Rorschach, and Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) for a comprehensive evaluation of these patients. These measures lend incremental validity to understanding these difficult patients, especially when combined with testing of intelligence and cognitive functioning. Integrating data from multiple domains is essential to answering the psycholegal and forensic treatment questions surrounding the antisocial and psychopathic patient. The forensically trained clinical psychologist is best suited to assess psychopathy, a task that historically has been overlooked or avoided in traditional mental health settings.
... First, a series ofstudies (Gacono & Meloy, 1991Gacono, Meloy, & Heaven, 1990;Heaven, 1988Heaven, /1989 found that the mean EGOI score of prison inmates diagnosed with Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD) was very close to adult norms (Exner, 1993). Apparently EGOI scores are unrelated to ASPD as defined by the DSM-111-R. ...
... Third, several studies (Exner, 1969;Gacono & Meloy, 1991Gacono et al., 1990;Raychaudhuri & Mukerji, 1971) have found an association between reflection responses and psychopathy, suggesting that reflections may constitute a weak sign of psychopathy. The likelihood ratio of the sign among psychopaths versus nonpsychopaths appears to be about 7:l (49% versus 7%). ...
The Egocentricity Index (ECOI) is the oldest clinical index in the Comprehensive System for the Rorschach. According to Exner's 1993 edition of The Rorschach: A Comprehensive System the ECOI, reflections, and pairs are valid Rorschach measures of self-focus and narcissism. The present article reviews research on these indicators and concludes that they are probably unrelated to self-focus or self-esteem. Furthermore, their relationship to narcissistic personality disorder and depression has not been established. Reflection but not pair responses appear to be weakly related to psychopathy and male homosexuality. The research summary in The Rorschach is unbalanced and omits numerous negative findings.
... were re-viewed on the basis of successive admission to the facility between July 1987 and October 1987. Those subjects who met the DSM-111-R (American Psychiatric Association, 1987) criteria for APD were interviewed concerning participation in the study (Gacono, 1988; Gacono & Meloy, 1991; Heaven, 1988 ). Thirtyfour subjects completed testing, and 24 subjects completed both testing and an interview for level of psychopathy. ...
... Exner, 1990, normals produce a M = .38), lower incidence of self-aggrandizement (PER, M = 1.33), and high levels of Y (M = 2.04, frequency = 71%) suggest that their intrapsychic functioning does not operate as smoothly as their more grandiose psychopathic neighbors, and they are more prone to the disruptive effects of internal and external threat (Gacono & Meloy, 1991, in press). ...
Rorschach data were used to psychometrically "map" the internal psychological operations of three Cluster B personality disorders, listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd ed., rev. [DSM-III-R]; American Psychiatric Association, 1987), all of which may be organized at a borderline level. Psychopathic antisocial subjects (P-APDs) and narcissistic subjects (NPDs) were highly narcissistic. NPD subjects, however, produced more indices of anxiety and attachment capacity and fewer scores related to borderline object relations and damaged identity. P-APDs and borderline subjects (BPDs) produced similar mean numbers of borderline object relations; however, the BPDs were more anxious, produced more unsublimated aggressive and libidinal drive material, and evidenced greater potential for attachment. BPDs were also less narcissistic than both P-APDs and NPDs. Nonpsychopathic antisocial subjects (NP-APDs) were less borderline than P-APDs and BPDs, less narcissistic in terms of a stable grandiose self-structure than NPD and P-APDs, produced less evidence of attachment capacity than NPDs and BPDs but more than P-APDs, and were similar to BPDs in their proneness to anxiety. The outpatient NPDs and BPDs produced more idealization responses than the incarcerated antisocial personality disorder (APD) groups. We conclude that the behavioral descriptions offered for these three Cluster B personality disorders, when used in conjunction with information such as level of personality organization (Kernberg, 1984), level of psychopathy (Hare, 1980, 1985), and outpatient versus inpatient research settings, may have greater intrapsychic specificity than previously thought.
... The low EGOI within the moderate psychopaths suggested an ineffective way of regulating their self-worth. Gacono and Meloy (1991) found a mean EGOI of 0.37 (Reflections M = 0.72; Pairs M = 5.37) for incarcerated antisocial personality disordered (ASPD) males. Gacono and Meloy (1994) Cunliffe and Gacono (2005 did not find differences between non-psychopathic females (PCL-R ≤ 24) and psychopathic females (PCL-R ≥ 30) on reflections (psychopaths Fr + rF M = 0.44; non-psychopaths Fr + rF; M = 0.72); however, the psychopathic females had more EGOI ≥ .44 without reflections (Fr + rF = 0) than the non-psychopathic offenders and they had more pairs. ...
The Rorschach Comprehensive System Egocentricity Index (EGOI) and its component variables have been useful in understanding antisocial and psychopathic individuals (Gacono & Meloy, 1994; Gacono, Meloy, & Heaven, 1990). In this study, the EGOI, Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI) scales and the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) were used with a sample of incarcerated women. The EGOI, Fr + rF, and pairs were examined in relation to PCL-R Items 1 (Glibness/Superficial Charm) and 2 (Grandiose Sense of Self-Worth), PCL-R Factor 1, PCL-R facet 1, and the PAI MAN-G and ANT-E scales. The EGOI and reflections were significantly correlated with PCL-R Item 1 and a combination of PCL-R Items 1 and 2. Unlike highly narcissistic male offenders where grandiosity elevates reflections and EGOI, female psychopaths (PCL-R total score ≥ 30; N = 85) and non-psychopathic females (PCL-R total score ≤ 24; N = 40), did not demonstrate a significant difference for their mean EGOI; however, female psychopaths were more likely to produce protocols with a high EGOI (≥ 0.44) with and without reflections and they had more pairs (a finding consistent with conceptual differences between male and female psychopaths). The utility of the EGOI with incarcerated women is discussed.
