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Acquisition of procedural knowledge about pattern of stimuli that cannot be articulated
Abstract
This research demonstrates a process of nonconscious acquisition of information about a pattern of stimuli and the facilitating influence of this knowledge on subjects' subsequent performance. Subjects were exposed to a sequence of frames containing a target, and their task was to search for the target in each frame. The sequence of target locations followed a complex pattern. The specific sample of subjects was selected to ensure that they would be sufficiently motivated and that they would have appropriate analytical and verbal skills to report whatever they experienced while participating in the task: All subjects were faculty members of a psychology department. Extensive postexperimental interviews with subjects indicated that none of them noticed anything even remotely similar to the actual nature of the manipulation (i.e., the pattern). However, the accuracy and latency of their responses indicated that, in fact, they had acquired a specific working knowledge about the pattern, and that this knowledge facilitated their performance. The results demonstrate that nonconsciously acquired knowledge can automatically be utilized to facilitate performance, without requiring conscious awareness or control over this knowledge. This phenomenon is discussed as a ubiquitous process involved in the development of both elementary and high-level cognitive skills.
... One basic requirement for the employment of tiiis methodology is the identification of the type of information that has been learned. Shanks Lewicki et al. (1988). This study was criticised by Perruchet, Gallego and Savy (1990) because Lewicki et al. (1988) conducted extensive interviews that probed for knowledge of the complex rules used for the generation of the stimulus series while the response time speed-up was caused by knowledge of simple event frequencies (both studies will be presented in detail in Chapter 2). ...
... Shanks Lewicki et al. (1988). This study was criticised by Perruchet, Gallego and Savy (1990) because Lewicki et al. (1988) conducted extensive interviews that probed for knowledge of the complex rules used for the generation of the stimulus series while the response time speed-up was caused by knowledge of simple event frequencies (both studies will be presented in detail in Chapter 2). ...
... One possibility is that these instructions may have resulted in the enhanced knowledge of the sequence in the generation task. Lewicki et al. (1988) attempted to provide evidence for the existence of unconscious complex rule learning in a choice response time task. A target letter was presented in one of the four quadrants of a computer screen. ...
Past research on sequence learning shows that exposure to a structured series of events under incidental learning conditions results in a dissociation between performance measures of learning and measures of conscious memory. A criticism directed to previous studies, however, was that the performance speed-up did not always reflect the type of knowledge that was being tested by the tasks of conscious memory. Thus, any observed dissociation was due to a methodological artefact rather than the existence of two independent knowledge bases. The main aim of the experiments reported in this thesis was to identify the type of information that is expressed in performance measures of sequence learning under incidental conditions. Experiments 1 and 2 tested whether practice with a complex sequential structure leads to learning of rules or learning of instances and supported an instance-based process of learning. Experiments 3 and 4 demonstrated the presence of higher order sequential effects in a response time task that may have contaminated the response time index of learning in previous studies. Experiments 5 and 6 examined whether sequence learning is based on an associative or a chunking mechanism and supported the latter mechanism. Experiment 7 demonstrated a correspondence between response times and recognition ratings for chunks. Finally, Experiment 8 examined the effect of contextual interference and arbitrary parsing of the sequence during practice, on both response times in a transfer phase and tasks of conscious memory. Results showed that a combination of low contextual interference and unfavourable parsing slowed down response time performance during transfer but did not affect recognition memory. Results from all experiments provided useful insights into the characteristics of a learning mechanism based on chunking and were evaluated in terms of proposed models of sequence learning.
... Implicit learning is a non-conscious process by which task performance is facilitated, without the verbalized awareness of the subject. The functional significance of implicit learning is to increase processing of information to a greater extent than can be achieved through conscious functions alone (Lewicki et al., 1988;Chun and Jiang, 1998). Implicit learning is thought to engage cognitive resources and processes such as working memory (Lewicki et al., 1988;Bo et al., 2011). ...
... The functional significance of implicit learning is to increase processing of information to a greater extent than can be achieved through conscious functions alone (Lewicki et al., 1988;Chun and Jiang, 1998). Implicit learning is thought to engage cognitive resources and processes such as working memory (Lewicki et al., 1988;Bo et al., 2011). Several experimental paradigms have been used to study implicit learning, including implicit motor sequence learning (Nissen and Bullemer, 1987) and contextual cueing (Chun and Jiang, 1998), where the associations between spatial configuration and target location are learned in an incidental manner. ...
... the two target conditions during the implicit session, suggests that subjects not only detected the predictive sequence in an implicit manner, but that the predictive information provided by this sequence was also utilized implicitly, in order to facilitate processing of deterministic targets, albeit to a significantly lesser extent compared with explicit contextual processing. This is in line with evidence showing that knowledge that is acquired in a non-conscious manner can automatically be used to facilitate performance (Lewicki et al., 1988). ...
... In a different paradigm relying on surface-form regularities, Lewicki and colleagues (Lewicki, Czyzewska, & Hoffman, 1987;Lewicki, Hill, & Bizot, 1988) demonstrated implicit learning of visual sequences. In a four-choice serial reaction time task (SRT), ...
... Unbeknown to the participants there was a regular, highly complex and non-salient relationship between the position of the target on the 7 th trial and the quadrants in which it was presented on the 1 st , 3 rd , and 6 th trials of that block, while the positions on the 2 nd and 5 th trials were random. In Lewicki et al. (1988) blocks contained five trials each; the target locations in the first two were random, while the last three were determined by the rules. Participants' performance on the final trials of each block, the locations of which were predictable from the rules, was faster and more accurate than on the random trials, despite the fact that they expressed no awareness of any rules. ...
... Can the learning revealed by experimental paradigms other than AGL also be explained as essentially statistical in nature and possibly operating on stimulus fragments such as chunks? Lewicki's et al. (1988) study has sparked a discussion in the literature (Perruchet, Gallego, & Savy, 1990;Ferrer-Gil, 1994;Cleeremans & Jimenéz, 1998), with ample evidence being presented in support of statistical over rule-based accounts. For example, demonstrated that participants become sensitive to the relative frequency of small sequences of two or three successive locations. ...
