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Effects of Laundering and Water Temperature on the Properties of Silk and Silk-blend Knitted Fabrics
Abstract
The objective of this work was to review the properties of selected specialty protein fiber knit fabrics suitable for everyday wear. Selected properties (dimensional stability to laundering, mass, thickness, and stitches per centimeter) of three commercially available fabrics were measured when new and after each laundering cycle (1–6). The silk and silk-blend fabrics achieved dimensional stability by six laundering cycles. Fabric properties differed with the number of laundering cycles, fabric color, and fabric type. Although water temperature affected the pattern of change of some properties, it had no overall effect on properties of the stabilized fabrics. However, examination of new and washed fabric using scanning electron microscopy suggested fibrillation and degradation of silk fibers may be affected by laundering.
... Plastic pollution is a global issue, mainly in marine regions (Lusher; Hollman; Mendozal, 2017; Thompson et al., 2004;Wagner;Lambert, 2018). Pollution caused by microplastics, mainly by synthetic microfiber products associated with the textile industry is an alarming factor (Thompson et al., 2004;Van Amber;Niven;Wilson, 2010). Synthetic clothes used by thousands of individuals worldwide account for the release of microfibers (smaller than 1mm in diameter) during washing procedures, which can be can be deposited in coastal and oceanic regions (Absher et al., 2019;Cesa et al., 2017;Ladewig;Bao, Chow, 2015;Napper;Thompson, 2016). ...
... Plastic pollution is a global issue, mainly in marine regions (Lusher; Hollman; Mendozal, 2017; Thompson et al., 2004;Wagner;Lambert, 2018). Pollution caused by microplastics, mainly by synthetic microfiber products associated with the textile industry is an alarming factor (Thompson et al., 2004;Van Amber;Niven;Wilson, 2010). Synthetic clothes used by thousands of individuals worldwide account for the release of microfibers (smaller than 1mm in diameter) during washing procedures, which can be can be deposited in coastal and oceanic regions (Absher et al., 2019;Cesa et al., 2017;Ladewig;Bao, Chow, 2015;Napper;Thompson, 2016). ...
... Plastic pollution is a global issue, mainly in marine regions (Lusher; Hollman; Mendozal, 2017; Thompson et al., 2004;Wagner;Lambert, 2018). Pollution caused by microplastics, mainly by synthetic microfiber products associated with the textile industry is an alarming factor (Thompson et al., 2004;Van Amber;Niven;Wilson, 2010). Synthetic clothes used by thousands of individuals worldwide account for the release of microfibers (smaller than 1mm in diameter) during washing procedures, which can be can be deposited in coastal and oceanic regions (Absher et al., 2019;Cesa et al., 2017;Ladewig;Bao, Chow, 2015;Napper;Thompson, 2016). ...
The aim of this study is to investigate the presence of microfibers in oysters after depuration with an experimental filtering approach. The control didnʼt show microfibers and the treatment presented microfibers in oysters’ soft parts, suggesting the importance of reputation. /// Os objetivos deste estudo é investigar a presença de microfibras em ostras após depuradas e um ensaio experimental de filtração. O controle não apresentou microfibras e o tratamento apresentou microfibras das partes moles das ostras, sugerindo a importância da depuração.
... However, silk textiles crease and dimensionally deform easily during conventional home laundering. [1][2][3] Fiber fractures in the form of fibrillation and degradation usually occur due to fabric rubbing during the laundering process. 1 This severely affects the appearance and wear endurance of silk garments and leads to considerable inconvenience in everyday use. Durable press finishing of silk fabrics is not recommended, even though it effectively improves the crease resistance to laundering, because it results in fabric style change and hand property loses. ...
... [1][2][3] Fiber fractures in the form of fibrillation and degradation usually occur due to fabric rubbing during the laundering process. 1 This severely affects the appearance and wear endurance of silk garments and leads to considerable inconvenience in everyday use. Durable press finishing of silk fabrics is not recommended, even though it effectively improves the crease resistance to laundering, because it results in fabric style change and hand property loses. ...
... L* represents the brightness of an object and ranges from 100 (white) to 0 (black) along the white-black axis; a* measures red (+) and green (À); and b* measures yellow (+) and blue (À), both with the other and grey zero. The DE value represents the total color change calculated with the CIE values changes using Equation (1). The K/S value indicates the color depth of a colored object and is assessed using the Kubelka-Munk equation (Equation (2)): ...
Silk fabric wrinkles or creases easily during conventional domestic machine laundering due to its poor wet resilience, leading to an undesirable fabric appearance and difficulties in daily care. In this research, ultrasonic energy was used to clean silk fabrics, aiming to improve their after-wash appearance. It was found that ultrasonic laundering performed much better in removing common stains from silk fabrics and in maintaining the fabric appearance and dimensions compared to machine laundering. Ultrasonic agitation caused a little more fading effect than that caused by mechanical agitation. After 15 laundering cycles, the K/S value of the fabric laundered by ultrasonic agitation was only 2.7% lower than that laundered by washing machine, so the difference was not significant and could be acceptable. Ultrasonic laundering also resulted in less fiber damage to silk fabrics. The investigation indicated that the introduction of ultrasonic agitation in laundering could produce a significant benefit in the laundering of silk fabrics.
