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An Alternative Approach: The Unfolding Model of Voluntary Employee Turnover
Abstract
The model of employee turnover described in this paper applies constructs and concepts from decision making, statistics, and social psychology to facilitate understanding and to redirect theory development and empirical research. The process of employee turnover is modeled by four distinctive decision paths; each decision path involves distinctive foci, psychological processes, and external events. Further, five specific contributions of the model are suggested, and recommendations for empirical testing and future research are offered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of Academy of Management Review is the property of Academy of Management and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
... Employees possess additional technical and soft skills beyond their primary job responsibilities, including leadership abilities and the capacity to handle emergencies. Lee and Mitchell (1994) The job opportunities align with the job seeker's personal values, goals, and strategies. ...
... You are an experienced construction industry recruiter who specializes in accurately assigning positions to candidates with multiple construction industry experience, focusing on the following: 1. The salary expectations and benefits package requirements of the candidate match the candidate's abilities and what the position can offer (Strobl and Van Wesep, 2013); 2. The candidate's ability to meet the needs of the position and be ready to get started (Kokkodis and Ipeirotis, 2021); 3. The candidate's ability to proactively pursue career development and fit with the training and development plan of the position (Bendoly andHur, 2007, Lee andMitchell, 1994); 4. The job seeker's values, career goals and action strategies match the needs and culture of the organization (Lee and Mitchell, 1994). The job seeker has a high level of commitment to the organization and his/her personal goals are aligned with those of the organization (Magni et al., 2023). ...
... You are an experienced construction industry recruiter who specializes in accurately assigning positions to candidates with multiple construction industry experience, focusing on the following: 1. The salary expectations and benefits package requirements of the candidate match the candidate's abilities and what the position can offer (Strobl and Van Wesep, 2013); 2. The candidate's ability to meet the needs of the position and be ready to get started (Kokkodis and Ipeirotis, 2021); 3. The candidate's ability to proactively pursue career development and fit with the training and development plan of the position (Bendoly andHur, 2007, Lee andMitchell, 1994); 4. The job seeker's values, career goals and action strategies match the needs and culture of the organization (Lee and Mitchell, 1994). The job seeker has a high level of commitment to the organization and his/her personal goals are aligned with those of the organization (Magni et al., 2023). ...
The rapid development of large language models (LLMs), as a prominent application and technological realization of generative artificial intelligence, provides new opportunities for predicting career trajectories, but their potential in the real world remains underexplored. This study evaluates the performance of five LLMs (including free and paid models) in predicting the most recent job positions among 7330 resumes in the construction industry. Predictive accuracy is measured using single prediction conformity, triple prediction conformity (TPC), and group-level predictive distributional fidelity. Results indicate that LLMs can predict job positions with a TPC of up to 75.4%, though prediction accuracy varies significantly across roles. Higher prediction accuracy is observed in roles with well-defined skill sets, such as safety supervisors and cost estimators, while roles requiring broader skill sets, such as production managers, present greater challenges. Adopting either the recruiter or job seeker perspective has little to no impact on the prediction results, as LLMs demonstrate objectivity by relying primarily on the resume data for their predictions. Paid LLMs perform significantly better than free LLMs in both accuracy and stability. Demographically, LLMs perform better in predicting the accuracy of female resumes, while the predictive accuracy of LLMs decreases slightly as the level of education increases. Further analysis indicates that the predicted job distributions align closely with actual distributions, with the highest observed predictive distributional fidelity reaching 0.958. This consistency highlights the strong potential of LLMs for group-level job position prediction. These findings underscore the potential of LLMs in job position prediction, especially for specialized roles, while highlighting critical limitations in addressing demographic disparities, complex roles, and perspective-specific nuances.