... Nel frattempo, un anno dopo, Greiner e Nunno (1994) riprendono in esame i 16 protocolli di Gilbert, sulla scorta dell'edizione più recente del CS (Exner, 1990), e rifacendosi alle teorizzazioni di Meloy (1988), che ha sviluppato un'apposita scala a 33 items, basati sulle variabili Rorschach individuate dal CS, che permettono di identificare le personalità psicopatiche. Come gruppo di controllo vengono utilizzati i protocolli di 60 carcerati di sesso maschile con diagnosi di Disturbo Antisociale di Personalità (APD Atascadero sample), esaminati da Gacono eMeloy (1991Meloy ( , 1992).(1963,1964) sulla 'banalità del male'. ...
The Trial of Germans in Nuremberg (1945-1946) may be considered the dawn of the modern criminological psychodiagnosis. It was in fact the first time that the Rorschach test was used for the study of the personality of individuals accused of war crimes. The paper retraces the history of this affair and puts forward a methodological proposal for the interpretation of the Rorschach test in psychopathic personalities.
... Blackburn (1998) in the UK has followed suit with his demarcation between the anxious, moody, withdrawn psychopath and the hostile, extraverted and low anxiety psychopath. Other laboratory and clinical studies support this finding (Gacono & Meloy, 1991;Ogloff & Wong, 1990). Most notably, in conduct disordered children, there is a strong negative relationship between 'callous-unemotional' traits and anxiety (Frick et al., 1999). ...
... The RIM's ability to detect aspects of personality function that might be outside the subject's awareness or ability to report (Meyer & Viglione, 2008; Mihura et al., 2013; Weiner, 2003) makes it particularly suited to use as a supplementary instrument to the PCL–R in understanding psychopathic and violence-prone individuals. There is also a considerable Rorschach literature on the antisocial population that is mainly attributed to the work of Gacono, Meloy, and colleagues (e.g., Gacono & Meloy, 1991, 1994 Gacono, Meloy, & Heaven, 1990; Huprich, Gacono, Schneider, & Bridges, 2004), whose series of studies mapped out the psychodynamic RIM markers underpinning psychopathy. In brief, their research showed that the RIM records of male psychopaths, compared to individuals with ASPD, were characterized by less anxiety and internal distress, reduced capacity for attachment and little interest in others, chronic anger and poor emotional modulation, as well as diminished reality testing, in addition to a pathological self-focus and narcissism. ...
This study examined personality functioning in a group of 27 incarcerated criminal debt collectors as assessed by the Rorschach Inkblot Method (RIM; Rorschach, 1921/1942) and the Psychopathy Checklist–Revised (PCL–R; Hare, 200339.
Hare, R. D. (2003). Manual for the Hare Psychopathy Checklist–Revised (2nd ed.). Toronto, ON, Canada: Multi-Health Systems.View all references). To explore whether these individuals represent a distinct subgroup within the violent offender population, we compared them to a group of incarcerated homicide offenders (n = 23) without a previous history of significant violence and a group who had committed less serious violent crimes (n = 21). Results revealed significantly more Rorschach indicators of past trauma (Trauma Content Index), aggressive urges (Aggressive Potential) and identification (Aggressive Content) among the debt collectors than the 2 other groups. In addition, debt collectors displayed significantly more interpersonal interest (Sum Human content), and significantly higher scores on the PCL–R. Our findings suggest that the debt collector might be viewed as a hostile variant of psychopathy.
... 14 In the text of their Comment, Wood et al. (2015) consistently refer to our meta-analyses of 53 variables with relevant data as a meta-analysis in the singular (27 out of 27 times) and refer to their review of four variables as meta-analyses in the plural (8 out of 8 times). 15 Wood et al. (2010) mistakenly counted (a) one dissertation as reporting interrater reliability that reports none (Cunliffe, 2002) and (b) four articles as not reporting interrater reliability that did not actually contribute data to their meta-analyses; as additional errors, two of these four articles (marked with asterisks ء ) actually did contain interrater reliability (Gacono & Meloy, 1991; ء Gacono, Meloy, & Berg, 1992, p. 37;Gacono, Meloy, & Heaven, 1990; ء Meloy & Gacono, 1992, p. 108). This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. ...
Wood, Garb, Nezworski, Lilienfeld, and Duke (2015) found our systematic review and meta-analyses of 65 Rorschach variables to be accurate and unbiased, and hence removed their previous recommendation for a moratorium on the applied use of the Rorschach. However, Wood et al. (2015) hypothesized that publication bias would exist for 4 Rorschach variables. To test this hypothesis, they replicated our meta-analyses for these 4 variables and added unpublished dissertations to the pool of articles. In the process, they used procedures that contradicted their standards and recommendations for sound Rorschach research, which consistently led to significantly lower effect sizes. In reviewing their meta-analyses, we found numerous methodological errors, data errors, and omitted studies. In contrast to their strict requirements for interrater reliability in the Rorschach meta-analyses of other researchers, they did not report interrater reliability for any of their coding and classification decisions. In addition, many of their conclusions were based on a narrative review of individual studies and post hoc analyses rather than their meta-analytic findings. Finally, we challenge their sole use of dissertations to test publication bias because (a) they failed to reconcile their conclusion that publication bias was present with the analyses we conducted showing its absence, and (b) we found numerous problems with dissertation study quality. In short, one cannot rely on the findings or the conclusions reported in Wood et al.
... Another psychodynamic that contributes to the psychopath's propensity to commit evil acts is chronic emotional detachment from others. 16 For the psychopath, relationships are defined by power gradients, not affectional ties. This biolog ically based deficit in bonding capacity, which may be acquired or inherited or both, was first noted by Bowlby17 in his study of delinquent adolescents, some of whom he labeled "affection less." ...