... Yapılan detaylı incelemelerde ipek liflerinin iç giysilerde kullanılmasına dair kapsamlı bir çalışmaya rastlanamamıştır. Araştırmacılar, daha çok ipek liflerinin eğrilmesi konusuna odaklanmışlardır [11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18]. Üzümcü ve Kadoğlu, ipek/pamuk karışımlı ipliklerin özelliklerine karışım oranı, eğirme sistemi, iplik numarası ve büküm katsayısının etkisini incelemişlerdir. ...
... Karışımdaki ipek lifi miktarının artmasının iplik mukavemetini, düzgünsüzlüğünü ve tüylülüğünü artırdığını belirtmişlerdir [17]. Van Amber ve arkadaşları, %100 ipek, ipek/yün ve ipek/yün/pamuk karışımlı örme kumaşlara kuru temizleme ve su sıcaklığının etkisini incelemişlerdir [18]. Ancak ipek lifi, kendi ağırlığının %30'u kadar nem absorbe edebilirken vücutta ıslaklık hissi bırakmadığından, cilde temas edecek giysilerde tercih edilmesi giyim konforu sağlamaktadır [19]. ...
Bu çalışmanın amacı, farklı karışım oranlarında farklı doğal liflerden üretilmiş süprem örme kumaşların iç giysilik olarak kullanımının konfor özellikleri açısından araştırılmasıdır. Bu amaçla farklı karışım oranlarında (45/55, 30/70, 15/85) yün/pamuk ve ipek/pamuk karışımlı iplikler ile karşılaştırma amaçlı kullanılmak üzere %100 pamuk open-end ipliği üretilmiştir. Üretilen iplikler süprem örgü yapısında kumaş formuna getirilmiş, hidrofilleştirme işlemine tabi tutulmuş ve kumaşların hava geçirgenliği, ısıl direnç, ısıl soğurganlık, su buharı geçirgenliği gibi ısıl konfor özellikleri ile su absorplama özellikleri ve dikey ıslanma süreleri incelenmiştir. Çalışmanın sonucunda, kumaşlarda yün lif oranı arttıkça yalıtım özelliklerinin iyileştiği, ipek karışımlı kumaşların ise yüksek su buharı geçirgenliği, ısıl soğurganlık ve su emicilik özellikleri ile terlemenin yoğun olarak ortaya çıktığı yoğun aktivite koşulları için uygun olduğu ortaya konmuştur.
... However, one of the main problems with knitted silk fabrics is dimensional stability and changes to fabric properties as a result of washing and no reports investigating the effect of washing on comfort (prickle) and handle properties of Eri blends in knitted fabrics have been identified. Previous works have reported on the effect of water temperature on shrinkage and fiber damage (abrasion) to silk fabrics (Quaynor, Takahashi, & Nakajima, 1999, 2000Van Amber, Niven, & Wilson, 2010). Though silk and silk blend fabrics can be machine washed, care must be taken to use low water temperature so that fabric damage observed as 'yarn hairiness' (Quaynor et al., 1999) or 'fiber fibrillation' (Van Amber et al., 2010) do not occur. ...
... Previous works have reported on the effect of water temperature on shrinkage and fiber damage (abrasion) to silk fabrics (Quaynor, Takahashi, & Nakajima, 1999, 2000Van Amber, Niven, & Wilson, 2010). Though silk and silk blend fabrics can be machine washed, care must be taken to use low water temperature so that fabric damage observed as 'yarn hairiness' (Quaynor et al., 1999) or 'fiber fibrillation' (Van Amber et al., 2010) do not occur. ...
http://ojs.cnr.ncsu.edu/index.php/JTATM/article/view/14158
... Washing and drying fabrics three or five times is generally accepted as being sufficient for stabilizing fabrics and removing non-permanent finishes before evaluating dimensional change or appearance retention. [17][18][19] However, some authors recommend six washs 16,20 and complete relaxation of some fabrics (e.g., silk weft knits) occurred after just one wash cycle. 21 Most studies examining changes to knit fabrics during laundering and/or drying have focused on dimensional change and related physical properties. ...
... 21 Most studies examining changes to knit fabrics during laundering and/or drying have focused on dimensional change and related physical properties. 20,21 However, liquid moisture transport properties may also be influenced by changes in thickness, mass, and stitch density resulting from washing and/or drying processes, particularly in fabrics relying on hydrophilic fibers for liquid moisture transport properties. In some fabrics, liquid moisture transport properties may also be affected by application of special finishes to the fibers, yarns, or fabrics. ...
Five fabrics differing in knit structure, fiber content, and finishing chemistries were subjected to eight different wash and dry methods before measurement with a moisture management tester. Large differences in overall moisture management properties were observed for each fabric type. Overall liquid moisture transport capabilities for two of the five fabrics were significantly altered after five washes. In another fabric, the distance and rate at which liquid spread within the fabric significantly decreased after five wash and tumble dry cycles, despite no change in overall moisture management indices. Based on these results, the authors recommend that fabrics be washed a minimum of five times prior to testing with a moisture management tester. © 2012, American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists.
... The effect of temperature and cycles was larger and clearly visible on the weft yarns, where the warp yarns were more stable. Van Amber et al. (2010) also reported that laundering temperature did not significantly affect fabric properties. ...
... The temperature as indicated in Table 5.7 did not have a significant influence on the maximum load of the polyester/cotton fabric. This is consistent with findings reported by Van Amber et al. (2010) that laundering temperature only had a small effect on fabric properties. ...