... In contrast, hygiene factors such as salary, working conditions, and company policies only prevent dissatisfaction but do not increase satisfaction. The Unfolding Turnover Intention Theory by Lee and Mitchell (1994) explains that a specific event, such as a change in management or an increase in workload, often triggers an employee's decision to leave a job. Factors such as job satisfaction, job stress, leadership qualities, and organizational culture play a huge role in an employee's intention to stay or leave the job. ...
... The Unfolding Turnover Intention Theory, developed by Lee and Mitchell in (1994) offers an in-depth understanding of how employees interact with these various factors. This theory emphasizes that the decision to change jobs is sometimes linear. ...
Generation Z is projected to dominate the workforce and have great opportunities for the development of a company, but problems arise when various surveys show that Gen Z has a tendency to change jobs (turnover intention). This research aims to analyze key variables and explore shared Gen Z turnover intention scenarios. This research uses a new approach, namely MICMAC and Bayesian Belief Network (BBN. The research highlights that Gen Z employees’ turnover intentions are influenced by factors such as Job Insecurity, Job Stress, Compensation and Benefits, Job Satisfaction, and Leadership and Management, which can be anchored to the Two-Factor Theory and Equity Theory. The results of the strength analysis show that the probability of Gen Z turnover intention is 68%. Based on scenario analysis, it is proven that when Gen Z does not experience job stress, they do not experience job insecurity, and satisfaction with current work can reduce turnover intention levels by 40%. Reducing turnover intention will also have a positive impact on company stability, increasing by 29%. The findings of this research have significant implications for policy recommendations and practices in company management. This study emphasizes the importance of creating a supportive company environment to reduce job stress and job insecurity. Flexible policies and management support can create a positive work atmosphere, increase employee satisfaction, and reduce the risk of burnout.
... Models of employee turnover ( Joseph et al., 2007), in prior research, have looked at the phenomenon of employee attrition from the standpoints of disequilibrium in organizational inducement and employee contribution (March and Simon, 1958), discrepancies between job expectations and job experiences (Porter and Steers, 1973), the job dissatisfaction-turnover intentions linkage (Mobley, 1977) and the impact of combination of "impulsive quitting" and rational decision making (Lee and Mitchell, 1994). These prior models of employee turnover, i.e. the organizational equilibrium model (March and Simon, 1958), met expectations theory (Porter and Steers, 1973), the linkage model (Mobley, 1977) and unfolding model of turnover (Lee and Mitchell, 1994) explain why employees leave their organizations. ...
... Models of employee turnover ( Joseph et al., 2007), in prior research, have looked at the phenomenon of employee attrition from the standpoints of disequilibrium in organizational inducement and employee contribution (March and Simon, 1958), discrepancies between job expectations and job experiences (Porter and Steers, 1973), the job dissatisfaction-turnover intentions linkage (Mobley, 1977) and the impact of combination of "impulsive quitting" and rational decision making (Lee and Mitchell, 1994). These prior models of employee turnover, i.e. the organizational equilibrium model (March and Simon, 1958), met expectations theory (Porter and Steers, 1973), the linkage model (Mobley, 1977) and unfolding model of turnover (Lee and Mitchell, 1994) explain why employees leave their organizations. However, they do not address the issue of why employees stay in their jobs or with their organizations. ...
2019) "Role of team transformational leadership and workplace spirituality in facilitating team viability: an optimal distinctiveness of identities' theory-based perspective", Industrial and Commercial Training, https://doi. If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information. About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company manages a portfolio of more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as well as providing an extensive range of online products and additional customer resources and services. Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation. Abstract Purpose-The purpose of this paper is to investigate the moderating role of workplace spirituality (WS) in the relationship between team transformational leadership (TTL) and team viability (TV) under the theoretical lens of the theory of optimal distinctiveness of identities. Design/methodology/approach-This study adopted quantitative, cross-sectional research design at the team level of analysis among 141 software development project teams that belonged to 22 information technology (IT) organizations in the Indian IT sector to evaluate the effect of TTL behavior on TV under the conditional presence of WS. Findings-This research has found empirical evidence to show that TTL is positively associated with TV or the team members' desire to be a part of future performance episodes of their team. However, this research has shown that the relative effect of WS on the relationship between TTL and TV is weaker in those teams that experience higher levels of WS than those teams that experience lower levels of WS. Originality/value-This research's originality exists in its team-level conceptualization of WS, a gap in prior research addressed by this paper, in order to evaluate the interactive effects of team-level conceptualizations of transformational leadership and WS on TV. Further, this paper's originality stems from the explanation of TV as the result of desirable balance between team members' needs for within-team inclusion and within-team differentiation.
