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The nature and function of self-esteem: Sociometer theory
Abstract
This chapter describes self-esteem and provides an overview of existing perspectives on self-esteem. Self-esteem is a sociometer, essentially an internal monitor of the degree to which one is valued or devalued as a relational partner. The chapter evaluates a series of specific, testable hypotheses about self-esteem and examines laboratory and other findings in relevance to the sociometer theory and its specific hypotheses. This sociometer theory also reinterprets several interpersonal phenomena that have been explained previously in terms of the self-esteem motive. In specific, self-esteem refers to a person's appraisal of his or her value. Global self-esteem denotes a global value judgment about the self, whereas domain-specific self-esteem involves appraisals of one's value in a particular area. Self-esteem is an affectively laden self-evaluation. Self-evaluations are in turn assessments of one's behavior or attributes along evaluative dimensions. Some self-evaluations are dispassionate. whereas others are affectively laden. Self-esteem focuses primarily on individual differences in dispositional or trait self-esteem.
... La présente étude est soutenue par la théorie du sociomètre (Leary et Baumeister, 2000;Leary et al., 1995) qui conceptualise l'estime de soi comme un indicateur d'inclusion sociale. Selon ce modèle, l'estime de soi des jeunes devrait être plus élevée lorsqu'ils se sentent inclus et valorisés par leur groupe de pairs. ...
... Cependant, des analyses post-hoc ont révélé que la centralité était positivement liée à l'estime de soi au T1. Ce résultat concorde avec la théorie du sociomètre selon laquelle le fait d'occuper une position sociale marginale, comme être en périphérie d'une clique, peut induire un sentiment d'insécurité, conduisant à une faible estime de soi (Leary et Baumeister, 2000;Leary et al., 1995). Ces résultats suggèrent que les jeunes attachent plus d'importance à leur position dans leur clique qu'à la popularité de leur clique au sein du grand groupe de pairs, ce qui contraste avec l'étude de Harter (1990). ...
... Contrairement à nos attentes basées sur la théorie du sociomètre (Leary et Baumeister, 2000;Leary et al., 1995), les participants identifiés comme isolés ou en dyade, et pour cette raison exclus des analyses, présentaient un niveau d'estime de soi aussi élevé au premier temps de mesure que les participants membres d'une clique. Sur le plan théorique, il est difficile de comprendre ce résultat. ...
Au début de l’adolescence, l’estime de soi est instable et les pairs deviennent de plus en plus importants. La théorie du sociomètre suggère que la position sociale des adolescentes et adolescents au sein du réseau de pairs est liée à leur estime de soi, ce qui pourrait aider à expliquer les variations de l’estime de soi à cette période de la vie. Nous avons émis l’hypothèse que l’interaction entre la position des jeunes au sein de leur clique et la popularité de leur clique influence les changements d’estime de soi sur un an. Les personnes participantes étaient 348 jeunes belges (âge moyen : 13 ans; 61 % de filles). Pour les jeunes des cliques normatives ou populaires, l’estime de soi a augmenté sur un an, quelle que soit leur position au sein de la clique (c’est-à-dire centrale ou périphérique). En revanche, la position au sein de la clique prédit des changements d’estime de soi pour les membres des cliques impopulaires. L’estime de soi des membres centraux est restée élevée, tandis que celle des membres périphériques a commencé à un niveau faible et a diminué avec le temps. Nos résultats soulignent qu’être inclus dans une clique normative ou populaire pourrait être un facteur de protection de l’estime de soi des membres périphériques, alors que la faible popularité de la clique en serait un facteur de risque.
... Self-esteem is a subjective measure of the relationship between individuals and society and important others (e.g., parents, spouses, or peers), which reflects whether individuals have good interpersonal relationships and what kind of emotional experience they have (23). As an important individual internal resource, selfesteem plays a critical role in protecting the healthy growth of adolescents (24). ...
... With the increasing of negative life events, such as punishment and loss, individuals' negative evaluation of themselves and others is rapidly activated (30). By contrast, individuals with low self-esteem are pessimistic and negative in their understanding and explanation of themselves and various daily events in life (23), and they also have poor interpersonal relationships with others (26). They often fail to get respect, understanding, and support for a long time (25), resulting in very limited social support they feel. ...
... Brown et al. found that selfesteem has two important psychological functions, namely, selfenhancement (expansion) and self-protection (buffering) (30). Initially, individuals with high self-esteem tend to have positive social experiences and strong social relationships, while those with low self-esteem are full of negative self-perception and less social engaged (23,26). However, as negative life events accumulate, such as punishment, loss of important others, interpersonal conflicts, or academic pressure, the reactions of these two groups diverge. ...