... Wool, on the other hand, is a unique fi ber and the only one that has a tendency to shrink or "felt" due to unidirectional external forces when agitated in the presence of water [16]. Literature offers several alternative studies on damage-free cleaning solutions for delicate textiles such as silk [1,3,15, [18][19][20][21], and some more on laundering conditions of wool from the perspective of felting. Those studies show that in domestic washing machines, variations in the pH and temperature of the solutions can cause large differences in felting rates, especially of wool made shrink resistant by oxidation procedures, and that in general, felting rate of treated wool decreases with increasing pH and temperature of the solutions, the relative effects of given changes in the composition of the solution usually being greater with treated than untreated wool [20,22]. ...
In order to investigate the effect of washing water pH on textile damage for delicate garments, the study was conducted such that a customer survey was first applied to randomly selected users to analyze domestic washing machine using habits of Turkish consumers. Based on the findings of the survey, the experimental study was designed in two successive phases to investigate the dimensional and mechanical behavior of certain types of delicate textiles against varying washing conditions by taking in particular, water properties, namely pH, hardness, and temperature into account, and accordingly to determine the optimized washing conditions for such textiles. Firstly, tergotometer was employed as a washing machine simulator. Within the light of the results obtained, the experimental work of the second phase of the study was conducted, which involved a domestic washing machine as a real-life scenario. All of the results, including the correlation between the data sets obtained from the tergotometer and domestic washing machine trials, were statistically analyzed using Minitab 17. The study produced some important findings regarding the effect of washing water pH on delicate textiles, in addition to an algorithm for improving the present washing program, minimizing textile damage for mainly wool and silk garments.
... One study reported that 35 percent of microplastic contaminants found in marine water environments belong to microsized fibers released from textile laundering effluent [2]. It is well known that due to the repeated wet laundering process, fabrics significantly lose fiber tensile strength and ultimately lead to fuzz and pill formation [21]. The damaged fibers are loosened and released into the laundry wastewater effluent upon further laundering. ...
The residual structural and morphological characteristics of the exfoliated textile fibers, termed as dry lint, trapped in commercial laundry dryer filters have been assessed for the first time. Any attempt toward resource recovery from lint would require detailed material characterization and properties as a priori. Lint fibers collected from five different commercial laundromat dryer filters were used as characteristic samples for the preliminary investigation. The residual morphological and molecular structural characteristics of lint fibers were evaluated using microscopic imaging, spectroscopy and diffraction methods. Microscopic imaging revealed the extent of fiber fibrillation and agglomeration as a result of textile laundering process. Fibrillation intensity could be realized in significant reduction of water retention value of bulk fibers that was measured as 0.45 g/g of lint. Interestingly, characterization data from Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) studies indicate that the crystalline and molecular structure of fibers were relatively less affected. Further, FTIR spectra and XRD diffractogram of lint fibers resemble that of virgin cellulose I polymorph, thereby signifying the presence of major proportions of cellulosic fibers in dry lint. Residual properties encourages the devise of efficient resource recovery strategies for engineering high-value-added products from lint waste, and thus curtail microfiber pollution.
... 5 Recent decades have seen much attention paid to the effect of the textile manufacturing process and domestic garment laundering on fabric dimensional stability. [6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17] During these processes, fabric dimensional properties are largely affected by moisture content and temperature. Attention has also been extended from wool 6-8 to other textile materials, such as cotton, [9][10][11] linen, 12 silk 13 and polyester. ...
Wool is one of the most moisture sensitive natural fibers. This paper investigated changes of wool fiber diameter, fabric dimensions and fabric dimensional properties, as a function of moisture regain, temperature and pH. Experiments were conducted on fabrics with different weave structures as well as on fabrics with and without a permanent set.
Results showed that the fabrics tended to contract when they were subjected to increased temperature at saturated regain. The degree of contraction appeared to depend on the weave structure of the fabrics and permanent setting treatments. Dimensions of the wool fabrics were also found to be dependent on the pH. Greater fabric dimensions were observed at pH 7.2 than at pH 2.1. The contraction effect was almost reversible when unset fabric samples were measured in pH 2.1.
The reasons for the changes of dimensional property were analyzed in terms of changes in wool fiber swelling, yarn crimp and polymer relaxation phenomena with changes in regain, temperature and pH. Industrial implications from outcomes of this research to practical wool processing are discussed in the paper.
... Water temperature has no significant effect on the properties of stabilized fabrics. 34,35 The influence of washing cycles on cotton fabric properties such as drape, shear and bending are not significant. 36,37 The washing process is a complex multiphase and multiscale process combining a range of physical phenomena that affect mass transfer in porous textiles. ...
In order to understand the impact of mechanical action on the wrinkling of cotton fabrics in a drum washer, fabric movement was observed and a movement index system was developed to characterize the textile motion. Results showed that spinning speed and wash load were the major factors influencing the smoothness of cotton fabrics, with p values of 0.000 and 0.032, respectively. The analysis of fabric movement illustrated that when the wash load increased, the free motion region decreased and the ratio of passive motion region increased, resulting in severe wrinkling of cotton fabric. A regression model was developed to characterize the relationship between fabric movement and smoothness. These findings help the understanding of the mechanism of wrinkling during a drum washer washing.
... Both mechanical and chemical actions during washing attach reactive fibers groups, weakening fibers' structure, with a progressive damage in the molecular chain and a reduction in degree of polymerization (DP) (Goynes and Rollins, 1971;Maluf and Kolbe, 2003;St Laurent et al., 2007). Examples with cotton and silk fibers show that, when they are wet, tumescence facilitates fibrils (smaller molecular structures) to be released by physical forces (Goynes and Rollins, 1971;Maluf and Kolbe, 2003;Van Amber et al., 2010). In these cases, the higher the contact between the textile article and the water, the more intense the degradation (Maluf and Kolbe, 2003). ...