The research presented in this PhD dissertation examines the phenomenon of semantic implicit learning, using semantic preferences of novel verbs as a test case. Implicit learning refers to the phenomenon of learning without intending to learn or awareness that one is learning at all. Semantic preference (or selectional preference – as preferred in computational linguistics) is the tendency of a word to co-occur with words sharing similar semantic features. For example, ‘drink’ is typically followed by nouns denoting LIQUID, and the verb ‘chase’ is typically followed by ANIMATE nouns. The material presented here spans across disciplines. It examines a well-documented psychological phenomenon - implicit learning – and applies it in the context of language acquisition, thereby providing insights into both fields. The organisation of this dissertation groups its experiments by their methodology. Chapter 1 provides an overview of the current psychological and linguistic literature. Chapter 2 includes a pen-and-paper study carried out in a classroom environment on Polish learners of English, where awareness is assessed by subjective measures taken at each test question as well as a post-experiment questionnaire. Chapter 3 includes a collection of 5 computer-based experiments based on a false-memory paradigm. After exposure to sentential contexts containing novel verbs, participants are shown to endorse more previously unseen verb-noun pairings that follow the correct semantic preference patterns to the pairings that violate it. The result holds even when participants do not reveal any explicit knowledge of the patterns in the final debriefing. Awareness is additionally assessed using indirect measures examining correlations of confidence judgements with performance. Chapter 4 examines whether implicit learning of novel verb semantic preference patterns is automatic. To this end, a reaction time procedure is developed based on two consecutive decisions (“double decision priming”). The method reveals that semantic implicit learning, at least in the described cases, exerts its influence with a delay, in post-processing. Chapter 5 comprises research done in collaboration with Dr Nitin Williams, University of Reading. It documents an attempt at finding neural indices of implicit learning using a novel single-trial analysis of an electroencephalographic (EEG) signal, based on empirical mode decomposition (EMD) denoising. Chapter 6 presents a final discussion and indications for future research. The main contribution of this dissertation to the general field of implicit learning research consists in its challenging the predominant view that implicit learning mainly relies on similarity of forms presented in training and test. The experiments presented here require participants to make generalisations at a higher, semantic level, which is largely independent
of perceptual form. The contribution of this work to the field of Second Language Acquisition consists of empirical support for the currently popular but seldom tested assumptions held by advocates of communicative approaches to language teaching, namely that certain aspects of linguistic knowledge can develop without explicit instruction and explanation. At the same time, it challenges any view assuming that vocabulary learning necessarily relies on explicit mediation. The experiments collected here demonstrate that at least word usage in context can be learnt implicitly. A further contribution of this dissertation is its demonstration that the native language may play a key role in determining what is learnt in such situations. A deeper understanding of the phenomenon of semantic implicit learning promises to shed light on the nature of word and grammar learning in general, which is crucial for an account of the processes involved in the development of a second language mental lexicon.
... More recently, there is a large implicit learning literature show- ing that the acquisition of various skills shows improvement over time and is typically not conscious (Reber, 1989). For example, Lewicki, Hill, and Bizot (1988) presented psychology faculty members with a task in which a complex rule specified the pre- sentation of a target letter (to one of four quadrants on a screen) and participants pressed one of four keys corresponding to the target location. With practice, the participants showed gradual improvements, as evidenced by faster reaction times. ...
... Consider also the vocalization called "motherese," in which a mother's vocalizations to her infant is characterized by slow and deliberate vocal productions with heightened pitch and exagger- ated pitch contours (Chang & Thompson, 2010). There is evidence that (even as early as 1 month), infants respond more readily to motherese, compared with more neutrally toned adult speech (Cooper & Aslin, 1994), and motherese not only has unique acoustic properties that are ideal for the infant's immature auditory system (Fernald, 1992), but it facilitates polysyllabic discrimina- tions (Karzon, 1985) and is commonplace in virtually every ex- amined culture (Falk, 2009). In simple terms, motherese may be the language equivalent of bicycle training wheels. ...
In a rooftop office, above a Minneapolis flour mill in 1943, B. F. Skinner discovered “shaping” by training a pigeon to send a small wooden ball down a miniature alley to hit a set of toy pins. Skinner recalled that the day was one of great illumination and emboldened his later suggestions that human behaviors may arise from behavior–environment interactions that are relatively malleable (selectionism) rather than arising from hypothetical inner constructs that are relatively fixed (essentialism). The present article extends selectionism to 4 current topics in psychology (personality change, implicit theories of intelligence, skill learning, and language) and highlights the advantages of selectionism, in contrast to essentialism.
... Further, even though the rules of the artificial grammar can be applied under new conditions, participants are typically unable to verbalize what the rules are (e.g., Reber, 1967Reber, , 1989. This type of statistical learning has been demonstrated in a variety of situations, including language learning, categorization, sequence/probability learning, production/economic systems, and location prediction (e.g., Reber, 1967;Fried & Holyoak, 1984;Cleeremans & McClelland, 1991;Broadbent & Aston, 1978;and Lewicki, Hill, & Bizot, 1988;respectively). While it is true that explicit instruction on word usage and grammar are helpful, much of the learning of these rules could be accomplished implicitly. ...
... Users can learn about interactions in a variety of unexpected situations, expending little to no effort in the process. In addition, users can learn about regularities in the environment but have no conscious access to that information, even though they can apply the knowledge appropriately (e.g., Broadbent & Aston, 1978;Cleeremans & McClelland, 1990;Fried & Holyoak, 1984;Lewicki, Hill, & Bizot, 1988;Reber, 1967). In some regards, these types of learning are incredibly valuable because they support effective interactions. ...
... 7 Verbal reports. One of the most common procedures for assessing awareness is to prompt subjects to verbalize any rules they might have noticed while performing on the experimental tasks (e.g., Abrams & Reber, 1988;Allen & Reber, 1980;Berry & Broadbent, 1984;Dienes, Broadbent, & Berry, 1991;Lewicki, Hill, & Bizot, 1988;Reber & Allen, 1978;Reber & Lewis, 1977; see Adams, 1957, Ericsson & Simon, 1980Nisbett & Wilson, 1977;and Payne, 1994, for reviews). Learning is thought to be unconscious when subjects show an effect of training (e.g. ...
... Subjects are not told that the position of the target stimulus is determined by a rule-system. The typical finding is that, after thousands of trials, subjects become faster in locating the target, despite being unable to make overt predictions (based on the sequence rule) and unable to articulate the rules that determine the position of the target stimuli (Lewicki et al., 1988). in order to determine whether subjects had acquired conscious knowledge. The task required subjects to predict the next element of a sequence. ...
The findings reported in this dissertation have several implications for our understanding of language acquisition and for future research. Firstly, while the precise form of the knowledge acquired in these experiments is unclear, the findings provided no evidence for rule learning in the vast majority of subjects. It suggests that subjects in these types of experiments (and perhaps in natural language acquisition) do not acquire linguistic rules. The results support Shanks (1995; Johnstone & Shanks, 2001), who argues against the possibility of implicit rule learning. Secondly, while adults can acquire knowledge implicitly, the work reported in this dissertation also demonstrates that adult syntactic learning results predominantly in a conscious (but largely unverbalizable) knowledge base. Finally, from a methodological perspective, the results of the experiments confirm that relying on verbal reports as a measure of awareness is not sufficient. The verbal reports collected at the end of the experiment were helpful in determining what aspects of the semi-artificial grammar subjects had consciously noticed. At the same time, verbal reports were clearly not sensitive enough to assess whether subjects were aware of the knowledge they had acquired. Confidence ratings and source attributions provided a very useful method for capturing low levels of awareness and to observe the conscious status of both structural and judgment knowledge. Future experiments on language acquisition would benefit from the introduction of this relatively simple, but effective way of assessing awareness.
... Studies of the depth of CEOs' functional experience have focused on the length of tenure and the hierarchical structure of political connections. Tenure-based studies mainly consider the effective accumulation of relevant expertise gained by managers as tenure increases, including the ability to be more thoughtful in strategy formulation and implementation [33], the ability to achieve implicit learning through a better understanding of practices and existing knowledge [34], and the ability to learn experientially through a combination of resources [35]. All three modes may enable firms to achieve better performance returns. ...
The impact of a chief executive officer's (CEO's) functional experience on firm performance has gained the attention of many scholars. However, the measurement of functional experience is rarely disclosed in the public database. Few studies have been conducted on the comprehensive functional experience of CEOs. This paper used the upper echelons theory and obtained deep-level curricula vitae (CVs) data through the named entity recognition technique. First, we mined 15 consecutive years of CEOs' CVs from 2006 to 2020 from Chinese listed companies. Second, we extracted information throughout their careers and automatically classified their functional hierarchy. Finally, we constructed breadth (functional breadth: functional experience richness) and depth (functional depth: average tenure and the hierarchy of function) for empirical analysis. We found that a CEO's breadth is significantly negatively related to firm performance, and the quadratic term is significantly positive. A CEO's depth is significantly positively related to firm performance, and the quadratic term is significantly negative. The research results indicate a u-shaped relationship between a CEO's breadth and firm performance and an inverted u-shaped relationship between their depth and firm performance. The study's findings extend the literature on factors influencing firm performance and CEOs' functional experience. The study expands from the horizontal macro to the vertical micro level, providing new evidence to support the recruitment and selection of high-level corporate talent.