... There is evidence to suggest that interpersonal relationships can assist in employee retention. Evidence found in both I-O psychology (Brockhaus & Nord, 1979;Herzberg et al., 1959;Lee & Mitchell, 1994;Mitchell et al., 2001) and nursing literature support the benefits of collegial work relationships on job satisfaction. Interpersonal relations are defined as the relationships between NPs and supervisors/administrators, physicians, and intra/interprofessional colleagues (Strobehn, 2021). ...
... Evidence found in both I-O psychology (Brockhaus & Nord, 1979;Herzberg et al., 1959;Lee & Mitchell, 1994;Mitchell et al., 2001) and nursing literature (Almost & Laschinger, 2002;Athey et al., 2016;Poghosyan et al., 2017a) supports the benefits of collegial work relationships on job satisfaction. The findings of this study revealed that widespread disrespect of the NP role, coupled with encouragement from other professionals to open a private practice, facilitated entrepreneurship. ...
... Similarly, the cusp catastrophe model by Sheridan and Abelson (1983) conceptualizes turnover as a nonlinear process influenced by a combination of dissatisfaction and escalating stress levels. Lee and Mitchell's (1994) unfolding model emphasizes sudden "shock" events that trigger employees to reassess their attachment to the organization, adding a dynamic perspective to turnover research. These theories collectively underscore the multifaceted and complex nature of turnover intention. ...
This study examines the impact of job resources-autonomy, feedback, and social support-on work engagement (WE) and investigates the subsequent influence of WE on turnover intentions (TI) among employees in Malaysia's selected Services sector. Guided by the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) theory, this research extends existing knowledge by focusing on underexplored subsectors, including wholesale and retail trade, food and beverage, and accommodation. Employing a quantitative, cross-sectional survey approach, data were collected from 150 employees using a combination of online and pen-and-paper surveys. Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) analysis revealed that autonomy, feedback, and social support significantly enhance WE, with social support emerging as the most influential predictor. Furthermore, WE demonstrated a negative relationship with TI, highlighting its role in mitigating employee TI. These findings contribute to the theoretical advancement of JD-R theory by validating its application in a non-Western, Services-oriented context. Practically, the study underscores the importance of fostering autonomy, delivering constructive feedback, and promoting social support to enhance employee WE and reduce TI. By addressing the unique challenges of Malaysia's Services sector, this research offers actionable insights for improving workforce resilience and organizational sustainability.
... In their narrative review of IT turnover, Joseph et al. (2007) discussed the relation to job satisfaction. While most scholars confirm a coherence with satisfaction, the Unfolding Theory (Lee and Mitchell 1994) and Job Embeddedness Theory (Mitchell et al. 2001) suggest the possibility of reasons for leave apart from dissatisfaction, such as emotional or personal circumstances. ...
The continued popularity of agile information systems development (ISD) underscores its relevance to both researchers and practitioners. At the heart of the agile manifesto is the claim to value people over processes and, as a result, to increase employee job satisfaction. However, the research landscape on this topic is still heterogeneous and lacks a comprehensive overview. This manuscript develops a theoretical framework to guide future studies on job satisfaction in agile ISD. First, the status quo of job satisfaction in agile ISD within information systems and across the disciplines of computer science, psychology, and management is systematically reviewed and critically evaluated. Second, a theoretical framework consisting of three key themes is conceptualized. Third, based on the framework, significant research gaps are identified, and recommendations for future studies of agile ISD at the individual, team, and organizational levels are provided. Finally, strategic directions for the application of agile ISD practices are given.