The ubiquity of plastic materials in the environment has been, for long, a matter of discussion. Smaller particles, named microplastics (< 5 mm), gained attention more recently and are now the focus of many studies, especially for their particularities regarding sources, characteristics and effects (e.g., surface-area-to-volume ratio which can increase their potential to transport toxic substances). Fibers from textile materials are a subgroup of microplastics and can be originated from domestic washings, as machine filters and wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are not specifically designed to retain them. Once in the environment, fibers can reach concentrations up to thousands of particles per cubic meter, being available to be ingested by a broad range of species. In this scenario, this review adds and details the textile perspective to the microplastics exploring nomenclature, characteristics and factors influencing emission, but also evidencing gaps in knowledge needed to overcome this issue. Preliminarily, general information about marine litter and plastics, followed by specific aspects regarding textile fibers as microplastics, were introduced. Then fiber sources to microplastic pollution were discussed, mainly focusing on domestic washings that pass through WWTPs. Studies that reveal domestic washing as microplastic sources are scarce and there is a considerable lack of standardization in methods as well as incorporation of textile aspects in experimental design. Knowledge gaps include laundry parameters (e.g., water temperature, use of chemicals) and textile articles characteristics (e.g., yarn type, fabric structure) orchestrated by consumers' choice. The lack of information on the coverage and efficiency of sewage treatment systems to remove textile fibers also prevent a global understanding of such sources. The search of alternatives and applicable solutions should come from an integrated, synergic and global perspective, of both environmental and textile area, which still need to be fostered.
... Souza et al. predicted dimensional changes of knitted fabric considering tissue type, yarn grade, loop length, loop shape factor and machine gauge [9]. Rebecca et al. investigated influence of six cycles of washing and temperature on knitted fabric properties including dimensional changes and tightness [10]. In general, knitted fabric encounters dimensional loss (shrinkage); in fact they tend to achieve stable and sustainable conditions. ...
... The dependencies of investigated fabrics shrinkage on number of washing and drying cycles in longitudinal and transverse directions are presented in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. It can be concluded that the greatest changes of dimensions in longitudinal and transverse directions are after 1 st washing and drying cycle. The same tendency was found by other researchers [4,14]. Shrinkage values decreases taper off after repeated washing and drying until dimensional stability is reached. ...
One of the areas of medical textile is the spacer knitted orthopaedic products. The concept of compression therapy of orthopaedic supports lies on a simple and efficient mechanical principle - it consists of applying elastic garment around the limb. Spacer orthopaedic supports are knitted on flat knitting machines equipped with especial elastomeric thread feeder. Compression made by the support depends on the support area, shape and characteristics of knitting. Because of orthopaedic supports are intended for durable wearing and need to vouchsafe compression of fixed value, it is very important to known how processes acting during exploitation influence alteration of compression values. The aim of this study was to establish the alteration of compression of knitted support during exploitation, i.e. after multifold extension, washing and drying. The samples were knitted on a flat double needle bed knitting machine in combined jacquard-laid-in pattern with elastomeric weft threads. It was established that compressive properties of knits after cyclic tensile load changed slightly, i.e. range between margins of error. It was measured that knitted orthopaedic supports dimensions and density after washing and drying cycles changes significant, i.e. knitted supports shrinks and thickens and their compression decreases.
Silk garments with its unique luster, softness and glamour has always occupied an important position in the fashion market. However, such fabrics present difficulties in daily care and tend to deteriorate in visual perception after laundering. Panasonic in 2021 has therefore launched a novel washing mode characterized by up-and-down soft pressure and vacuum dehydration to address the mechanical damage of common household washing methods to the silk garments. In this study, the effect of the press washing mode on the appearance and mechanical properties of silk garments based on common household laundering scenarios was investigated by comparing with hand washing, gentle machine washing and normal machine washing. The experimental results demonstrated that press washing had the best performance in terms of appearance indicators and elastic recovery, especially in the case of repeated laundering, due to the minimum fiber damage and surface degradation during washing. The laundered samples were also subjected to sensory evaluation by taking into account the personal feelings of consumers, which further verified the instrumental test results to a certain extent. The results obtained in this study can provide scientific care guidance and optimization ideas for subsequent research and applications.
Purpose
Thermoplastic polymer fabrics are normally heat set to make them dimensionally stable. These fabrics in garment panel form may again be exposed to heat during the processes such as bonding, sublimation printing and cause to change their dimensions. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the response of polyester yarns in knitted fabrics to heat setting and post-heat treatments.
Design/methodology/approach
In this study, the thermal shrinkage behaviour of heat set polyester knitted fabrics when subjected to post-heat treatment processes are analyzed using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and analysis of fabric shrinkage. DSC is a thermo-analytical technique that measures the difference in the amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of the sample and the reference. A heat flux versus temperature curve is one of the results of a DSC experiment. The polymer structure and morphology of polyester heat-treated and post-heat–treated fabrics were determined by examining the DSC thermograms.
Findings
Heat setting and post-heat setting causes the effective temperature of polyester to change. Effective temperature occurred around 160°C for fabrics heat set at low temperatures and increases as the heat setting temperature increases. Post-heat treatments cause to elevate the effective temperature. Shrinkage of fabrics below the effective temperature is not statistically significant while the shrinkage at higher temperatures is significant. Effective temperature is the main determinant of thermal shrinkage behaviour of polyester.