... To investigate the interaction between habitual and goaldirected behavior with purely trial-based goal-directed value processing under time pressure, we developed a novel paradigm, which we call the Action-Sequence Task (AST). In the AST, participants implicitly learn an action sequence similar to the so-called serial reaction time task (SRTT) (Nissen and Bullemer, 1987;Lewicki et al., 1988;Robertson, 2007), while occasionally and probabilistically being prompted to act in accordance with an explicitly instructed goal-directed task, in the presence of a demanding time limit. In choice trials of this goal-directed task, participants are asked to quickly choose one of two different response options. ...
Human behavior consists in large parts of action sequences that are often repeated in mostly the same way. Through extensive repetition, sequential responses become automatic or habitual, but our environment often confronts us with events to which we have to react flexibly and in a goal-directed manner. To assess how implicitly learned action sequences interfere with goal-directed control, we developed a novel behavioral paradigm in which we combined action sequence learning through repetition with a goal-directed task component. So-called dual-target trials require the goal-directed selection of the response with the highest reward probability in a fast succession of trials with short response deadlines. Importantly, the response primed by the learned action sequence is sometimes different from that required by the goal-directed task. As expected, we found that participants learned the action sequence through repetition, as evidenced by reduced reaction times (RT) and error rates (ER), while still acting in a goal-directed manner in dual-target trials. Specifically, we found that the learned action sequence biased choices in the goal-directed task toward the sequential response, and this effect was more pronounced the better individuals had learned the sequence. Our novel task may help shed light on the acquisition of automatic behavioral patterns and habits through extensive repetition, allows to assess positive features of habitual behavior (e.g., increased response speed and reduced error rates), and importantly also the interaction of habitual and goal-directed behaviors under time pressure.
... To investigate the interaction between habitual and goaldirected behavior with purely trial-based goal-directed value processing under time pressure, we developed a novel paradigm, which we call the Action-Sequence Task (AST). In the AST, participants implicitly learn an action sequence similar to the so-called serial reaction time task (SRTT) (Nissen and Bullemer, 1987;Lewicki et al., 1988;Robertson, 2007), while occasionally and probabilistically being prompted to act in accordance with an explicitly instructed goal-directed task, in the presence of a demanding time limit. In choice trials of this goal-directed task, participants are asked to quickly choose one of two different response options. ...
Human behaviour consists in large parts of action sequences that are often repeated in mostly the same way. Through extensive repetition, sequential responses become automatic or habitual, but our environment often confronts us with events to which we have to react flexibly and in a goal-directed manner. To assess how implicitly learned action sequences interfere with goal-directed control, we developed a novel behavioural paradigm in which we combined action sequence learning through repetition with a goal-directed task component. So-called dual-target trials require the goal-directed selection of the response with the highest reward-probability in a fast succession of trials with short response deadlines. Importantly, the response primed by the learned action sequence is sometimes different from that required by the goal-directed task. As expected, we found that participants learned the action sequence through repetition, as evidenced by reduced reaction times and error rates, while still acting in a goal-directed manner in dual target trials. Specifically, we found that the learned action sequence biased choices in the goal-directed task towards the sequential response, and this effect was more pronounced the better individuals had learned the sequence. Our novel task may help shed light on the acquisition of automatic behavioural patterns and habits through extensive repetition, allows to assess positive features of habitual behaviour (e.g. increased response speed and reduced error rates), and importantly also the interaction of habitual and goal-directed behaviours under time pressure.
... Implicit sequence learning describes the acquisition of skills and knowledge, generated by repeatedly executing or processing serially ordered movements or percepts (e.g., Fiser & Aslin, 2002;Isbilen et al., 2020;Nissen & Bullemer, 1987;Saffran et al., 1997). The learning is implicit since the performer develops no reportable awareness of the dependencies between sequence elements (Cleeremans et al., 1998;Lewicki et al., 1988). Implicit sequence learning is fundamental to a range of human abilities (e.g., motor function, language, social interaction) (Clegg et al., 1998;Hamrick et al., 2018) and is impaired in a number of neurodevelopmental, neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders (Clark & Lum, 2017). ...
Implicit sequence learning describes the acquisition of serially ordered movements and sequentially structured cognitive information, that occurs without awareness. Theta, alpha and beta cortical oscillations are present during implicit motor sequence learning, but their role in this process is unclear. The current study addressed this gap in the literature. A total of 50 healthy adults aged between 19 and 37 years participated in the study. Implicit motor sequence learning was examined using the Serial Reaction Time task where participants unknowingly repeat a sequence of finger movements in response to a visual stimulus. Sequence learning was examined by comparing reaction times and oscillatory power between sequence trials and a set of control trials comprising random stimulus presentations. Electroencephalography was recorded as participants completed the task. Analyses of the behavioral data revealed participants learnt the sequence. Analyses of oscillatory activity, using permutation testing, revealed sequence learning was associated with a decrease in theta band (4–7 Hz) power recorded over frontal and central electrode sites. Sequence learning effects were not observed in the alpha (7–12 Hz) or beta bands (12–20 Hz). Even though alpha and beta power modulations have long been associated with executing a motor response, it seems theta power is a correlate of sequence learning in the manual domain. Theta power modulations on the serial reaction time task may reflect disengagement of attentional resources, either promoting or occurring as a consequence of implicit motor sequence learning Cortical oscillations are present during implicit motor sequence learning, but their role in this process is unclear. In this study we found that implicit motor sequence learning modulated theta power, but not alpha or beta. These results suggest disengaging theta regulated attentional processes could be a correlate of implicit learning.
... Implicit knowledge acquisition is regarded as a foundational process which develops "abstract and tacit knowledge of all kinds" [12]. Moreover, researchers have supported the notion that this form of learning allows for more information to be absorbed by the learner [13]. ...
A serious tabletop game called “Gr8 Success!” has been developed for an undergraduate Communication skills module at the North-West University (NWU) in South Africa. This paper presents the details of the development process and discusses the first play tested prototype of the serious game in question. The game is described in the context of a conceptual framework being developed by researchers at the Serious Game Institute of South Africa (SGI-SA).
... In the context of medical decisionmaking, Quirk (2006) mentions the essential relationship between metacognition and intuition and highlights the role of metacognitive strategies in developing intuitive powers. He highlights one study by Lewicki et al. (1988), who demonstrated the ability of intuition to handle complex problem-solving rules and finally raised the possibility "that intuition incorporates elements of metacognition at the unconscious level" (p. 41). ...
The growing importance of metacognition has opened a broad avenue of research in decision-making literature. Nevertheless, most studies on metacognition have primarily focused on decision-making ability or processes, largely ignoring the role of individual differences. The present study aims at addressing this gap by examining the role of metacognition (knowledge about cognition and regulation of cognition) on the various decision-making styles: rational, intuitive, dependent, avoidant and spontaneous. Data collected from 139 MBA students enumerate the importance of knowledge about cognition and regulation of cognition in explaining the decision-making styles. While knowledge about cognition was positively associated with intuitive and spontaneous decision-making styles, regulation of cognition emerged to be positively related to rational decision-making style. Both knowledge and regulation of cognition could explain these decision-making styles over and above the demographic variables of age, gender and work experience. The maladaptive decision styles of dependent and avoidant decision-making could neither be explained by knowledge about cognition nor regulation of cognition.
