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Why People Stay: Using Job Embeddedness to Predict Voluntary Turnover
Abstract
A new construct, entitled 'job embeddedness,' is introduced. It includes individuals' (1) links to other people, teams, and groups, (2) perceptions of their fit with job, organization, and community, and (3) what they say they would have to sacrifice if they left their jobs. We developed a measure of job embeddedness with two samples. The results show that job embeddedness predicts the key outcomes of both intent to leave and 'voluntary turnover' and explains significant incremental variance over and above job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job alternatives, and job search. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of Academy of Management Journal is the property of Academy of Management and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
... These employees give problem-solving ideas and, with their communication, help the innovative processes. Janssen (2000) explained that IWB is creating, introducing, and applying new ideas inside a group or organization to improve performance.. Crossley et al. (2007) discussed that emotional and psychological factors that link the employees with their profession make the structure of JE. Mitchell et al. (2001) presented three pillars: links, fit, and sacrifice make the infrastructure of the theory of JE of organization. Employees build formal and informal associations in the organization and outside of the workplace, such as friends or family, known as links. ...
... Lastly, leaving a job is a financial and psychological sacrifice for employees. According to this theory, employees are trained to build strong relationships with their colleagues in the workplace or community (Mitchell et al., 2001). They become more appropriate for their jobs. ...
... Pierce et al. (2001) illustrated that the employee's JBPO represents an employee's psychological possession of an organization. Mitchell et al. (2001) explained that JE strengthens the employee relationship with the organization, and the individual feels a sense of ownership and never thinks about leaving the organization. There is hardly any proof of the relationship between JBPO and JE. ...
Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are important in a nation's economic development and growth. Many SMEs cannot achieve their objectives without instilling a psychological sense of ownership in their team. This study examines the impact of job-based psychological ownership and employee ambidexterity on innovative work behavior and job performance among SME employees. The 279 respondents from Chinese SMEs were sampled using a purposive strategy to obtain data. The proposed research model is evaluated utilizing techniques of structural equation modeling. The study's findings indicate that job-based psychological ownership has significant effects on the job embeddedness of SME employees but no significant predictive influence on job performance. Additionally, employee ambidexterity increases the development of SME employees' job embeddedness but has little effect on job performance. Therefore, it may be inferred that the direct impact of job-based psychological ownership and employee ambidexterity on job performance is negligible; however, there is an indirect impact via job embeddedness. The findings also suggest that managers must develop policies and action plans to teach employees job embeddedness to improve their innovative work behavior and job performance.
... Job embeddedness is a concept developed by Mitchell et al. (2001) to determine why employees leave or stay in their jobs. Job embeddedness is a broader concept than job satisfaction, and it was developed to help managers retain workers. ...
... Studies of job embeddedness in a Western context based on Mitchell et al. (2001) have found that both organizational embeddedness and community embeddedness are necessary for people to be happy about their work and their life (Amankwaa et al., 2022). The two forms of embeddedness move in the same directioni.e., there is no conflict between being embedded in a community and being embedded in a work organization, and both should be present. ...
... These decisions may ultimately influence nonfamily employee turnover because of the bifurcated treatment nonfamily employees are prone to experience working for family firms (Barnett & Kellermanns, 2006;Daspit, Madison, Barnett, & Long, 2018;Samara et al., 2021). Employees choose to leave organizations for many reasons, including job dissatisfaction, unsolicited job offers and shocks (Holtom, Mitchell, Lee, & Inderrieden, 2005;Lee & Mitchell, 1994;Mitchell, Holtom, Lee, Sablynski, & Erez, 2001). According to Mobley (1977), turnover is a decision process in which an employee experiences job dissatisfaction and uses a decision process to determine if turnover is an appropriate choice. ...
... The family-business embeddedness perspective (FBEP) is a theory of organizational commitment that highlights the connectedness of business, controlling family, and symbolic values in the family firm in a way that mitigates conflict between family members (Khanin et al., 2012). Like job embeddedness theory, the FBEP is established through individual-individual connections (links), individual-organizational connections (fit), and emotional attachment to the organization (sacrifice), where an individual will develop psychological reasons for remaining with the organization (Mitchell et al., 2001). Job embeddedness theory fails to capture the symbolic and emotional contexts that apply to family members in the family business (Khanin et al., 2012). ...