Originality/value
The study reveals the significance of the effective temperature of polyester on heat treatments and post-heat treatments. The study revealed that heat-setting temperature is a primary determinant of the thermal stability of polyester fabric that are subjected to heat treatments.
After washing cycles, textiles having minimum deformation, maximum dimensional stability and the same performance of an unused product are major expectations of customers. This study examined the effects of washing cycles on the cyclic deformation of elastane knitted fabrics in detail. 12 knitted fabrics with two different linear densities of viscose yarn and three different polyamide/elastane gimped yarn of two different tightness levels (normal and tight) were used in the experiments. M&S P15A test method were used to evaluate the cyclic deformation of unwashed and washed fabrics (0, 5, 15 and 25 cycles) for four different recovery time periods (0 min, 2 min, 30 min and 24 h). Dimensional change, tightness factor and mass per unit area values were also examined in order to investigate the residual deformation of the fabrics after each washing stages. Consequently, it is determined that the fabrics having 21 tex viscose ground yarn and 78dtex20f elastane gimped yarn with higher setting show less residual extension (%). 5 and 15 washing cycles and a 30 min. recovery time are found significant for all repeated washings.
Textile motion in a front-loading washer has been characterized via video capturing, and a processing system developed based on image geometric moment. Textile motion significantly contributes to the mass transfer of the wash solution in porous materials, particularly in the radial direction (perpendicular to the rotational axis of the inner drum). In this paper, the velocity profiles and residence time distributions of tracer textiles have been investigated to characterize the textile dynamics in a front-loading washer. The results show that the textile motion varies significantly with the water volume and rotational speed, and that the motion path follows certain patterns. Two regions are observed in the velocity plots: a passive region where the textile moves up with low velocity and an active region where the textile falls down with relatively high speed. A stagnant area in the residence time profile is observed. This corresponds to the passive region in the velocity profile. The stagnant area affects the mechanical action, thus influencing washing efficiency and textile performance. The findings on textile dynamics will help in the development of better front-loading washers.
To determine the optimal drying procedure for large load and non-ironing procedure for small load when silk fabrics were drying-cared in daily usage; change in appearance, mechanical properties and microstructure of silk fabrics before and after drying with various drying parameters (heater power, air velocity and drum-rotating speed) were investigated. Results revealed that the performance of silk fabric after drying is more sensitive to air velocity (humidity of drying-air) rather than heater power (temperature). Heater power of 3000W, air velocity of 8.5m/s and drum rotating speed of 45-50rpm (No.2) was proved to be optimal for drying silk fabrics due to its ideal smoothness appearance, dimensional stability and drying efficiency. When consumers dry a small amount of clothes, a drying procedure of heater power of 3000W, air velocity of 8.5m/s and drum-rotating speed of 0rpm (No.6) is more reasonable procedure because it reduces or eliminates ironing. And indicating drying in dryer can be an effective alternative to indoor-drying or sunlight-drying if suitable procedure being set. This finding provided reference for manufacturers to design and improve of dryers, especially for drying procedures optimization of delicate textiles, and consumers a feasible care method without reducing the quality of fabric.
Synthetic textiles can shed numerous microfibers during conventional washing, but evaluating environmental consequences as well as source-control strategies requires understanding mass releases. Polyester apparel accounts for a large proportion of the polyester market, and synthetic jackets represent the broadest range in apparel construction, allowing for potential changes in manufacturing as a mitigation measure to reduce microfiber release during laundering. Here, detergent-free washing experiments were conducted and replicated in both front- and top-load conventional home machines for five new and mechanically-aged jackets or sweaters: four from one name-brand clothing manufacturer (three majority polyester fleece, and one nylon shell with non-woven polyester insulation) and one off-brand (100% polyester fleece). Wash water was filtered to recover two size fractions (>333 μm and between 20 and 333 μm); filters were then imaged and microfiber masses were calculated. Across all treatments, the recovered microfiber mass per garment ranged from approximately 0 to 2 grams, or exceeding 0.3% of the unwashed garment mass. Microfiber masses from top-load machines were approximately 7 times those from front-load machines; garments mechanically aged via 24-hour continuous wash had increased mass release under the same wash protocol as new garments. When comparing to published wastewater treatment plant influent characterization and microfiber removal studies, washing synthetic jackets or sweaters as per this study would account for most microfibers entering the environment.
This research investigated the effect of repeated laundering and dry-cleaning on the physical and thermophysiological comfort properties such as air permeability, water vapour resistance and thermal resistance of fabrics made of meta-aramid (Nomex (R)) fibre. Two different types of fabric were selected for the study and subjected to repeated laundering and dry-cleaning (1, 5 and 10 cycles), which is commercially used for the care and maintenance of these fabrics. The fabric thickness, areal density, thermal resistance and water vapour resistance values increased with the number of laundering cycles, whereas the air permeability decreased due to the fabric shrinkage and swelling. On the other hand, the thickness and air permeability of the dry-cleaned fabric samples increased with the number of cycles; while the water vapour resistance and thermal resistance decreased. The scanning electron microscopy images showed the structural changes as indicated by the longitudinal fibrillation in the fabrics subjected to laundering or dry-cleaning.