... Although depression is generally unexpected in psychopathy (Meloy, 1988), there is some evidence suggesting that these individuals might also be susceptible to bouts of self-doubt and agony. Gacono and Meloy (1991) reported that a few of their psychopathic subjects had Rorschach records similar to Eric's, a finding that they attributed to situational factors (e.g., imprisonment). Thus, considering that Eric had been seriously stabbed in a murder attempt by former allies, then hospitalized and imprisoned just prior to the assessment, it seems likely that a proportion of his despair and self-doubt were tied to his current situation, a significant blow to his self-image of invulnerability. ...
Although it has been proposed that attachment is a key factor in psychopathy and violence, conceptualization of its potential role remains limited. This article uses the dynamic-maturational model of attachment and adaptation (DMM; Crittenden, 2008 ) and a case study to illustrate an etiological model of psychopathy and violence. The Adult Attachment Interview (AAI; George, Kaplan, & Main, 1984 -1996), coded according to the DMM system (Crittenden & Landini, 2011 ), was used to identify the participant's self-protective attachment strategies, and to explore indexes indicating opportunities for change. To allow a more elaborated understanding of this participant's personality, AAI findings were compared and contrasted with the Rorschach method (Rorschach, 1921 /1942). The AAI indicated unresolved loss and trauma, alternation between delusionally idealizing dismissive (Type A) and menacing-paranoid entangled (Type C) strategies, possible depression, and the potential for reorganization. The Rorschach showed many similarities with the AAI findings. Implications for the understanding of psychopathy, violence, and treatment are presented.
... Preoccupied attachment patterns, which are characterized by intense desires for closeness accompanied by equally intense fears of rejection or abandonment, may not be as descriptive of those with prominent ASPD features, who are often interpersonally hostile, domineering, and uncomfortable with dependency (Pincus & Wiggins, 1990). Accordingly, several studies document associations between dismissive/avoidant attachment patterns and ASPD (e.g., Gacano & Meloy, 1991;Gacano, Meloy, & Berg, 1992;Rosenstein & Horowitz, 1996). In addition, those with ASPD features, as well as those with dismissive or avoidant attachment patterns, tend to demonstrate emotional coldness and denial of distress (e.g., Austin & Deary, 2000;Rosenstein & Horowitz, 1996), which is antithetical to the emotional intensity and reactivity that is often observed in those with BPD. ...
Emotional dysregulation and impaired attachment are seen by many clinical researchers as central aspects of borderline personality disorder (BPD). Alternatively, these constructs may represent general impairments in personality that are nonspecific to BPD. Using multitraitmultimethod models, the authors examined the strength of associations among preoccupied attachment, difficulties with emotion regulation, BPD features, and features of two other personality disorders (i.e., antisocial and avoidant) in a combined psychiatric outpatient and community sample of adults. Results suggested that preoccupied attachment and difficulties with emotion regulation shared strong positive associations with each other and with each of the selected personality disorders. However, preoccupied attachment and emotional dysregulation were more strongly related to BPD features than to features of other personality disorders. Findings suggest that although impairments in relational and emotional domains may underlie personality pathology in general, preoccupied attachment and emotional dysregulation also have specificity for understanding core difficulties in those with BPD.
... Blackburn (1998) in the UK has followed suit with his demarcation between the anxious, moody, withdrawn psychopath and the hostile, extraverted and low anxiety psychopath. Other laboratory and clinical studies support this finding (Gacono & Meloy, 1991;Ogloff & Wong, 1990). Most notably, in conduct disordered children, there is a strong negative relationship between 'callous-unemotional' traits and anxiety (Frick et al., 1999). ...
... Psychodynamically, Rorschach findings (Gacono & Meloy, 1994) indicate that psychopathic offenders (? 30) produce more indices associated with borderline personality organization (Gacono, 1988(Gacono, , 1990, are more narcissistic (Gacono, Meloy, & Heaven, 1990), and show less attachment and anxiety (Gacono & Meloy, 1991) . Other areas of PCL study have included female and juvenile offenders , ethnicity effects (Kosson, Smith, & Newman, 1990 ; and the relationship of psychopathy to neuro-psychological screening . ...
Psychopathy is an essential construct for research and applied usage (Gacono, 2016). The Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R; Hare, 2003) is the only valid method for assessing the Cleckley psychopath. In this chapter, we discuss theoretical and empirical roots of psychopathy and provide clinical and forensic guidelines for use of the PCL-R. We rely on our extensive PCL-R research and clinical experience in discussing gender differences among psychopaths. Although males show a malignant narcissistic style, the female variant is characterized by a malevolent type of hysteria (Cunliffe & Gacono, 2005, 2008; Gacono & Meloy, 1994; Smith, Gacono, & Cunliffe, 2018). Gender differences are highlighted and guidelines for the assessment of psychopathic and nonpsychopathic female offenders are provided.
Despite the perception that women do not commit sexual offenses, female offenders engage in sexual homicide, sexually assault their students or their own children, and, at times, work with co-perpetrators to sexually aggress against their victims. Few studies have used psychological tests to psychometrically map the personality of female sexual offenders. In this chapter, we use the PCL-R, PAI, and Rorschach in studying a sample of female sexual offenders with offenses against minors (N = 39). These women evidenced (1) borderline reality testing, defenses, & thinking; (2) a damaged sense of self (entitlement & victim stance); (3) abnormal bonding and pseudo-dependency (maladaptive neediness); (4) affective instability; (5) impulsivity; and (6) chronic anger couched within a malignant hysterical style that masks an underlying paranoid position. Descriptive personality measure data and two case examples are presented to highlight the dynamics of their offending behavior.