Objectives
Depression is a major mental health concern among university freshmen, with negative life events recognized as a risk factor. However, limited studies have explored the underlying mechanisms between them. This study aims to investigate the longitudinal relationship between negative life events and depression, and to examine both the potential mediating role of perceived social support and the moderating role of self-esteem in this process.
Methods
A two-wave longitudinal design with a 6-month interval was employed, involving 785 Chinese university freshmen (55.92% were female). Self-reported measures of negative life events, perceived social support, self-esteem, and depression were collected using validated scales.
Results
Results revealed that negative life events significantly predicted depression in freshmen after 6 months, with perceived social support partially mediating this relationship. In addition, self-esteem moderated the effect of negative life events on perceived social support. As self-esteem increased, there was a stronger mediating effect of perceived social support between negative life events and depression.
Discussion
This study verified a moderated mediation process of how negative life events impact depression among freshmen. The findings provide valuable insights for developing effective interventions to reduce the depression risk of freshmen.
... In this sense, Eisenberg and Fabes' (1998) theory of socioemotional development points out that emotional and social experiences, such as aggression and empathy, influence the development of self-esteem over time. While, Leary and Baumeister's (2000) Sociometer Theory of Self-Esteem proposes that self-esteem reflects the degree to which a person feels accepted or rejected by others. Thus, empathetic people tend to have better social skills and build stronger and more positive relationships that can strengthen their self-esteem by feeling more secure and supported (Portt et al., 2020), while those involved in bullying and cyberbullying tend to have a worse network of friends (Ho et al., 2022) and their friendship relationships tend to be less lasting, so over time they might feel lonely and have a worse perception of the school environment (Hurtado-Mellado & Rodríguez-Hidalgo, 2024), which could affect their self-esteem, given the importance of social support in self-esteem (Harris & Orth, 2020). ...
Research has shown that high self-esteem has numerous personal and social benefits, especially in adolescents. However, it is necessary to examine whether involvement, as aggressors or victims, in online and offline aggressive behaviours or the presence or absence of empathy, affective and cognitive, can influence adolescents’ self-esteem. The present study analysed whether bullying, cyberbullying, and empathy were longitudinally related to self-esteem. It was hypothesized that low bullying and cyberbullying involvement and high affective and cognitive empathy would be related to high self-esteem. The sample consisted of 876 students (48.7% girls) aged 12-19 years (M= 14.91, SD= 1.71) through a longitudinal study with two waves of survey data collection. Low bullying victimization and high cognitive empathy were found to be related to high self-esteem cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Likewise, lower affective empathy, low cyberbullying victimization, and low bullying aggression were longitudinally related to higher self-esteem. It is suggested that decreased bullying and cyberbullying and increased cognitive empathy could have numerous benefits for self-esteem improvement in prevention and mental health intervention programs with adolescents who are in the educational stage.
... We perceive attachment styles not only as a cognitive process that is formulated when individuals try to make sense of social surroundings, but also as an inner resource and regulatory device (Mikulincer and Shaver, 2007). Attachment theory shares similar postulation with sociometer theory (Leary and Baumeister, 2000;Leary and Downs, 1995); they both underscore the importance of individuals' need for belongingness. Sociometer theory focuses on self-esteem as an indicator of individual self-evaluation. ...
Interest in adopting attachment theory to interpret workplace dynamics is growing, reflected in increasing theoretical development and empirical research. However, the advancement of the field has been hindered by the limited attention paid to the cognitive, affective and behavioral processes involved in carrying the effect of attachment styles on outcomes. Adopting a self-regulatory lens, this paper aims to unpack the attachment black box by integrating attachment theory and self-regulation theory. We propose a theoretical framework that explicates how attachment styles function to shape individuals’ regulatory responses from cognitive, affective, and behavioral perspectives, as well as identifying boundary conditions of the activation processes of attachment styles in the workplace. The framework provides novel insights into the effects, mechanisms, and boundary conditions of employee attachment styles in the workplace. Implications of the framework and future research directions are discussed.
... Being unappreciated can have a negative impact on one's emotions and self-worth, which can lead to negative feelings and relationship problems. According to Leary and Baumeister (2000), self-esteem is a person's subjective assessment of their value as a person, which takes into account elements of self-acceptance, self-satisfaction, and self-respect. The participant in this study reported feeling underappreciated for a long period, which contributed to her low self-esteem. ...