This paper describes a strategy of fabricating anti-UV silk fabric by TiO2 nanoparticles (NPs) via impregnation method. In order to assemble the TiO2 NPs on the silk fibers, an amino-terminated hyperbranched polymer modified TiO2 (HBP-TiO2) NPs was synthesized based on sol-hydrothermal technique. Due to the protonation of numerous amino groups on the HBP-TiO2 NPs, they exhibit high positive zeta potential. Therefore, the HBP-TiO2 NPs can take initiative to adsorb and fix on the silk fibers. The prepared HBP-TiO2 NPs and treated silk fabric were characterized. The results indicated that the HBP-TiO2 NPs have single anatase crystalline structure with an average diameter of 14.9 nm. The HBP-TiO2 NPs are fixed and well dispersed on silk fibers. The treated silk fabrics exhibit excellent anti-UV property.
UK Armed Forces wear items of clothing that incorporate fragment protective fabrics (Tier 1 Pelvic Protection) and other items of clothing are under development (e. g. Improved Under Body Armor Combat Shirt). The long-term robustness of such garments is of interest. In this paper four candidate fabrics (knitted silk, ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene felt, para-aramid felt and a woven para-aramid) were investigated. The effect of laundering on 0.24 g chisel-nosed fragment simulating projectile ballistic protective performance was measured on packs containing the candidate fabrics that were representative of clothing layers. Changes in the physical properties (mass, thickness, dimensional change) of candidate fabrics were measured. The ballistic protective performance of two candidate fabrics was unaffected by laundering; for the other two fabrics improved performance was measured. The masses of the specimen packs was unaffected by laundering; however, the thickness of all fabrics increased, relative to dimensional change.
This research presents a generic strategy to fabricate antibacterial textile through in situ synthesis of silver nanoparticles on the fabric with smart polymeric molecules. Silk fabric and polyamide network polymer (PNP) were chosen for this study. PNP which has numerous amino groups and three-dimensional structure was applied to entrap silver ions into silk fabric. The pretreated silk fabrics were heated by steam method to make silver nanoparticles synthesized in situ on them without any other reductant and linker to provide silk fabric with antibacterial properties. The results indicated that the treated silk fabrics had excellent antibacterial activity and laundering durability. The quantitative bacterial tests showed the bacterial reduction rates of and were able to reach above 99 % with not more than 0.05 mmol/L of AgNO3. The whiteness of silk fabric only changed from 90.47 to 86.49. The antibacterial activity of the treated silk fabric was maintained at 98.86 % reduction even after being exposed to 30 consecutive home laundering conditions. In addition, the results of scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy confirmed that silver nanoparticles had generated and dispersed well in Ag-0 form on the surface of silk fibers. The understanding acquired from this work will allow one to work with the preparation of other silver nanoparticles functional textiles with excellent antibacterial activities and laundering durability through this facile, eco-friendly in situ synthesis method.
Due to the advantage of hyperbranched polymers on controlling synthesis of nanoparticles (NPs), this paper presents a method to fabricate ZnO NPs coated cotton fabrics via in situ generation and deposition in one-step reaction with amino-terminated hyperbranched polymer (HBP-NH2) to explore its application in textile finishing. Firstly, the mechanism of this reaction was proposed in detail. The treated cotton fabrics were then characterized by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) and x-ray diffraction (XRD), and the ultraviolet (UV) protective properties and antibacterial activities of the fabrics were measured. The results indicated that ZnO NPs with a diameter around 80 nm dispersed on the surface of the cotton fabric well, the ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) value of the treated cotton fabric was 136 and the bacterial reduction rates against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli both exceeded 99%, when the concentration of HBP-NH2 and zinc nitrate were 16 g/L and 96 mM respectively.
The objective of this work was to develop a pre-treatment (cleaning) procedure for a wide range of apparel fabrics and to determine whether differences observed in the properties of fabrics which had and had not been pre-treated were significant. Properties relevant to the manufacture and/or performance of apparel included mass per unit area, thickness, bending length, flex-ural rigidity, drape coefficient, air permeability, water vapor permeability, liquid absorptive capacity, drying time, ‘dry’ thermal resistance, ultra-violet transmission. Results for the same property on the same fabric measured when the fabrics had and had not been pre-treated generally differed significantly, confirming the importance of pre-treatment prior to measuring these properties, particularly when claiming in-use attributes of fabrics. A procedure for pre-treatment is recommended: six consecutive cleaning cycles following procedure 8A of British Standard EN ISO 6330: 2001 (i.e. not dried between cycles), and dried flat following procedure C of this standard.
On an average, the temperature of the wash water has a negligible effect on the dimensional change of a fabric in home laundering. The change on specific fabrics may be significant. The effect of the rinse water temperature had no appreciable effect on any of the six fabrics tested in the recent study.
Test results of textile fabrics with respect to shrinkage are evaluated. Because of the lack of precision of dimensional change testing, the results of such tests should be used with care. Where there is a history of performance on a fabric type, a great deal more weight can be given to test results on similar fabrics. Interlaboratory correlation also allows two laboratories to place greater confidence in their respective test methods. Current test methods reflect home or industrial practice, and improved precision should not be expected, nor is it necessary. Home laundry methods vary so much in practice, and garment fit is subject to so many variables, that AATCC Test Method 135 should be considered satisfactory.