Historically, the cornerstone of the psychologist’s identity rested on providing competent in-depth psychological assessment (Rapaport, Gill, & Schafer, 1946). The ability to utilize a battery of assessment methods to elucidate complex issues makes the psychologist unique among other mental health professionals. Recent trends, however, have tarnished that cornerstone. Not surprisingly, the movement away from proficiency in psychological assessment has led to a decline in the need for psychologists. In this chapter, we discuss these harmful trends, define psychological assessment, offer a model for assessing female offenders, and provide examples of how record review, clinical interview, the Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R), Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI), and Rorschach Inkblot test can be useful with female offenders. We discuss the interpersonal aspects of the assessment process, evaluate gender specific patterns for several PCL-R criteria (also see Appendices A & B), and provide caveats for assessing female offenders. We conclude with a case study.
In this chapter, we provide a theoretical and empirically based understanding of antisocial and psychopathic women. We begin by clarifying the differences between psychopathy, sociopathy, and ASPD, and then provide a historical perspective of hysteria. While the underlying personality of the female psychopath is paranoid, malignant hysteria is their predominant personality style (Gacono & Meloy, 1994). Overviews of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R), Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI), and Rorschach are offered as a refresher for those experienced clinicians and as a resource for those that are not. Finally, we present group PAI and Rorschach data (also Trauma Symptom Inventory-2 [TSI-2]) for 337 female offenders including subsets of psychopathic (N = 124) and non-psychopathic (N = 57) females. We make note of the differences between female and male psychopaths.
The “house of psychopath” is constructed on a foundation of no attachment, underarousal, and minimal anxiety. These appear to be necessary, related, but insufficient characteristics that provide certain biological predispositions for the development of the psychopathic character. In psychopathy, incorporative failures predict subsequent problems with two kinds of internalizations: identifications and introjections. Central to psychopathy is a variation of the grandiose self‐structure which has three condensed components: a real self, an ideal self, and an ideal object. The only vestiges of conscience in the psychopathic character were best described by Jacobson as sadistic superego precursors, which she defined as projected aspects of early persecutory objects, attributed to others to deny aggression in the midst of frustration. Psychopathic individuals do not struggle with tensions of ego‐dystonic aggression, because the impulse to aggress is either immediately acted out, or remains a source of aggressive fueling of the grandiose self‐structure without conflict or ambivalence.
Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) and PCL-R psychopathy are critically examined regarding their application to sentencing determinations. PCL-R psychopathy is emerging in the literature as a more useful forensic diagnostic construct than APD, which appears flawed by multiple weaknesses. These include shifting diagnostic criteria, innumeracy problems, absence of symptom weighting, temporal instability, and the equivalence of some symptoms with substance abuse disorders. Additionally, APD overdiagnosis may result from inattention to issues of social context, trauma history, and symptom pervasiveness. Neither objective nor projective personality testing reliably differentiates APD. Finally, an APD diagnosis does not always indicate criminal, much less incorrigible criminal behavior. By contrast, PCL-R psychopathy results are strongly predictive of criminal behavior and violent recidivism for Caucasian males through mid-life residing in the community. Emerging research with the PCL-R regarding other important populations and contexts is promising but generalization is currently limited. (C) 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
From an antisocial personality to severe psychopathy. Generally, these patients are diagnosed based on 'antisocial personality' criteria. However, these are insufficient to evaluate the degree of severity. Hare has established a list of psychopathic symptoms on a scale of I to 3. Subjects who obtain 30 out of 40 are considered to have 'antisocial personalities with severe psychopathy'. Criminal psychopaths are not receptive to treatment and some treatment can even increase their chances of recidivism. The therapeutic setting must have a certain capacity and indispensable security measures to insure a treatment without risk to the personnel. These patients feel little anguish or attachment. They systematically degrade others and find a sadistic pleasure in making others suffer, physically or psychologically. They have internalised few moral values. The clinician must critically study the various reactions that the psychopath triggers in the therapist. Among the various possible therapies, medication can reduce aggressiveness and violence. Family therapies or those involving the patient's environment are to be discussed on a case-by-case basis. Psycho-dynamical conceptions are very useful in helping the clinician understand the role of the unconscious factors at play. In conclusion, rules of caution, a patient and respectful clinic,cooperation with the family, mastery of counter-transference, a prolonged treatment and a very active supervision of therapeutic relationships allow the improvement of the prognostic and the reduction of relapses and recidivism. (C) 2001 Editions scientifiques et medicales Elsevier SAS.
Much of the pioneering research on the stress-buffering effects of social support tended to view support primarily in terms of its perceived availability in the environment. Individual differences were often included in these models, not as independent variables, but only as dependent variables representing psychological or physical health symptoms of distress. In many of these studies, the capacity to benefit from available social support was accepted as a given. After a decade of research in which this paradigm predominated, however, researchers in the mid-1980s increasingly began to view social support as an interaction between individual difference variables and the environment (e. g., B. R. Sarason, Pierce, & I. G. Sarason, 1990; I. G. Sarason, B. R. Sarason, & Shearin, 1986). On the basis of this growing body of research, it appears that at least three conditions are necessary for an individual to derive benefit from social support for coping with a given stressful life event: (1) the environment must offer support of the functional types and from relationship sources that match the coping requirements of the event; (2) the individual must possess social skills necessary to engage in supportive relationships, establish intimacy, and recruit the specific types of social support needed for coping with the Stressor; and (3) the individual must have the personality disposition and willingness to exercise these skills.