... Ajzen's (1991) Theory of Planned Behavior identified attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control as critical determinants of turnover intention. Lee and Mitchell's (1994) unfolding model emphasized turnover intention as an employee's comprehensive evaluation of the work environment, personal needs, and external opportunities. Additionally, the "gradual withdrawal model" posited that turnover intention reflects a complex cognitive and emotional process, underscoring the gradual nature of turnover behavior (Van Breukelen et al., 2004). ...
... Ajzen's (1991), Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) posited that attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control are key determinants of turnover intention. Lee and Mitchell's (1994) unfolding model proposed that turnover intention arises from an employee's comprehensive assessment of their current work environment, personal needs, and external opportunities. Additionally, the "gradual disengagement model" emphasized that turnover intention is the result of complex cognitive and emotional responses, reflecting the progressive nature of turnover behavior ( Van et al., 2004). ...
Entrepreneurial affect has emerged as a burgeoning area of study, with a wealth of articles demonstrating that affect, broadly conceptualized, plays an important part in entrepreneurial life. While a few affective phenomena, such as passion and positive and negative affect, are primarily driving the affective revolution in entrepreneurship, a wide range of additional forms of affect, from momentary feelings to enduring affective dispositions, have been found to influence entrepreneurs’ judgments, decision-making, attitudes, and behaviors in distinct parts of the entrepreneurial process. Moreover, entrepreneurs’ affective experiences and displays of these experiences influence entrepreneurial behaviors and investors’ decision-making. Although this is an exciting time for work on entrepreneurial affect, several theoretical and empirical inconsistencies impede further knowledge accumulation. To assess how and why affect is critical to entrepreneurship, to clarify the theoretical inconsistencies, and to provide an integrative framework, we conduct a systematic review of 276 published empirical and conceptual articles on entrepreneurial affect. In doing so, we analyze how various affective phenomena (e.g., emotions, moods, sentiments), along with their discrete forms (e.g., anger, grief, happiness), influence and are influenced by specific stages of the entrepreneurial process. We conclude that while this body of research confirms that entrepreneurship is an emotional endeavor, the collective approach has thus far obscured a more detailed and useful understanding of affect in each stage of the entrepreneurial process. We examine the theoretical and empirical approaches taken to date and lay out an agenda for future scholars, thus bolstering the affective revolution in entrepreneurship.
This paper introduces survival analysis, a set of powerful statistical techniques which are useful in turnover research and other behavioral studies with a binary dependent variable and observations taken over time. They offer the ability flexibly to incorporate time as an important variable in data analysis and thereby to utilize more fully the information obtained from many longitudinal studies. With survival analysis, turnover may be viewed as a process whose rate varies over time, rather than remaining fixed.
One outgrowth of the person-situation debate has been the use of fit or congruence models to explain work outcomes. In this study, the profile-comparison process, a Q-sort-based technique that provides an isomorphic assessment of job requirements and individual competencies, was used to assess person-job fit in 7 small samples representing a variety of jobs and organizations. The results show that overall person-job fit is strongly related to a number of outcomes, including job performance and satisfaction. Implications for the assessment of persons and jobs are discussed.
The broad applicability of the regression-analog to survival analysis to the study of time-dependent relationships is described and empirically illustrated. Our presentation extends prior work focusing on life table analysis and the ANOVA-analog. In particular, we discuss decisions that researchers should make prior to calculating survival equations, subsequent estimation and interpretation of empirical results, graphical data analysis, and the treatment of time-dependent covariates. Our goal in providing this description and empirical illustration is to increase the accessibility of survival analysis to researchers working in a broad number of management-related areas.