... There have been several methods in order to measure whether the second language learners have had both implicit and explicit Knowledge. The general methods should prompt the second language learners to verbalize any rules or patterns they might have noticed while performing the experimental tasks (Lewicki, Hill, & Bizot, 1988;Payne, 1994, Rebuschat, 2013. ...
This research aims to investigate the role of implicit and/or explicit knowledge in the production of grammatical errors in academic texts. Explicit knowledge is defined as conscious and declarative knowledge used to monitor language production while implicit knowledge is defined as an intuitive knowledge which enables the second language learners to use the language spontaneously without any reflection (Zhang, 2015). The reasons why this research is conducted is due to the fact that the students are still producing errors even though they have learnt English since elementary school. The data is gained from the academic text written down by fifteen English department students studying in a university in Jakarta. It is analyzed by using two different measurements: (1) Delayed Grammatical Judgment Tests (GJT), and (2) Interview including Metalingual Comment to investigate the role of explicit knowledge in the production of grammatical errors. The other two measurements are also used; they are (1) Timed Grammaticality Judgment Test (TGJT), and (2) Oral Production Test (OPT) to investigate the role of implicit knowledge. The results show that 19.2% of grammatical errors are produced due to the implicit knowledge and 80.8% is due to explicit knowledge. Since the explicit knowledge plays an important role in producing the grammatical errors, it can be concluded that teaching English grammar for university students is still important. If possible, the English Grammar lessons should be given more rooms in the overall curriculum
... The current study compared performance across the SRT and the ASRT tasks in an effort to shed light on underlying learning mechanisms. Researchers (e.g., Lewicki et al., 1988;Ullman, 2004) have suggested that SL relies on the procedural memory system, as opposed to declarative memory. Hence, SL should be less dependent on general cognitive abilities, such as nonverbal intelligence or working memory capacity, whereas explicit analytical problem solving should be more dependent on these abilities (Gebauer & Mackintosh, 2007;Reber, Walkenfeld, & Hernstadt, 1991). ...
The Serial Reaction Time (SRT) and the Alternating Serial Reaction Time (ASRT) tasks are widely used assessments of sequence learning (SL) wherein repetitive patterning of visual-spatial elements leads participants to anticipate locations of subsequent elements in the series. In the SRT task, the predictive dependencies involve adjacent elements whereas in the ASRT task they involve nonadjacent elements, due to the insertion of random elements into the pattern. We tested college students (N = 74) to explore whether the SRT and the ASRT tasks relied on similar underlying learning mechanisms while also examining associations between task performance and nonverbal fluid intelligence, visual-spatial working memory, and sentence processing ability. There was no correlation in performance across the two SL tasks (r =-.18), suggesting distinct learning mechanisms. Whereas 95.9% of participants demonstrated sequence-specific learning in the SRT task, only 64.9% demonstrated learning in the ASRT task. SL in the ASRT but not the SRT task was associated with nonverbal intelligence, visual-spatial working memory, and sentence comprehension. The observed results run counter to the claim that the ASRT relies only on implicit learning mechanisms presumed to be unrelated to executive functioning or general intelligence.
... Bowers (1984) wurde von Hammond et al. (1987) unterstützt, die zeigten, dass bei bestimmten Aufgaben, wenn die Testpersonen in einem Bereich getestet werden, in dem sie einschlägige Erfahrung haben, ein nicht-analytischer oder intuitiver Ansatz eine bessere Leistung erbringt als die Verwendung einer formalen analytischen Methode. Lewicki et al. (1988) zeigten, dass Testpersonen lernten, eine komplex gemusterte Sequenz vorherzusagen, ohne sich der Regeln des Musters bewusst zu sein. Versuche einer bewussten Analyse der Sequenz waren fruchtlos, da die dem Muster zugrundeliegenden Faktoren sehr komplex waren. ...
In der deutschen Literatur wird das Thema Intuition noch nicht differenziert in seinen wichtigen Facetten betrachtet.
Bislang wird Intuition vornehmlich auf Basis der Arbeiten von Prof. Gigerenzer, als Erfahrungsintuition bzw. heuristische Entscheidungen auf Basis sog. Daumenregeln beschrieben. Amerikanische Forschungsarbeiten werden bislang weniger
berücksichtigt. Häufig wird unter Intuition das sog., unbegründete Bauchgefühl untersucht (Prof. Klein). Diese Arbeiten gehen sogar soweit, dass antitipatorische Entscheidungen einbezogen werden (Dr. Radin). Daher soll in dieser Studie die Intuition dreigeteilt untersucht werden, um auch die wirklich unbewussten, intuitiven Entscheidungen einzubeziehen. Dieser Ansatz ist besonders innovativ, weil zum Thema Intuition bisher nur Studien auf Basis von Einzeltheorien im Vergleich zur Rationalität vorliegen. In diesem
Forschungsprojekt sollen vier wichtige, unterschiedliche Entscheidungsgrundlagen (RHIBA) erstmals zusammenhängend im Vergleich erforscht werden:
(R) Rationale, kognitive Entscheidungsfindung,
(H) Heuristische Entscheidungen („Faustregeln“),
(I) Intuitive Entscheidungen bzw. das sog. Bauchgefühl oder (P) die unbegründete
Entscheidung
(A) Antizipation) RHIA. Das Fehlen einer solchen zusammenhängenden Untersuchung mag in der Komplexität des Versuchsaufbaus liegen. Für die Forschung und insbesondere die Entwicklung von Anwendungsfeldern wäre das Gelingen eines solchen Prototypens von entscheidender Bedeutung.
... In addition to many studies revealing effects of exposure on accuracy and processing of stimuli across an experimental session, research has also focused on how aligning or convergent co-occurrences in the input can lead to nonconscious learning of patterns (e.g., Lewicki, Hill, & Bizot, 1988). For example, work in mathematical problem solving has shown both rapid learning effects with difficult word problems (Christianson, Mestre, & Luke, 2012) and facilitatory effects of semantic cues (namely the congruence of the semantic relationship between two elements in the representative equation and the mathematical function of that equation) on learning to correctly identify mathematical models from word problems (Martin & Bassok, 2005). ...
Convergent probabilistic cues do not trigger syntactic adaptation 2 ABSTRACT Previous work has ostensibly shown that readers rapidly adapt to less predictable ambiguity resolutions after repeated exposure to unbalanced statistical input (e.g., a high number of reduced relative-clause garden-path sentences), and that these readers grow to disfavor the a priori more frequent main verb resolution after exposure (Fine, Jaeger, Farmer, & Qian, 2013). However, recent work has failed to replicate effects indicating a penalty for the preferred, more frequent continuation, despite finding a speedup in syntactic repair times after initial exposure to the dispreferred, infrequent structure (Harrington-Stack, James, & Watson, 2018). The current study reports three self-paced reading experiments that test whether co-occurring cues (explicit comprehension questions, preceding semantic cues, and font color) help facilitate adaptation to reduced relative/main verb garden-path sentences. Results suggest that readers do not overcome pre-existing expectation biases by rapidly adapting to statistically novel linguistic contexts even with convergent probabilistic cues. An emphasis is placed on the difference between syntactic satiation effects and expectation adaptation, the latter of which we argue can only be determined through a penalty for an a priori preferred resolution after repeated exposure to its a priori less preferred counterpart.