Daders van chronisch seksueel misbruik van kinderen vormen een vrij heterogene groep. Vooreerst dient een onderscheid gemaakt te worden tussen plegers van extra-familiaal en intra-familiaal misbruik van kinderen. Voor de eerstgenoemde groep hebben een seksueel deviante aantrekking tot kinderen enerzijds (cf. pedofilie) en een chronische, diep ingebedde antisociale levenshouding anderzijds (cf. psychopathie) een verklarende en voorspellende waarde (Hanson, 2000, 2005, Lalumière & Quinsey, 1996). Deze factoren spelen echter geen voorname rol bij intra-familiaal of incestueus misbruik van kinderen. Vanuit forensisch oogpunt is het belangrijk om een onderscheid te maken naar het type misbruik aangezien de gevaarlijkheid en het risico op recidive verschillend is en omdat therapeutische interventies andere klemtonen vragen.
Wood et al. (2010) published a meta-analysis in which the authors challenged the utility of the Rorschach Inkblot Test in delineating key differences between psychopathic and non-psychopathic individuals identified by the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R; Hare, 1991/2003). In this article, Gacono et al.’s (2001) five conceptual and four methodological criteria for the evaluation and interpretation of psychopathy/Rorschach literature were employed to provide a detailed review of the approach and procedure used by Wood et al. (2010). We identify and discuss a number of conceptual and methodological problems with the meta-analysis including confusion of the related but distinct terms of diagnosis and assessment, selection of studies, categorical versus dimensional interpretations of data, characterization of PCL-R and Rorschach findings, and meta-analytic methodology. Finally, recommendations for the essential components of well designed and implemented PCL-R and Rorschach studies are provided.
No bloco de F60-F69 (TRANSTORNOS DA PERSONALIDADE E DO COMPORTAMENTO EM ADULTOS) da CID-10 1 , merecem destaque os transtornos específicos da personalidade (F60), que correspondem, em linhas gerais, às anteriormente denominadas personalidades psicopáticas. Estes transtornos, segundo a descrição da CID-10, incluem grande variedade de condições e de padrões de comportamento importantes para a clínica, e são considerados perturbações caracterológicas e comportamentais, estando com freqüência associados a disrupção pessoal e social, como conseqüência da desarmonia afetiva e do descontrole dos impulsos, sendo em geral persistentes e mais ou menos refratários às terapêuticas atuais. Dentre estes, destaca-se o TRANSTORNO ANTI-SOCIAL DA PERSONALIDADE, caracterizado na CID-10 por: (a) insensibilidade afetiva aos demais; (b) constante e evidente desconsideração por normas, regras e obrigações sociais; (c) instabilidade na manutenção de relacionamentos interpessoais, sem dificuldade para estabelecê-los; (d) acentuada intolerância a frustrações e baixo limiar para respostas agressivas e violentas; (e) incapacidade de vivenciar sentimentos de culpa e de aprender com a experiência, em especial com a punição; (f) propensão para atribuir culpa a outrem e a oferecer racionalizações plausíveis para o seu comportamento social conflitivo. Podem apresentar irritabilidade persistente. A ocorrência de transtorno da conduta na infância ou adolescência apóia o diagnóstico, ainda que não seja necessária 2 . Na DSM-IV os critérios diagnósticos são mais rigorosos quanto à especificação de faixa etária e à exclusão de transtornos psicóticos, porém correspondem, em linhas gerais, aos exigidos pela CID-10 3 .
This study was an investigation of the differences between 97 patients who had prematurely terminated psychotherapy (M = 1 session) and 81 who had participated in individual psychotherapy for at least 6 months and 24 sessions (M = 18 months/72 sessions) on selected Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory—2 (MMPI-2) and Rorschach variables. None of the between-group comparisons using the MMPI-2 proved to be significant. However, a multivariate analysis of variance of 9 Rorschach variables in 3 conceptual categories—(a) interpersonal relatedness, (b) psychological resources versus resource demand, and (c) level of psychopathology—proved to be significant alp = .008. The Rorschach scores from the interpersonal-relational category proved to be the most robust in differentiati ng the 2 groups. The theoretical implications of interpersonal variables are discussed in relation to the termination and continuation of patients in psychotherapy.
The case of a 42-year-old man with a nonviolent criminal history caused by compulsive gambling is presented. His Rorschach is analyzed and interpreted using both psychostructural (Exner, 1986) and psychodynamic (Cooper, Perry, & Arnow, 1988; Meloy & Gacono, 1992b) methodologies. Findings provide idiographic support for Meloy's (1988) hypothesis that a neurotic psychopath is an oxymoron, yet neurotic personality organization and criminal behavior can and do coexist.
Even though criminologists continue to ignore Yochelson and Samenow's (1976, 1977, 1986) therapeutic approach in working with juvenile and adult offenders (Walters and White, 1989b), many criminal justice and mental help practitioners, among other allied professionals have adopted and/or adapted it. Their approach has evolved into the most publicized cognitive therapy for treating antisocial behavior (Barley, 1986; Gendreau and Ross, 1987). Previous reviewers have focused on the conceptual, theoretical and methodological weaknesses of Yochelson and Samenow's work without acknowledging other important contributions these investigators have made. A more balanced review of Yochelson and Samenow's influence on mental health, criminal justice, and interdisciplinary practice and research is presented. The author proposes that the academic community reinvigorate their efforts to examine Yochelson and Samenow's work because of its potential to: (1) bridge a gap that exists between sociology, criminology, and psychology (Groves and Lynch, 1990); and (2) influence the development of crime control policies (Clarke and Cornish, 1985; Cornish and Clarke, 1986).