Transgenerational succession is a primary aim of family businesses. The succession event often has consequences for the employees of the firm. A particular risk is employee turnover in the aftermath of transgenerational succession. Understanding the factors that retain employees in the wake of a succession event is of vital importance. The model presented here offers insight into the importance of successor characteristics and the trust that they evoke in fostering family business employee retention. This work has significant implications for how to maintain efficiency after a succession event for family business scholars and managers alike.
... Organizational trust, and Organizational commitment. Mitchell et al. (2001) divided job embeddedness into 3 aspects, namely: fit, link, and sacrifice. ...
This research has the primary aim of delving deeper into the relationship between work-life balance and turnover intention while considering job embeddedness as an intermediary factor. A total of 180 employees participated in this study, which used a quantitative research approach. Data analysis was conducted using the Structural Equation Model (SEM) with the application of the Partial Least Square (PLS) methodology. The research findings highlight that work-life balance significantly influences the likelihood of turnover intention among employees. However, it's important to note that while work-life balance does affect job embeddedness, this effect doesn't directly translate into affecting turnover intention when the mediation of job embeddedness is considered. This research holds substantial significance for organizations as it offers a deeper understanding of strategies to minimize turnover rates, ultimately contributing to the establishment of a robust and sustainable business framework in the long term. This emphasizes the critical role of effective human resource management in achieving these objectives. Keywords : Work Life Balance, Job Embeddedness, Organizational Commitment, Turnover Intention.
Research problem: High turnover rates in long-term nursing facilities exacerbate the existing shortage of caregivers, a trend that will only worsen as the population of the United States ages. Part-time certified nursing assistants (CNAs) provide a significant amount of patient care in these facilities. CNAs also have high annual rates of turnover, which can harm health outcomes and increase the cost of care. In this study, we empirically analyze the effect of scheduling decisions on part-time CNA turnover. We explore three research questions that examine both how much and with whom a CNA is scheduled to work. We seek to empirically answer how (1) hours worked and (2) coworker variability influence turnover for part-time CNAs and if (3) coworker variability moderates the relationship between hours worked and CNA turnover. Methodology/results: Using novel data from one of the nation’s largest nursing home organizations, which includes data for 6,221 part-time CNAs at 157 facilities in the United States over a 26-month period, we identify two scheduling levers managers may be able to use to influence turnover. As hours worked increase, turnover first decreases and then increases, demonstrating a nonlinear U-shaped relationship between hours worked and turnover. We also find that high coworker variability increases turnover while also moderating the effects of hours worked on turnover. In post hoc analyses, we demonstrate that high CNA turnover has negative impacts on patient health. Managerial implications: These findings suggest that managers may be able to leverage part-time CNA scheduling to reduce turnover, improving both the quality and cost of care. Specifically, we demonstrate that managers can reduce CNA turnover by increasing hours worked, scheduling coworkers together consistently and doing both simultaneously.
Supplemental Material: The online appendices are available at https://doi.org/10.1287/msom.2021.0533 .
Background
In Israel there are only 6.53 nurses per 1000 citizens, compared to 8.8 nurses per 1000 citizens in the OECD countries. The nursing shortage is even more severe in peripheral areas, especially in southern Israel. Nurses` professional satisfaction is crucial for preserving the nursing workforce. This study aimed to assess job satisfaction among novice nurses and identify components of professional satisfaction.
Methods
Cross-sectional study of 216 novice nurses who graduated in 2018–2022 and were approached ten months after graduation. Job satisfaction components were constructed using factor analysis.
Results
Professional satisfaction was based mainly on the intrinsic characteristics of the occupation related to personal accomplishment and organizational culture. In a multivariable model, a one-point increase in mean satisfaction with the training period during studies in the nursing department was associated with a more than a three-fold elevation in the odds for high and very high professional satisfaction (OR 3.0, 95% CI 1.7–5.1). Odds for high and very high professional satisfaction were more than four-fold and two-fold higher among graduates who rated their level of control over work schedule as high and medium vs. low (OR 4.2, 95% CI 1.0–16.7 and OR 2.8, 95% CI 1.2–6.3, respectively). Work-life balance without disturbance to daily life by work was found significantly associated with higher odds for high and very high satisfaction. Nurses who plan to continue professional development, i.e., an advanced professional course or Master’s degree, had significantly higher mean professional satisfaction scales than others (4.2 vs. 3.7, p = .009 and 4.2 vs. 3.9, p < .001, respectively).