... bspw. Frensch & Miner, 1994;Lewicki, Czyzewska & Hoffman, 1987;Lewicki, Hill & Bizot, 1988;Nissen & Bullemer, 1987), bei dem Vpn auf Ereignisabfolgen zu reagieren haben, wird von impli¬ zitem Lernen gesprochen, wenn bei regelgesteuerter Darbietung von Ereig¬ nissequenzen ein im Vergleich zur zufallsgesteuerten Darbietung beschleu¬ nigtes Antwortverhalten feststellbar ist, ohne dass die Vpn die zugrunde lie¬ gende Regel formulieren könnten. ...
Im Anschluss an eine Bestimmung der Begriffe des impliziten Lernens und Wissens und einen Aufriss ihrer didaktischen Bedeutung werden wesentliche Untersuchungsparadigmen und Befunde der empirischen Erforschung impliziter Lernprozesse vorgestellt. In der Folge wird der facettenreiche Begriff des impliziten Lernens eingeführt, der sich aus den Arbeiten des Wissenstheoretikers Michael Polanyi ergibt. Dabei wird vor allem auf die Grenzen der Explikation impliziten Wissens eingegangen. Diese Betrachtungen verlagern das didaktische Interesse vom Lernen in unterrichtsähnlichen Situationen auf ein Lernen durch Erfahrung und vom Lernen mit entpersonalisierten Medien der Wissensbewahrung auf ein Lernen im face-to-face-Kontakt zwischen Experten und Novizen. Darüberhinaus bleiben die Implikationen “impliziten Lernens” in dem Maße jedoch unklar, in dem ungeklärt ist, wie Austauschbeziehungen zwischen bewussten und unbewussten Formen der Informationsverarbeitung sowie ein Oszillieren zwischen methodenbewusstem und intuitivem Handeln psychologisch zu modellieren und didaktisch zu gestalten sind. Dies betrifft unter anderem Fragen der Makro- und Mikrostrukturierung von Lehr-Lern-Prozessen und das Problem der Ausbalanzierung kontrollierter Problemlöse- und Abstraktionsprozesse einerseits und impliziter Lernprozesse andererseits.
... However, this is a real interpretation of vernacular housing, and the Turkish public seems to be genuinely fond of the feature simply because it feels familiar. In fact, according to Lewicki, et al. (1988), through repeated encounters over time with different (or similar) examples, a predominantly non-conscious learning process may start to take place. On the basis of this process, the individual constructs a mental representation of these regularities together with the ranges of values typically associated with such attributes and relationships (Purcell and Nasar, 1992). ...
This study aims to discover the user satisfaction concerning curved areas in the main living rooms of apartment housing. For this purpose, a total of three apartment buildings that have differently scaled and differently located curvilinear forms in the main living room and that are occupied by upper-middle socioeconomic status dwellers from three suburban sites in Ankara, Turkey, which were previously threatened with squatter housing, have been studied. The use of the space, the users' perception of the curved form, and the way it has been decorated and used have been examined with the help of a detailed questionnaire. The aim of the study is to question the functionality of such curved areas, which differed in scale and location. It is assumed that problems would occur related to the size of the curved areas. According to the results, most of the users believed that the curved area was aesthetically pleasing. On the other hand, complaints also varied depending on the size and usage patterns of the curved area. Compared to female respondents, male respondents found the three different types of curved areas more favorable. Additionally, older respondents gave less favorable ratings than younger respondents.
... Thus, it can be said that the antiquity of reciprocity among employees lead to engage an employee in KW behaviours. Therefore, when an employee requests knowledge as a part of social exchange and perceives negative behaviour like withholding from the actor or co-worker, then he or she develops an unreceptive feeling of distrust, i.e., a presence of trepidation and skepticism on other and/or a sensation that the other may harm him or her (Govier, 1994;Lewicki et al., 1988). Interpersonal distrust may motivate negative norm of reciprocity and ineffective social exchanges (Blau, 1964), affect tolerability of any behaviours (Seiter et al., 2002) in harmonious relationship with negative return and as such, reciprocate employees' KW behaviours (Connelly et al., 2012). ...
Both academia and corporate concerns consider the importance of knowledge sharing between organisational members because, the appropriate sharing of knowledge is crucial to be creative and spread the innovation within an organisation. This paper links knowledge sharing (KS) with knowledge withholding (KW), which is meant to interrupt this transfer and also different from related concepts like knowledge barriers, deception, aggression etc. Firstly, this study suggests KS and KW are distinct and independent connected with Herzberg's two-factor theory. Secondly, KW, which has not rightly meant in courtesy of KS in earlier studies, is defined as a shadowy barrier. Thirdly, this shadowy term is classified along with its nature and appearances. Lastly, we recommend that in dyadic relations, KW activates a reciprocal psychological distrust loop that hamper spreading of innovation linking with social exchange theory and the norm of reciprocity. Future research areas are also discussed with theoretical and practical implications.
... Ericsson & Charness, 1994), implicit learning from developing a better understanding of tacit routines and knowledge (cf. Lewicki, Hill, & Bizot, 1988), and experiential learning through experimenting with resource combinations (cf. Armstrong & Mahmud, 2008). ...
Although more generalist CEOs command a significant pay premium and are known for initiating a variety of strategic changes, whether their sought-after experience is associated with higher firm performance remains unexplored. Drawing on instrumental leadership and domain expertise frameworks, we propose a negative association between more generalist CEO experience (across different industries or firms) and firm performance, but one that is alleviated by longer tenure. Based on a sample of 16,158 CEO-firm-year observations from 2243 firms, we find support for a negative association between more generalist CEO experience and firm performance, which is alleviated with longer CEO tenure. These preliminary results have implications for the increasingly common practice of seeking to hire more generalist CEOs in an effort to improve firm performance.
... The recommendations from the literature paint a complicated picture. Some researchers have found that intuitive processing led to superior performance even in a task environment with very complex variable relationships (Lewicki, Czyzewska, & Hoffman, 1987;Lewicki, Hill, & Bizot, 1988;Lewicki, Hill, & Czyzewska, 1992). Other researchers have found that intuition leads to flawed judgments, such as imperfectly assessing covariation (Arkes, 1981(Arkes, , 1991Arkes et al., 1986). ...
Accountability is often presented as a panacea for behavioral ailments. This one-size-fits-all approach to a multi-dimensional construct ignores a key component of the effectiveness of accountability systems: situational context. Situational contexts such as highly stochastic environments (e.g., financial markets, world politics) and politically-charged domains (e.g., national security decision-making, domestic policy) form accountability boundary conditions, beyond which previous experimental effects may not generalize. In a series of studies, I explore the relatively under-explored frontiers of accountability effects, including those that apply to highly stochastic environments; politically-charged outcomes, where the tendency towards motivated reasoning dominates; and rapidly evolving states of information, where one’s ability to update one’s beliefs has serious implications for the quality of one’s judgments and decisions. In this series of studies, I find that accountability effects only appeared under certain conditions. In general, holding people accountable for their judgments did not improve performance on highly stochastic or politically-charged tasks—in fact, it sometimes made performance worse. However, certain types of accountability were able to boost performance in some contexts. These studies demonstrate the value of incorporating situational context into accountability experiments.