... Building on these ideas, sociometer theory suggests that self-worth is the psychological gauge used to determine this sense of belongingness [27]. During adolescence, peer relationships become particularly salient for developing selfworth [28] as adolescents become increasingly focused on peer affiliation and evaluation [29]. ...
The goal of this research was to expand theoretical models of adolescent suicide by exploring whether individual differences in adolescent girls’ need for approval (NFAavoid and NFAapproach) contribute to risk for, or protection against, self-injurious thoughts and behaviors (SITBs). We examined these novel hypotheses in a series of concurrent and longitudinal analyses in two samples of adolescent girls (Study 1: N = 89, Mage = 16.31 years, SD = 0.84, 67.4% White; Study 2: N = 229, Mage = 11.80, SD = 1.80, 49.8% White). Hierarchical linear and logistic regressions revealed that NFAavoid was generally associated with higher risk for SITBs, whereas NFAapproach generally had a protective effect against SITBs; moreover, the strength of these associations depended on the extent to which girls engaged in rumination. Together, these results suggest that encouraging girls to develop diverse foundations for their sense of self-worth beyond peer judgements may protect against SITBs.
Purpose
Based on the Sociometer Theory, this study aims to develop a comprehensive framework explaining how and when negative workplace gossip triggers distinct responses, including employee silence and compulsory citizenship behavior (CCB).
Design/methodology/approach
Two scenario-based experiments and a field survey were conducted to examine hypotheses. Study 1 ( N = 149) manipulated workplace negative gossip and assessed the mediating effects of state self-esteem. Study 2 ( N = 217) manipulated workplace negative gossip and consideration of future consequences (CFC) to verify the stability of the mediating mechanism and test the moderating effect of CFC. Study 3 ( N = 321) tested the whole research model.
Findings
The findings indicate that negative workplace gossip decreases state self-esteem, resulting in silence among employees with low levels of CFC, while inducing CCB through state self-esteem among employees with high levels of CFC.
Originality/value
This study not only extends the research of negative workplace gossip by exploring its multifaceted impact on employee responses but also highlights the role of personality traits in shaping individuals’ response strategies.
Scope
Suicide among adolescents is a serious global health concern. Previous research has highlighted that interpersonal factors are vital determinants of suicidality. However, little is known about the cumulative effects of interpersonal risks and the protective factors that buffer individuals from developing suicidal tendencies. The present study examined whether linear or nonlinear models best account for the relationship between cumulative interpersonal risk and suicidal ideation and attempts among early adolescents and the protective value of self-esteem in these associations.
Methods
A sample of 605 seventh-grade students from in Hunan, China was tracked over a 6 month interval. Measures of interpersonal risk, suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, and self-esteem were obtained from adolescents’ self-reports.
Results
The findings indicated both concurrent and longitudinal linear associations between cumulative interpersonal risk and adolescent suicidal ideation. Cumulative interpersonal risk was only associated with concurrent adolescent suicide attempts, showing a nonlinear relationship. Self-esteem moderates the association between cumulative interpersonal risk and subsequent suicidal ideation. The results also showed that identifying interpersonal risk early and simultaneously reducing multiple interpersonal risks would benefit high-suicide-risk youths.
Conclusions
Adolescents who face more than three interpersonal risks are particularly at risk for suicide attempts. Self-esteem is insufficient to counteract the cumulative impact of interpersonal risk completely. Study analyzing whether personal worth plays a moderating role in the suicidal ideation and attempts of early Chinese adolescents. While suicide among adolescents is a serious global health concern, little is known about the cumulative effects of interpersonal risks and the protective factors that buffer individuals from developing suicidal tendencies. As such, we followed 605 seventh graders over six months to investigate the combined influence of various interpersonal stressors such as low teacher support, limited classmates’ support, ineffective communication with parents, and experiences of social ostracism on suicidality. In addition, we explored whether a good sense of personal worth (self-esteem) made a difference. Our findings showed that, as interpersonal risks accumulate, the likelihood of an adolescent experiencing suicidal thoughts increases. Although self-esteem offers some protection, it does not fully counteract the detrimental effects of combined interpersonal problems. In particular, when an adolescent faces three or more interpersonal stressors, the risk of suicide attempts increases. Based on our findings, we believe that interventions aimed at reducing these interpersonal risks and bolstering adolescent self-esteem could be pivotal for suicide prevention.