Nous analysons 22 cas diagnostiqués comme Trouble de la Personnalité Antisociale poursuivis en justice et bénéficiaires de l’aide légale. Le diagnostic repose sur les critères stricts de la CIM-10 (F60.2) et du DSM-IV (301.7). Tous ces cas sont issus de l’expertise réalisée à l’Institut de Médecine Sociale et de Criminologie de l’état de Sao Paulo (IMESC) qui visait à évaluer leur état mental. L’expertise comprenait une évaluation psychiatrique et le test du Rorschach. D’autres tests psychologiques, des évaluations neurologiques et autres examens complémentaires ont été effectués à la demande. Les procédures judiciaires concernaient toutes des actes criminels. Toutefois on trouve des différences importantes quant à la potentialité criminelle. Ce fait, ainsi que d’autres éléments issus des dossiers, nous a persuadé que non seulement l’on se trouvait devant des potentialités criminelles distinctes mais qu’en outre que d’importantes différences dans la personnalité étaient en jeu, qui ne peuvent être appréhendées par les critères diagnostiques couramment utilisés pour le Trouble de la Personnalité Antisociale.
En corrélant ces item avec la dynamique psychique donnée par le Rorschach et inférée des anamnèses des sujets, nous avons trouvé dans notre échantillon quatre sous-types bien distincts de Trouble de la Personnalité Antisociale, pour lesquels nous avons gardé la terminologie psychiatrique classique, et qui ne peuvent être considérés simplement comme des variantes individuelles. Cela ne veut pas dire, compte tenu des limitations de notre échantillon, qu’il ne pourrait exister d’autres sous-type.
Dans le groupe diagnostiqué comme Trouble de la Personnalité Antisociale, nous avons trouvé les quatre sous-types suivants: instabilité (8 cas), caractère pervers (7 cas), explosivité (5 cas) et asthénie (2 cas). Bien que nous n’ayons pas procédé à des analyses statistiques, cette étude qualitative représente le point de départ d’une ligne d’investigation que les auteurs ont l’intention de poursuivre concernant le problème des troubles spécifiques de la personnalité.
L’analyse porte sur les données démographiques, l’histoire personnelle, les antécédents, les épisodes cliniques, l’histoire des faits incriminés et l’âge auquel ils ont été commis, ainsi que sur les item diagnostiques.
Les résultats du Rorschach sont présentés dans des tableaux et interprétés en référence à l’échantillon composé de 10 sujets non consultants qu’utilise Silveira (23) pour la standardisation du Rorschach à la population brésilienne.
Dans la conclusion générale, nous mettons l’accent sur les aspects de la dynamique complexe du psychisme qui ont trait à la répercussion. L’un de ces aspects concerne des modalités particulières de la perception et de la pensée. L’autre aspect est lié à l’assertion donnée dans la définition du Trouble de la Personnalité Antisociale à la CIM-10: “incapacité de se conformer aux normes et règles sociales et aux obligations sociales.”
En ce qui concerne le type d’infraction, nous avons observé que (1)dans le type explosif, ce sont les atteintes physiques et l’alcoolisation qui prédominent; (2)dans le caractère pervers, on trouve surtout des homicides (y compris attaque à main armée), utilisation de cannabis et absence de troubles épileptiformes, ainsi que des traumatismes accidentels; (3)on trouve une plus grande variété d’actes criminels ainsi que des addictions à la cocaïne dans le type instable. Les troubles associés à l’épilepsie prédominent dans les types antisocial et instable.
Les auteurs estiment que les résultats de la présente étude intéressent les procédures épidémiologiques, d’expertise et de traitement, notamment en ce qui concerne les conséquences judiciaires et les possibilités de réhabilitation psychosociale des personnes qui présentent un Trouble de la Personnalité Antisociale.
[See Table 4 for Rorschach variables Assessing Psychosis] We systematically evaluated the peer-reviewed Rorschach validity literature for the 65 main variables in the popular Comprehensive System (CS). Across 53 meta-analyses examining variables against externally assessed criteria (e.g., observer ratings, psychiatric diagnosis), the mean validity was r = .27 (k = 770) as compared to r = .08 (k = 386) across 42 meta-analyses examining variables against introspectively assessed criteria (e.g., self-report). Using Hemphill's (2003) data-driven guidelines for interpreting the magnitude of assessment effect sizes with only externally assessed criteria, we found 13 variables had excellent support (r ≥ .33, p < .001; ∴ FSN > 50), 17 had good support (r ≥ .21, p < .05, FSN ≥ 10), 10 had modest support (p < .05 and either r ≥ .21, FSN < 10, or r = .15-.20, FSN ≥ 10), 13 had little (p < .05 and either r = < .15 or FSN < 10) or no support (p > .05), and 12 had no construct-relevant validity studies. The variables with the strongest support were largely those that assess cognitive and perceptual processes (e.g., Perceptual-Thinking Index, Synthesized Response); those with the least support tended to be very rare (e.g., Color Projection) or some of the more recently developed scales (e.g., Egocentricity Index, Isolation Index). Our findings are less positive, more nuanced, and more inclusive than those reported in the CS test manual. We discuss study limitations and the implications for research and clinical practice, including the importance of using different methods in order to improve our understanding of people. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
Generally, these patients are diagnosed based on ‘antisocial personality’ criteria. However, these are insufficient to evaluate the degree of severity. Hare has established a list of psychopathic symptoms on a scale of 1 to 3. Subjects who obtain 30 out of 40 are considered to have ‘antisocial personalities with severe psychopathy’. Criminal psychopaths are not receptive to treatment and some treatment can even increase their chances of recidivism. The therapeutic setting must have a certain capacity and indispensable security measures to insure a treatment without risk to the personnel. These patients feel little anguish or attachment. They systematically degrade others and find a sadistic pleasure in making others suffer, physically or psychologically. The have internalised few moral values. The clinician must critically study the various reactions that the psychopath triggers in the therapist. Among the various possible therapies, medication can reduce aggressiveness and violence. Family therapies or those involving the patient's environment are to be discussed on a case-by-case basis. Psychodynamical conceptions are very useful in helping the clinician understand the role of the unconscious factors at play. In conclusion, rules of caution, a patient and respectful clinic, cooperation with the family, mastery of counter-transference, a prolonged treatment and a very active supervision of therapeutic relationships allow the improvement of the prognostic and the reduction of relapses and recidivism.