... The other possible condition in which a person might predict the appearance of a relevant event is a repetitive and fixed order of target stimuli presentations; this is referred to as implicit learning (Cleeremans, Destrebecqz, & Boyer, 1998;Lewicki, Hill, & Bizot, 1988;Nissen & Bullemer, 1987;Reber, 1993). Nissen and Bullemer (1987) created a popular method to study implicit sequence learning called the serial reaction time (SRT) task. ...
The anticipation of future events based on a background experience is one of the main components of any goal‐directed behavior. Anticipatory attention can be either voluntary (explicit) or involuntary (implicit). We presumed that these two types of anticipatory attention differed in terms of cortical functional organization. We examined this assumption with an experimental model consisting of three experimental sessions (cued attention, implicit learning, and baseline) that were equal in terms of stimuli, motor responses, and cognitive task. Participants were asked to discriminate the temporal order of stimuli within a pair presented in either the visual or auditory sensory modality. Prestimulus functional connectivity was assessed via alpha‐band coherence computed in the source space for preselected regions of interests. Functional links between the cortices of the frontoparietal control system increased during the cued attention condition and did not increase during the implicit anticipation condition. The buildup of implicit anticipation was accompanied by the strengthening of functional links between the intraparietal, ventral premotor, and presupplementary motor areas. It was discovered that both cued and implicit types of anticipation were underlain by functional modality‐specific cortical links.
... The portions of the sequence that led to faster RTs in the implicit learning measure were the same chunks that were available to declarative memory in a post-task free generation test. Similarly, Perruchet, Gallego, and Savy (1990) provided an alternative explanation for the faster RTs to transitions that conformed to a complex second order conditional sequence on a serial reaction time task (Lewicki, Hill, & Bizot, 1988), since participants were shown to have explicit knowledge that the target in this task moved through all possible locations before returning to previous ones. This knowledge was sufficient to explain the improvement in RTs that had previously been ascribed to implicit learning of the complex sequence. ...
Impaired procedural learning has been suggested as a possible cause of developmental language disorder and dyslexia (Nicolson & Fawcett, 2007; Ullman & Pierpont, 2005). However, studies investigating this hypothesis have so far delivered inconsistent results. These studies typically use extreme group designs, frequently with small sample sizes and measures of procedural learning with unreported reliability. This thesis first used a meta-analysis to examine the existing evidence for a procedural deficit in language disorders. The experimental studies then took a different approach to previous studies, using a concurrent correlational design to test large samples of children unselected for ability on a wide range of implicit (serial reaction time, Hebb serial learning, contextual cueing and probabilistic category learning) and declarative learning tasks and literacy, language and arithmetic attainment measures. The reliability of the tasks was also carefully assessed. A final study explored the hypothesis from an extreme group design perspective, comparing a typically developing sample with a group of dyslexic children matched for reading ability. None of the studies found evidence of a relationship between procedural learning and language-related abilities. By contrast, a relationship between verbal declarative learning and attainment was found replicating earlier studies. Crucially, the first large-scale study showed that procedural learning tasks of a similar length to those typically used in earlier studies had unacceptably low reliability and correlated poorly with each other and with attainment. The second large-scale study, used extended procedural learning tasks that had proved reliable in adults, but found similar low levels of reliability in children. Additionally, the level of attention children paid during these extended tasks accounted entirely for the relationship between procedural learning and attainment. The results in this thesis highlight the importance of establishing task reliability, as well as considering the potential effects of individual differences in basic cognitive processes such as attention in all investigations of procedural learning.
... Thus, it can be said that the antiquity of reciprocity among employees lead to engage an employee in KW behaviours. Therefore, when an employee requests knowledge as a part of social exchange and perceives negative behaviour like withholding from the actor or co-worker, then he or she develops an unreceptive feeling of distrust, i.e., a presence of trepidation and skepticism on other and/or a sensation that the other may harm him or her (Govier, 1994;Lewicki et al., 1988). Interpersonal distrust may motivate negative norm of reciprocity and ineffective social exchanges (Blau, 1964), affect tolerability of any behaviours (Seiter et al., 2002) in harmonious relationship with negative return and as such, reciprocate employees' KW behaviours (Connelly et al., 2012). ...
Both academia and corporate concerns consider the importance of knowledge sharing between organisational members because the dissemination of innovation through an organisation is linked directly to company competitiveness. Success has been still acute, regardless of the efforts to increase knowledge sharing in organisations. The appropriate transfer of knowledge is crucial to be creative and spread the innovation within an organisation. This paper links knowledge sharing (KS) with knowledge withholding (KW), which is meant to interrupt this transfer and also different from related concepts like knowledge barriers, deception, aggression etc. Firstly, this study suggests KS and KW are distinct as well as independent and links with Herzbergs two-factor theory, to prove and clarify the difference. Secondly, KW, which has not rightly meant in courtesy of knowledge sharing in earlier studies, is defined as a shadowy barrier. Thirdly, this shadowy term is classified along with its nature and appearances. Lastly, we recommend that in dyadic relations, KW activates a reciprocal psychological distrust loop that hamper spreading of innovation, using social exchange theory and the norm of reciprocity. Future research areas are also
discussed with theoretical and practical implications.
... The middle layer of the metaphorical cake is particularly delicious because, according to the standard view, this is the system where implicit cognitions influence our behavior and we are quite unaware of it (Kihlstrom, 1999). It is the subpersonal mental system that produces "tacit knowledge" that cannot be articulated (Lewicki, Hill, & Bizot, 1988) but nevertheless guides much of our judgments and actions (e.g., Dienes & Altmann, 1997;Greenwald & Banaji, 1995;Reber, 1967). Now, think for a moment of something that has happened in the last days that you attribute to your unconscious mind. ...
Across psychological science the prevailing view of mental events includes unconscious mental representations that result from a separate implicit system outside of awareness. Recently, scientific interest in consciousness of self and the widespread application of mindfulness practice have made necessary innovative methods of assessing awareness during cognitive tasks and validating those assessments wherever they are researched. Studies from three areas of psychology, self-esteem, sustainability thinking, and the learning of control systems questioned the unconscious status of implicit cognitions. The studies replicated published results using methods of investigating (a) unselective learning of a control task (b) implicit attitudes using IAT, and (c) the Name-letter effect. In addition, a common analytic method of awareness assessment and its validation was used. Study 1 demonstrated that learned control of a dynamic system was predicted by the validity of rules of control in awareness. In Study 2, verbal reports of hesitations and trial difficulty predicted IAT scores for 34 participants' environmental attitudes. In Study 3, the famous Name-letter effect was predicted by the validity of university students' reported awareness of letter preference reasons. The repeated finding that task-related knowledge in awareness predicted what should be cognitions outside of awareness, according to the dual processing view, suggests an alternative model of implicit mental events in which associative relations evoke conscious symbolic representations. The analytic method of validating phenomenal reports is highlighted along with its potential contribution to research involving implicit cognitions.
... The other possible condition in which a person might predict the appearance of a relevant event is a repetitive and fixed order of target stimuli presentations; this is referred to as implicit learning (Cleeremans, Destrebecqz, & Boyer, 1998;Lewicki, Hill, & Bizot, 1988;Nissen & Bullemer, 1987;Reber, 1993). Nissen and Bullemer (1987) created a popular method to study implicit sequence learn- ing called the serial reaction time (SRT) task. ...