Managerial cultural values are of pertinent importance for businesses in multinational companies as it determines a nation's managerial philosophy and helps in establishing cross cultural working relationship. Rokeach (1973) has linked individuals' cultural values, and personality with social behavior and attitudes. Rokeach values consist of two sets of values: terminal values which are end-state values and instrumental values which deal with modes of conduct. In recent years, there have been several studies linking Big Five Personality Types: Agreeableness, Consciousness, Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Openness-to-Experience with social network behavior (see, Hughes et al., 2012, Ryan and Xenos, 2011; Amichai-Hamburger and7 Vinitzky, 2009; Jensen et al., 2009). This study has attempted to establish interrelationships between Rockeach Cultural values, personality and social network behavior through an exploratory study. Since the two largest stake holders of companies, the employees and the customers (or potential customers) are both expected to be using some of the popular social network sites in their personal and work life as well as for selling-purchasing, this study would be an attempt to suggest a model to map the personalities and cultural values of the employees (customers) from their SNS behavior, which will be a useful for establishing better customer and employee relationship. The questionnaire comprised of items related to online SN behavior, Big-Five inventory and Rockeach value survey. The sample consisted of 158 employees at managerial positions in three multinational companies at the age group of 20-50. Findings have been thoroughly discussed in terms of evolving role of social media in the current global organizations.
This study examined the longitudinal relation between causal attributions and marital satisfaction and tested rival hypotheses that might account for any longitudinal association found between these variables. Data on attributions for negative partner behaviors, marital satisfaction, depression, and self-esteem were provided by 130 couples at 2 points separated by 12 months. To the extent that spouses made nonbenign attributions for negative partner behavior, their marital satisfaction was lower a year later. This finding was not due to depression, self-esteem, or initial level of marital satisfaction, and also emerged when persons reporting chronic individual or marital disorder were removed. Results support a possible causal relation between attributions and marital satisfaction.
Few interactions are as annoying, exasperating, and unpleasant as those with people whom we perceive are behaving egotistically. The words commonly used to describe egotistical individuals are extremely disparaging; we call them arrogant, haughty, big-headed, vain, conceited, stuck-up, or pretentious, and brand them blowhards, show-offs, snobs, narcissists, pompous asses, or worse. Of the 300 adjectives on the Adjective Check List, those that connote egotism—arrogant, boastful, conceited, egotistical, snobbish, and the like—rank among those rated most unfavorably (Gough & Heilbrun, 1983). Simply put, we don’t like egotistical people. Our interest in this chapter is on the interpersonal aspects of egotism—why egotistical behavior evokes such strong negative reactions in other people, the consequences of egotism for both the egotistic individual and others who are present, and why, given the negative reactions of others, people often act egotistically.
In the words of one adolescent: I look in the mirror, and most days I don’t like what I see, I don’t like how I look, I don’t like myself as a person. So I get depressed, bummed out. Plus, my family has rejected me, and that makes me feel pretty lousy about myself. My mother is really on my case because I’m not living up to what she wants me to be. If I get A’s in school, she’s nice and is proud of me, but if I don’t, she doesn’t approve of me, you could say how she treats me is conditional on how I do. Mostly she tells me I’m a failure, and I’m beginning to believe it. Doing well in school has always been important to me, but now I feel like I’ll never amount to anything. There’s no way I’ll ever be able to please her, its pretty hopeless. I can’t expect anything from my family, they have totally rejected me. I don’t get much support from other kids either. I probably never will because I’m an introvert, I don’t even try to make friends. So a lot of the time, I get depressed, really bummed out. When I’m depressed I feel sad, becasue other people have hurt me, but I’m also angry at them too, for not caring, for rejecting me. I feel so depressed that I often think about just killing myself. Life is worthless. But so is death. So what’s the use.
Over and over, investigators have found self-esteem to be central in a broad network of constructs associated with motivation, performance, and well-being. Esteeming oneself—thinking well of oneself—has often been found to relate to more effective behavior and better adjustment than has low self-regard.
Low self-esteem people have always been a puzzle to researchers. For years, many theorists began with the plausible yet probably false assumption that people with low self-esteem were generally the opposite of those with high self-esteem; by this reasoning, if people with high self-esteem want to succeed and be liked, then people with low self- esteem must want to fail and be disliked. More recent theorists (e.g., S. Jones, 1973; Shrauger, 1975) have suggested that the notion that low self-esteem people desire failure and rejection is false. The question remains, however: What do these people want?