Using attachment theory, in this research, we explored the construct validity of the Rorschach (Exner, 197415.
Exner , J. E. 1974. The Rorschach: A comprehensive system, New York: Wiley. View all references) Texture (T) response as a measure of interpersonal closeness and contact. A total of 40 men and 39 women completed the Rorschach and 2 attachment inventories. Their romantic partners also completed an informant version of the attachment measures. Attachment styles were measured by factor scores involving both self-report and partner report. Results indicate that attachment theory, as a broad conceptual framework, is associated with T. Specifically, T = 1 is most closely associated with a secure attachment style, T > 1 with aspects of the preoccupied style, and T = 0 with aspects of the avoidant style and an absence of secure attachment. Needs for closeness and contact associated with T can be couched within an adult attachment theory, but in this study, we did not test for problematic aspects of insecure attachment. Gender is a complicating factor and deserves more study.
Thesis (Ed. D.)--Boston University, 1995. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (p. 283-311). Photocopy. s
We investigated the constructs of attachment and anxiety in inpatient conduct-disordered and dysthymic adolescents. Texture, diffuse shading, and pure human content (Exner, 1986) Rorschach indices were compared between 48 subjects who met the criteria for conduct disorder and 30 subjects who met the criteria for dysthymia, according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd ed., rev. [DSM-III-R]; American Psychiatric Association, 1987). We also compared mild, moderate, and severe conduct-disorder groups on the three selected Rorschach variables and investigated certain family characteristics for the two groups. We found a lower frequency of texture and pure human content responses in conduct-disordered subjects and a greater frequency of diffuse shading responses in the dysthymic subjects. The conduct-disordered subjects also came from homes in which the mother figure was significantly less present. Our psychometric findings of lessened attachment and diminished anxiety in the conduct-disordered adolescents are similar to adult psychopaths. We urge that an attachment or socialization disturbance criterion be reintroduced into the forthcoming DSM-IV conduct-disorder diagnosis.
This study utilized the Rorschach as a psychometric measure for understanding Antisocial Personality Disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 1987). Comprehensive System (Exner, 1986) Rorschach data for a sample of 60 ADP subjects and Rorschach object relations and defensive operations for 22 psychopathic APD (P-APD) and 21 nonpsychopathic APD (NP-APD) subjects are presented and discussed. The data support the absence of anxiety and attachment and the presence of pathological narcissism and borderline personality organization in P-APDs. The Rorschach's ability to differentiate antisocial groups based on level of psychopathy (Hare, 1980, 1985) strongly supports the need to use psychopathy as an independent measure when one is studying APD.
The published Rorschach (Kaiser, 1970) of Sirhan Sirhan, the man who assassinated presidential aspirant Robert F. Kennedy in 1968, was studied. Psychostructural and psychodynamic analyses were conducted using reliable and valid methodology that was unavailable at the time of examination. In contrast to the defense experts at trial who diagnosed paranoid schizophrenia, the data suggest a depressed and suicidal individual organized at a borderline level of personality. Character pathology is hysterical, paranoid, and dependent. When the Rorschach findings are compared to the development history of Sirhan and the behavior around the time of the assassination, the data are somewhat consistent with the theme of psychic trauma, are very consistent with the theme of recurrent loss and pathological mourning, and validate a characterological distrust and hatred of, yet hysterical dependence on, the object world. Rorschach indices of predatory violence (Meloy, 1988a) in relation to the planned and purposeful assassination are also discussed.
The case of a 33-year-old White male with a history of sexual assault is presented. His Rorschach is analyzed and interpreted using both psychostructural (Exner, 1986) and psychodynamic (Cooper & Arnow, 1986; Kwawer, 1980; Meloy & Gacono, in press-b) methodologies. Findings are used to understand the presence and interaction of both psychopathic character and psychotic personality organization in this mentally ill, sadistic, and sexually predatory young man.
1. The nursing care of an extraordinarily dangerous patient may necessitate implementing a treatment plan that should never be used under normal circumstances. 2. The subject whose case is described in this article presented management problems that required a plan violating accepted standards of care. 3. Although ultimately successful, the plan's restrictive mode (and the stress of coping with this patient) wearied nursing staff members and caused divisions among the staff and multidisciplinary team.
Sixteen Nuremberg war criminals' (NWC) Rorschach records were compared to those of Antisocial Personality Disordered (APD) incarcerated males procured by Gacono and Meloy (1988). The Meloy (1988) set of hypotheses for psychopathy was applied to the NWCs' Rorschachs. The NWCs did not match Meloy's hypotheses, and neither did the antisocial personality disordered inmates. However, individually and as a group, the NWC Rorschach variables indicated less psychopathy, according to the hypotheses, than those of the APD inmates. Unlike most previous studies, variance in type and degree of psychopathology precluded the application of a mental disorder, character structure, or trait to all, or to the majority, of NWCs. Nevertheless, common features, such as avoidance of responsibility, low self-esteem, and capacity for affection, were revealed.
Rorschach records were obtained from normal Ss in hypnosis and in induced anxiety. Anxiety state is reflected statistically.
Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses were used to examine the criminal histories of male psychopaths and nonpsychopaths. Dependent variables included time spent in prison and conviction rates during each 5-year period between the ages of 16–45 years. Both types of analysis indicated that the criminal activities of nonpsychopaths were relatively constant over the years, whereas those of psychopaths remained high until around age 40, after which they declined dramatically. Nevertheless, more than half of the subjects in each group still received at least one conviction after age 40. The results are consistent with clinical impressions that some psychopaths tend to "burn out" in middle age. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Skin conductance of psychopathic (P) and nonpsychopathic (NP) criminals and noncriminal controls (N = 11 each group) was monitored while the numbers 1-12 were consecutively presented on a memory drum. After the 1st trial, Ss were informed that on each of the remaining 5 trials they would receive a strong electric shock when Number 8 appeared. Log conductance increases in the interval prior to shock were significantly smaller and began later for the P than for the NP Ss. The psychopaths were less responsive to shock than were the NP criminals but did not differ significantly from the noncriminal controls. There were no significant differences among groups in the rate of recovery from the effects of shock. The results were consistent with the hypothesis that the temporal gradient of fear arousal and response inhibition is steeper for psychopaths than for normal persons. (20 ref.)
This study tested the hypothesis that psychopathic Ss would show less preference for immediate shock than would nonpsychopathic Ss. 12 psychopathic and 12 nonpsychopathic criminals and 19 noncriminals were presented with 6 trials in which they were required to choose between an immediate shock and 1 delayed 10 sec. The results confirmed the hypothesis (p < .001). The psychopaths chose immediate shock 55.5% of the time while the nonpsychopaths chose it 82.3% of the time. The preference for immediate shock increased over trials for the nonpsychopathic Ss but not for the psychopathic ones. The results were interpreted in terms of a conditioned fear hypothesis. (17 ref.)
The frequency and severity of antisocial behavior within a correctional setting were assessed for 78 primary sociopaths, 53 secondary sociopaths, and 102 nonsociopaths. Frequency of antisocial behaviors was determined by the number of serious incident reports filed on Ss by staff members over a 6-mo period; severity of behavior was determined by the amount of time spent in segregation per incident report. In 2 studies primary sociopaths were found to engage in significantly more frequent and severe antisocial behavior than secondary sociopaths and nonsociopaths. This finding adds credence to the distinction between primary and secondary sociopathy and serves to bridge the gap between strictly experimental laboratory investigations with noncriminal populations and realistic situations involving individuals who have committed criminal offenses. (12 ref)
This paper describes an early phase in the development of new research scale for the assessment of psychopathy in criminal populations. The scale is meant to be a sort of operational definition of the procedures that go into making global ratings of psychopathy. While the interrater reliability of these ratings is very high ( > 0.85) they are difficult to make, require a considerable amount of experience, and the procedures involved are not easily communicated to other investigators. Following a series of analyses, 22 items were chosen as representative of the type of information used in making global ratings. Two investigators then used interview and case-history data to complete the 22-item checklist for 143 male prison inmates. The correlation between the two sets of total checklist scores was 0.93 and coefficient alpha was 0.88, indicating a very high degree of scale reliability. The correlation between the total checklist scores and global ratings of psychopathy was 0.83. A series of multivariate analyses explored the factorial structure of the scale and demonstrated its ability to discriminate very accurately between inmates with high and low ratings of psychopathy. Preliminary indications are that the checklist will hold up well to crossvalidation.
Physiological activity was monitored while 64 prison inmates awaited delivery of a 120dB tone during a 12-sec “count-down” procedure. The inmates were divided into four groups on the basis of global ratings of psychopathy (interrater reliability = .86) and scores on the Socialization (So) scale. Twelve inmates in the group considered to be most psychopathic (high ratings of psychopathy and low So scores) showed larger increases in heart rate and smaller increases in electrodermal activity in anticipation of the tone than did 20 inmates in the group considered to be least psychopathic (low ratings of psychopathy and high So scores). These findings were consistent with those of several previous studies, and were interpreted as a reflection of an association between psychopathy and the operation of efficient mechanisms for coping with threat.
The Rorschachs of 59 effected suicides and 31 attempted suicides, all of which were collected within a period of 60 days prior to the critical event were categorized in terms of method used, and subjected to a computer scan to determine if any constellation of variables occurred with a greater frequency than in the protocols of three control groups, comprised of inpatient depressives, inpatient schizophrenics, and nonpatients. A constellation of 11 variables is reported, a composite of eight or more correctly identifies 75% of the effected group and 45% of the attempters while occurring with a relatively low frequency among controls. Data are also presented from a group of 33 records collected within five days after a suicidal attempt revealing that those records do not differ essentially from either of the two psychiatric control groups. The findings are discussed in terms of the problems of prediction, and in the context of the probable psychological structure of many suicide prone people.
The Rorschach data from 84 borderline personality disorders and 76 schizotypal personality disorders, both groups diagnosed using DSM-III criteria, were compared with each other and with two sets of Rorschach protocols collected from 80 first admission schizophrenics, one being administered shortly after admission and the second taken shortly before discharge. The data indicate that the borderline group is markedly different in both organization and functioning from both other groups; however, there are many similarities between the records of the schizotypals and schizophrenics. It is suggested that nomenclatures such as borderline schizophrenia or latent schizophrenia might be more appropriate to designate the schizotypal group and that the once used, but now discarded, nomenclature of inadequate personality offers a more fitting description of the borderlines.
Selected tests were compared with respect to their ability to measure anxiety and hostility. Some of these tests differed as to the variables which they actually do measure. Tests employed in this study were: Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, Elizur Rorschach Content Test of Anxiety, and Iowa Multiple-choice Picture Interpretation Test. 29 references.
An investigation of the influence of a stress-produced anxiety on the occurrence of 15 Rorschach factors alleged to be signs of anxiety reveals increased weighted shading responses (Sh. wt.), decreased whole responses (W), decreased number of responses (R), and increased number of oligophrenic details (Do) to reflect the differential conditions at a high or moderate level of statistical reliability. Three other signs (decreased P, increased rejections, and decreased number of weighted C responses) approached statistical significance.