Studies in healthy right-handed subjects (N = 16, mean age 23 ± 5.7 years) analyzed the functional organization of the cerebral cortex during preparation to solve visual and auditory sensory tasks in two conditions: (1) anticipation of a visual or auditory signal after being told its modality (cued anticipatory attention) and (2) implicit anticipation formed during multiple repetition of a given sequence of visual and auditory stimuli. In both conditions subjects had to perform the same task – to identify the order of the stimuli (visual or auditory) in monomodal pairs. During the prestimulus period, the α frequency range was used to assess the coherence of cortical sources corresponding to previously selected cortical regions (regions of interest). More functional connections between cortical zones in the frontoparietal modulatory system were seen in cued anticipatory attention than during the period preceding appearance of the prompt stimulus, this obtaining in both sensory tasks. There was also a greater number of local connections between sensory-specific and associative (parietal and prefrontal) areas. Implicit anticipation preceding execution of the visual task was accompanied by an increase in connections between the ventral premotor cortex and the caudal (parietal and occipital) areas of the right hemisphere. Execution of the auditory task was preceded by an increase in connections between the auditory sensory cortex, the rostral part of the supplementary motor area, and the ventral premotor area. In contrast to cued attention, implicit anticipation was not accompanied by changes in frontoparietal connections. These results provide evidence of significant differences in the cerebral organization of these two types of anticipatory attention.
... Our experience of the environment consists of repeated encounters of different examples. Through these repeated encounters the individual experiences a process of unconscious learning (Lewicki et al., 1988) which is used to build a mental representation of preferred standards. Some research has found that observer preferences for buildings depend on the level of discrepancy between the type of building to be evaluated and the observer's knowledge structure (Purcell, 1986(Purcell, , 1987Purcell & Nasar, 1992). ...
This paper presents the application of differential semantics to identify the semantic space (structure) used by men and women to describe their perception of properties on sale. 112 men and 43 women evaluated 112 images of flats on sale at the time of the study in the city of Valencia (Spain) using 60 adjectives. The set of attributes or variables which capture the user’s perception of a property in his own words (semantic axes) was identified using factor analysis of principal components. The semantic space of a property was described by 15 independent axes which explained 64% of the variability for males and 17 axes which explained 72.3% of the variance for females. The connection between the subject’s emotional response, expressed through the set of axes (15 for males and 17 for females) and the global evaluation in terms of the purchase decision was established. The results demonstrated significant differences in the variables used by both genders to express their perception of a property on sale and the weight of these variables on the purchase decision.
... Being entire unconscious (automatic) regulators of the human body's physiology, emotions bring the instantenous solutions of how to act in front of rapidly approaching possible threat. This instantenous activity is possible due to unconscious processing algorithms, which have been characterized by Lewicki et al. [20,21] as highly non-linear by nature and extremely fast by performance. ...
What does it mean to be human? Increasingly, we recognize that we are infinitely complex beings with immense emotional and spiritual, physical and mental capacities. Presiding over these human systems, our brain is a fully integrated, biological, and extraordinary organ that is preeminent in the known Universe. Its time has come. This book is grounded in the Intelligent Complex Adaptive Learning System (ICALS) theory based on over a decade of researching experiential learning through the expanding lens of neuroscience.
REVIEWS
"Unleashing the Human Mind is the most comprehensive and enlightening book written on learning for the future. This book will expand your mind and motivate you to learn in ways you never realized are possible."
-Dr. Arthur Shelley, Founder, Intelligent Answers; Author of Becoming Adaptable, KNOWledge SUCCESSion and The Organizational Zoo, Australia
"With the backdrop of current global societal turmoil, the authors capture the urgency for changing course, and the research that provides a new path forward, which is found in the love of learning."
-John Lewis, Ed.D., CKO, Explanation Age LLC; Author of Story Thinking, USA
"Every now and then a book comes along that compels your spirit. In these times of uncertainty and even great danger for humanity, this book reminds us of what it means to be human, our infinite potential and innate ability to learn and to love."
-Milton deSousa, Associate Professor, Nova School of Business and Economics, Portugal
"This publication is the brilliant sublimination of a life-long accumulation of knowledge about the potential of our brain to learn, adapt and evolve to the best version of ourselves."
-Johan Cools, Higher Architecture Institute of Saint-Lucas Ghent, Belgium
"In our time of fast societal, technological and environmental changes and disruption, experiential learning becomes one of the few solutions to quickly adapt and survive … Such a rich and insightful book that will make you discover individual learning in a completely new way."
-Dr. Vincent Ribière, Managing Director of the Institute for Knowledge and Innovation Southeast Asia (IKI-SEA), Bangkok University, Thailand
"Once in a while, I am exposed to a work so profound that it literally causes a massive shift in my own thinking and beliefs … I found myself riveted to each paragraph as I embarked on a journey that vastly deepened my understanding of the learning process."
-Duane Nickull, Author, Technologist, and Seeker of Higher Truth, Canada
"In Unleashing, David Bennet, Alex Bennet and Robert Turner expand our collective understanding of the Human Mind by embedding timeless wisdoms, transliterations, and their collective expansive knowledge and experiences that enrich our lives from cover to cover."
-Bob Beringer, CEO of EOR, Intelligence Professional, Author of Linux Clustering with CSM and GPFS, USA
"Very few people have the gift to integrate such complex ideas, especially those about learning … this work can be likened to the Webb Telescope, which gives us more clarity into our mysteries. Well worth the viewing!"
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"It is the mastery of the authors of this book to open the reader’s mind and soul, thus offering the opportunity for the content of this live transmission to be discovered and interpreted in the most appropriate way by each reader … so that only the reader’s desire is needed to let him/her Self be seduced by this wealth of wisdom, generously placed at the reader’s disposal."
-Dr. Florin Gaiseanu, Research Professor, Science and Technology of Information Bucharest (Romania) and Barcelona (Spain), Hoor Member of NeuroQuanology (Europe) and International Journal of Neuropsychology and Behavioral Sciences (USA)
This chapter explores how our two primary modes of thinking (intuitive and analytical thought), heuristics, and our feelings are integrated into our design processes. It then reviews the effectiveness of formal design education obtained through academic classes and of informal design training obtained through workshops and short courses.KeywordsThinkingIntuitionAnalysisHeuristicsFeelingsEmotionsLearningEducationTrainingWorkshops
Psychological situationism is the view that our behavior is ordered by external features of situations as opposed to robust character traits. Philosophical situationists have taken this claim to be conservatively revisionary for ethics; on their view, situationism problematizes only character, not any essential features of our ethical deliberation. Little has been said, however, about how these revisions motivate situationists’ claim that we ought to redirect our attention from cultivating virtues to managing situational influences on behavior. Virtue theorists have typically responded to situationists by arguing that skill-based practical wisdom—the exercise of which underwrites all other virtues—can be appropriately sensitive to situational influences. Following this response, discussions about the prescriptive consequences of situationism have largely resulted in a stalemate. In this paper, I argue that situationism faces a dilemma: it is either too conservative to be ethically revisionary or too radical to inform our ethical deliberation. I argue that both horns of this dilemma are unacceptable. Thus, we should reject situationist revisions to our ethical deliberation, and conclude that situationism is not conservatively revisionary for ethics.