Lyocell fibres are known for their high wet strength, silky lustre and strong fibrillation tendency. The tendency of fibres to fibrillate, in particular, opens up a number of possibilities for researchers to modify the textile surface. In textile processing, alkali treatment is an important stage. This paper is a report on a study of the fibrillation tendency in different types of alkali-treated fibres. The effect of alkali type on fibrillation tendency was observed to follow the order: TMAH>LiOH>NaOH>KOH. In a separate set of experiments, fibre samples were first treated with alkali, neutralised and then treated with distilled water. It appears that treatment with NaOH and KOH decreased fibrillation tendency in fibres. Alkali retention values and water retention values of treated fibre samples were also determined. It was also found that softening agents, such as Siligen SIN can also decrease fibrillation tendency. Two different methods were used to determine fibrillation tendency. Furthermore, the effect of drying, at different temperatures, on fibrillation tendency of fibres treated with softening agent was studied. The result shows that drying samples at high temperatures could reduce fibrillation.
The effects of washing and drying treatments on fibrillation, fuzz, and pill formation of lyocell knitted fabrics are investigated in this study. Pilling ratings of the fabrics after wash (W), dry (D), and wash/dry (WD) treatments are evaluated according to a pilling scale using a microscope. Water retention values and fiber-fiber friction are also measured after the treatments. Fuzz occurs on fabrics treated with D and WD treatments, indicating that fuzz is mainly generated during mechanical abrasion in dry conditions. But fibers fibrillate with W and WD treatments, suggesting that fibrillation is induced by mechanical abrasion in wet conditions. Pills form only on fabrics treated with WD in the experimental conditions used here. The water retention value decreases, fiber-fiber friction increases, and the degree of pilling increases with increases in the repetitions of WD. Considering these changes in fiber and textile properties during W, D, and WD treatments, a mechanism of pill formation is proposed, including the fibrillation process, and it is suggested that pills are significantly promoted by a combination of fuzz formed in the dry state with fibrillation occurring in wet state. Increasing fiber-fiber friction and decreasing water accessibility after certain numbers of WD treatments lowers the pilling tendency.
Deformation by laundering is investigated for single jersey and 1 × 1 rib flat knit silk and cotton fabrics with yams of varying linear densities and fabric tightness. The fabrics are subjected to relaxation processes and an extended series of wash and tumble- dry cycles. Changes in dimensions are measured in every process and cycle. Statistical analyses of the experimental data reveal the effect of yam type as well as linear density and tightness factor on the linear and area shrinkage behavior of silk as compared to cotton. Cotton shrinks more than silk, and silk rib knits stretch excessively in width. Silk attains full relaxation after one laundering cycle. Microscopic views reveal the appearance of ball-like formations along silk fibers after repeated laundering. It is possible to predict fabric dimensional changes with wet relaxation as well as with laundering, especially in silk.
Untreated and chemically modified cotton fabrics which had been laboratory-abraded by machine-washing and tumlle drying were studied with the scanning electron microscope. Generally, abrasion patterns were not different from those normally associated with any wet or dry abrasion. Greater differences were observed between washing machine-abraded and dryer-abraded samples than between treated and untreated samples abraded by the same method.
A cotton fabric was artificially soiled and laundered with two different types of detergents at two different wash tem peratures. Samples laundered at 140°F were rated by subjective evaluations to be whiter, softer, and smoother than fabric laundered in unheated water. The type of detergent did not affect the softness or smoothness of the fabric. Sam ples laundered in regular detergent were judged to be whiter than those laundered in cold-water detergent. Little dif ference in breaking strength, elongation, and dimensional change of the fabric due to laundering variables was noted. Data are given on the cost of heating water and detergent. Samples were laundered at six locations and differences in water quality are reported.
The structural change of the jersey loop upon yarn swelling is related to the amount of expected laundering shrinkage in cotton jersey fabric by introducing a three-dimen sional loop model. The lengthwise shrinking is explained by the geometry of loop migration and curvature changes upon wetting and drying of the fabric. Also, width wise shrinking is explained by the relationship between wale spacing and yarn diameter. The proposed jersey model explains shrinkage phenomena and also provides a means of estimating stitch length of jersey fabric on the basis of courses per inch, wales per inch, and yarn diameter.
As part of an ongoing research program on the effects of laundering on plain woven cotton fabrics, specimens of poplin and sheeting fabrics with and without a DMDHEU wrinkle resistant finish are laundered under regimes designed to evaluate the effect of five common home laundering variables: use of detergent, rinse cycle softener, or tumble sheet softener, different drying methods, and different tumble drying times. To reduce the cost and time involved in this and future investigations, the reproducibility of results from repeated but otherwise identical wash loads is also evaluated. Length and width shrinkage, skewness, wrinkling, mass of whole specimen, area density, and warp and weft yarn diameters are determined using the appropriate standard test methods. The effects of fabric structure and application of an anti-wrinkle finish on the dependent variables are also studied.
The effects of laundering and laundering temperatures on surface properties and dimensional stability are investigated for plain flat knit silk, cotton, and polyester fabrics with varying cover factors. The fabrics are subjected to relaxation processes and an extended series of wash and tumble-dry cycles in laundering baths of various tempera tures. Dimensions, surface friction, and roughness of the fabrics are measured in every process. Changes in dimensional stability and surface properties with relaxation processes and laundering temperatures are clarified. Relations between frictional motion and struc tural parameters are also discussed. The results reveal that the dimensional stability of silk is sensitive to a particular temperature. The highest shrinkage is recorded with slackly knitted cotton at the highest temperature. There is a considerable effect of wet relaxation on dimensional stability as well as surface properties. Silk's coefficient of friction is the highest, and the lowest surface friction for cotton occurs at the highest temperature. Slackly knitted fabrics also show higher friction than tightly knitted fabrics. The coeffi cient of friction has a tendency to decrease with increasing tightness, while the surface roughness shows an opposite tendency. There is a good correlation between stick-slip motion and ribs on the fabrics.