Conclusion
The most important components of professional satisfaction among novice nurses are self-accomplishment, which was built from work-related challenges, interest and variety of tasks, personal growth and development, and the possibility of contributing to patients` care and organizational culture, which was built from relationships with co-workers. Persons who manage nurses should cultivate an atmosphere of support and guidance, provide new nurses with interesting work tasks, and increase their ability to control their work schedule. Young nurses should be encouraged to continue their professional and academic education.
Prior studies suggest that acquisitions can increase employee turnover. However, acquired workers are technically new hires, who are generally prone to turnover. Therefore, it is important to benchmark acquired workers against other new hires in the organization. One view suggests that compared with regular hires who select their employer based on a mutual vetting process, acquired workers can experience a poor fit with their new employer (e.g., culture clash), resulting in elevated rates of turnover. Meanwhile, as acquisitions represent a bundle of assets, acquired workers can possess complementarities accumulated with the target firm that reinforce worker–employer fit and thus their retention prospects. Using population-level data from the United States, I find empirical support for both perspectives. Acquired workers from startups exhibit significantly higher turnover rates than regular hires. Moreover, in conditions under which acquired workers’ complementarities are more likely to be preserved—specifically, individuals with longer prior tenure, teams in which the founders remain intact, and target organizations that are structurally separated rather than integrated into the acquirer—I find reduced turnover differences for acquired workers relative to regular hires. Together, these results elucidate whether and when firms can harness human capital through startup acquisitions (“acqui-hiring”).
Funding: This research was funded in part by the Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation.
Supplemental Material: The online appendix is available at https://doi.org/10.1287/stsc.2022.0026 .
In order for researchers to understand and predict behavior, they must consider both person and situation factors and how these factors interact. Even though organization researchers have developed interactional models, many have overemphasized either person or situation components, and most have failed to consider the effects that persons have on situations. This paper presents criteria for improving interactional models and a model of person-organization fit, which satisfies these criteria. Using a Q-sort methodology, individual value profiles are compared to organizational value profiles to determine fit and to predict changes in values, norms, and behaviors.
This work reports further theoretical development of Lee and Mitchell's (1994) unfolding model of voluntary turnover, which describes different psychological paths that people take when quitting organizations. Ambiguities in the model were identified, and hypotheses aimed at resolving these ambiguities were tested on a sample of 229 former employees from the "Big 6" public accounting firms. The results provide a theoretical and quantitative extension of an earlier qualitative assessment of the unfolding model. Implications are discussed.
Structural equation modeling was used to evaluate the effects of three forms of attitudinal commitment on employee turnover. We used a traditional dichotomous measure of organizational departure but applied the PRELIS technique to resolve statistical problems. A test of eight competing versions of a turnover model using data collected from employees in an aerospace firm indicated that the forms of commitment affected turnover indirectly through a latent variable measuring withdrawal tendencies. The model including this variable resembles cognitive psychologists' descriptions of human mental processes that emphasize actors' general orientations and a lack of distinction making in everyday life.
The authors report the results of two studies that attempt to model antecedents of organizational citizenship behaviors in a personal selling context. They draw the antecedents from extant research and propose that the willingness to perform organizational citizenship behaviors is related to the job-related perceptions of the degree of organizational fit between the salesperson and his or her firm, level of leadership support, perceived fairness in reward allocation (i. e., distributive justice), and job satisfaction. They hypothesize and test direct and indirect relations with these constructs and organizational citizenship behaviors. Most of these relations were significant across the two studies.
In this article, we summarize and review the research on teams and groups in organization settings published from January 1990 to April 1996. The article focuses on studies in which the dependent variables are concerned with various dimensions of effectiveness. A heuristic framework illustrating recent trends in the literature depicts team effectiveness as a function of task, group, and organization design factors, environmental factors, internal processes, external processes, and group psychosocial traits. The review discusses four types of teams: work, parallel, project, and management. We review research findings for each type of team organized by the categories in our heuristic framework. The article concludes by comparing the variables studied for the different types of teams, highlighting the progress that has been made, suggesting what still needs to be done, summarizing key leamings from the last six years, and suggesting areas for further research.
The purpose of this study was to test the validity of a within-person behavioral choice model of expectancy theory using as a criterion career Naval Officers' decisions to retire or not retire at the end of 20 years' service. Several conceptual and methodological refinements of the model were tested among the 702 officers using a retrospective research design. The results support the validity of the general model and some, but not all, of the refinements tested. The implications of the results for further research are discussed.