The abrasion characteristics of representative durable-press cotton fabrics were evaluated by selected laboratory-abrasion and laundering tests and the breakdown pattern of individual fibers was surveyed by electron-microscope photographs. Samples compared were from such treatments as wet-fix, poly-set, face-coating, fiber encapsulation, and graft polymerization. Although degree of abrasion resistance, as measured by Accelerotor weight loss or Stoll flex cycles, varied with different treatments, the damage types exhibited by individual fibers differed little from treatment to treatment. In most samples having acceptable degrees of wrinkle recovery and crease retention, the major mechanism of failure was fracture of the entire fiber in a brittle break. In untreated cotton, the characteristic feature of wet abrasion was fibrillation of the fiber surface; wet abrasion of cross-linked fibers often resulted in peeling of thick slabs and ribbons of fused fibrils from the body of the fiber. Characteristic of dry abrasion of untreated fibers was smoothing of fiber surface, general crushing of the fiber, accumulation of lumps of fiber material, and occasionally a pinching-out of wedged-shaped fragments from the side of the fiber in a typical mechanical fatigue break. In cross-linked fibers, differences between dry and wet abrasion were small. Most characteristic of cross-linked fibers was abrupt fracture of otherwise undamaged fibers and brittle shattering of the fiber as in the crushing of glass. Addition of softeners and thermoplastic polymer coatings to the cross-linking treatment improved abrasion resistance, apparently by physical protection of the fiber surface from abrassive forces, but the final mechanism of the failure was nearly always of the same type-mechanical fracture of the fiber. Observations of characteristic damage types in laundering tests in a household-type washing machine were also included. Surfaces of fibers from washed and line-dried fabrics resembled more closely those of fibers from fabrics tumble-dried than of those washed and tumble-dried.
The length and width shrinkages, skewness, spirality and moisture content of three weft knitted cotton structures, plain single jersey, interlock and lacoste, were determined at regular intervals during tumble drying. Significant length and width shrinkages occurred in all three structures with the amount of shrinkage increasing rapidly in plain single jersey and lacoste as their moisture contents fell below 30 per cent. Distortion was less affected by tumble drying. An attempt was made to isolate the effects of heat and agitation during tumble drying. It has been demonstrated that similar patterns of shrinkage and distortion occur whether heat is applied during tumble drying or not. The tumbling action in a tumble drier has the greatest influence on the dimensional stability and distortion of weft knitted cotton fabrics.
A crêpe silk fabric was treated with different alkaline (3374-L, GC 897-H), neutral (3273-C), and acid (EC 3.4 23.18) proteases with the aim to study their effectiveness as degumming agents. Proteases were used under optimum conditions of pH and temperature, while enzyme dosage (0.05-2 U/g fabric) and treatment time (5-240 min) were changed in order to study the kinetics of sericin removal. Degumming loss with soap and alkali was 27 wt.%. The maximum amount of sericin removed in 1 h was 17.6, 24, and 19 wt.% for 3374-L (2 U/g fabric), GC 897-H (1U/g fabric), and 3273-C (0.1 U/g fabric), respectively. Under the experimental conditions adopted, EC 3.4 23.18 was almost ineffective as a degumming agent. Degumming loss increased as a function of the treatment time, reaching a value of 25 wt.% with 1 U/g fabric of 3374-L. The morphological analysis showed that sericin was completely removed from the warp yarns of the crêpe fabric, while the highly twisted weft yarns still exhibited the presence of sericin deposits within the most internal parts of the close fibre texture. The chromatographic pattern of soluble sericin peptides changed as a function of the kind of enzyme used, enzyme dosage, and treatment time. A mixture of peptides from 5 to 20 kDa in weight, with a weight-average molecular weight of about 12 kDa was obtained.
Managing Quality in the Apparel Industry
- P V Mehta
- S K Bhardwaj
Mehta, P.V., and Bhardwaj, S.K., Managing Quality in the
Apparel Industry, New Age International Publishers, Bangalore, 1998.
Determination of mass per unit area using small samples
British Standards Institution. BS EN 12127:1998 Determination of mass per unit area using small samples. British Standards Institution, London, 1998.
1996(E) Textiles-Determination of thickness of textiles and textile products. International Organization for Standardization
International Organization for Standardization. ISO 5084:
1996(E) Textiles-Determination of thickness of textiles and
textile products. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, 1996.
2007(E) Textiles-Determination of dimensional change in washing and drying. International Organization for Standardization
International Organization for Standardization. ISO 5077:
2007(E) Textiles-Determination of dimensional change in
washing and drying. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, 2007.
2007 (E) Textiles-Preparation, marking and measuring of fabric specimens and garments in test for determination of dimensional change
International Organization for Standardization. ISO 3759:
2007 (E) Textiles-Preparation, marking and measuring of
fabric specimens and garments in test for determination of
dimensional change. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, 2007.
Textiles-Domestic washing and drying procedures for textile testing. International Organization for Standardization
International Organization for Standardization. EN ISO
6330:2000 Textiles-Domestic washing and drying procedures
for textile testing. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, 2000.
Textiles-Standard atmospheres for conditioning and testing
International Organization for Standardization. EN ISO
139:2005 Textiles-Standard atmospheres for conditioning
and testing. International Organization for Standardization,
Geneva, 2005.