The study investigated the role of top-down versus bottom-up connectivity, during the processing of implicit or explicit predictive information, in Parkinson's disease (PD). EEG was recorded during the performance of a task, which evaluated the ability to utilize either implicit or explicit predictive contextual information in order to facilitate the detection of predictable versus random targets. Thus, subjects performed an implicit and explicit session, where subjects were either unaware or made aware of a predictive sequence that signals the presentation of a subsequent target, respectively. We evaluated EEG event-related directed connectivity, in PD patients compared with healthy age-matched controls, using phase transfer entropy. PD patients showed increased top-down frontal-parietal connectivity, compared to control subjects, during the processing of the last (most informative) stimulus of the predictive sequence and of random standards, in the implicit and explicit session, respectively. These findings suggest that PD is associated with compensatory top-down connectivity, specifically during the processing of implicit predictive stimuli. During the explicit session, PD patients seem to allocate more attentional resources to non-informative standard stimuli, compared to controls. These connectivity changes shed further light on the cognitive deficits, associated with the processing of predictive contextual information, that are observed in PD patients.
Implicit Learning (IL) involves the fundamental problem of human potential development, and it has been a hot and difficult topic for many years. Traditional artificial neural networks can simulate IL, but there are some shortcomings. A few years ago, people used a morphological neural network (MNN) to simulate IL, but the support in theory and practice is weak. The contribution of this study is threefold. Firstly, based on the theory of unified framework of morphological associative memories (UFMAM), this paper makes a deep exploration for simulating IL by MNNs. Since both MNN and UFMAM are based on strict mathematical morphology, the research is established on a solid theoretical basis. Secondly, three experiments were designed, and the results were analyzed and discussed according to the theory of UFMAM. Thus, the depth and breadth of this research of IL were further expanded, new simulation methods and research examples were provided, and the MNN model of IL was established. Thirdly, it provides an example for the coordinated development of artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive psychology, neural science and brain science. The research shows that the IL model based on MNN is superior to the traditional IL model in automation, comprehension, abstraction and anti-interference. Therefore, it will play an important role in the future study of IL and bring new inspiration to reveal the neural mechanism of IL. There is an inseparable relationship between MNN and IL, i.e. the former provides new research tools and means for the latter, while the latter provides psychological and neuroscientific supports for the former, which will make both of them have a more solid scientific foundation. It is reasonable to believe that computer simulation of IL and other cognitive phenomena will have an important impact on promoting the coordinated development of multidisciplinary.
Po okresie stosunkowo łatwego tworzenia i użytkowania
asynchronicznych szkoleń elektronicznych wyzwania współczesnej
dydaktyki akademickiej oraz szybki rozwój technologii
ICT spowodowały podniesienie wymagań jakościowych
wobec nowych kursów e-learningowych. Powinny one cechować
się wysokim stopniem multimedialności, co oznacza
konieczność wbudowania w nie elementów grafiki, animacji,
filmów, symulacji interaktywnych oraz przede wszystkim
technologii Web 2.0. Profesjonalna produkcja tego typu
szkoleń elektronicznych jest kosztowna i wymaga współpracy
wielu specjalistów: autorów treści e-learningowych, projektantów
szkoleń elektronicznych (instructional designers), grafików,
programistów, lektorów, administratorów platform
e-learningowych. Wyzwanie to podjął zespół projektowy
Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego, przystępując do opracowania
i wdrożenia sześciu w pełni multimedialnych, interaktywnych
kursów e-learningowych: „Bioinformatyka strukturalna”,
„Fuzje i przejęcia”, „Prawa i obowiązki podatnika
w postępowaniach”, „Projektowanie i wdrażanie kursów
e-learningowych 2.0”, „Repetytorium z fizyki z elementami
matematyki” oraz „Studenckie inicjatywy gospodarcze”.
Zainicjowany przez Radę Programową ds. Nauczania na
Odległość UG projekt, pt. „Akademickie kursy kształcenia na
odległość na Uniwersytecie Gdańskim”, został dofinansowany
z funduszy europejskich – Programu Operacyjnego Kapitał
Ludzki. W niniejszym artykule przedstawiono założenia
i rezultaty wdrożenia tego projektu.
Purpose -The recent financial crises in America and Europe have shown emphatically that the findings of the relevant risk management literature concluding that lurking risks can be converted into opportunities have unfortunately not informed policy. The assumption of the risk as a burden, often leads economies to crises that undermine the development and prosperity of states and citizens.
In this context, this article aims at highlighting risk characteristics and presentation of basic management principles which should govern the operation of public service organizations. The aim of the present paper is also to highlight the dual nature of risk. Risk is frequently uni-dimensionally perceived by people. Usually, its usefulness in effecting change and making the most of the manifold opportunities of the contemporary volatile environment is ignored. Design/methodology/approach -There has been an extensive literature review on risk culture (organizations and personnel). Elements of the Greek Economy were used as well. Findings -The significance of developing a risk culture in organizations and governments. However, the unsuccessful attempt which was made by the Greek state so as to deal with the risks, shows that minimal preparation and progress has been achieved. Based on literature review of the economic facts of the 2008-2015 period in Greece, the fact that emerges is that effective risk management is a necessary condition for the survival of public organizations in today΄s global environment. Research limitations/implications-In relation to risk-taking by employees as well as their financial and operational risks in Public Administration and Economics, is ascertained that there are few studies, as opposed to the interest in the importance of taking risks in the strategy, which has risen sharply in recent years. Originality/value- The provision of the theoretical framework for the development of a risk management culture in organizations since the States are under restructuring scheme.
This paper summarises three areas of debate in educational research, embedded learning, situated learning and unconscious learning, to see what light they throw on the emerging field of informal learning and formal/non-formal learning. It takes two cases which have been the subject of much recent discussion - political socialisation and learning in social movements - to illustrate the argument.
This article explores the topic of intuition, a phenomenon that has received remarkably little attention in the clinical literature. Its purpose is to (a) raise awareness of the nature and promise of intuition, (b) demonstrate the feasibility of systematically studying it and refining its use, and (c) discuss implications for its application in clinical practice. A review of important quantitative and qualitative literature provides evidence about the quality, experience, and improvement of intuition. Based on this evidence, three assumptions and five precepts are proposed for the effective and responsible use of clinical intuition. A brief case study of a 40–yr–old women is also provided.
The projection of 3-D objects to 2-D images necessitates a loss of information, thus the shape of volumetric objects depicted in images is inherently ambiguous. The results of 3 experiments suggest observers use mental models of the local visual environment to constrain image interpretation. These models change quickly and dramatically to accommodate implicitly acquired information. Observers viewed very high-contrast (2-tone) images of novel volumetric objects. Before priming, novel 2-tone images appeared 2-D. After incidental exposure to similar objects in grayscale or familiar objects in 2-tone, the test images appeared volumetric. Incidental learning appears to alter observers' mental models, thus causing an alteration in image interpretation in the absence of any image change. Highlights were interpreted more accurately than shadows, suggesting shadows play a secondary role in shape recovery.
This paper summarises three areas of debate in educational research, embedded learning, situated learning and unconscious learning, to see what light they throw on the emerging field of informal learning and formal/non-formal learning. It takes two cases which have been the subject of much recent discussion - political socialisation and learning in social movements - to illustrate the argument.
Magicians present magic tricks that seem to defy the laws of nature, entertaining us by manipulating our attention, perception, and awareness. However, although we are unaware of these manipulations at the level of conscious experience, we may still be aware of them at an unconscious level. We examined whether people can detect a magic deception outside of conscious awareness using an indirect measure. In the present study, we used the Cups and Balls magic trick, which is the transposition of balls between two cups. Participants viewed a video of the magic performance and were required to indicate the position of the ball in a direct self-report measure and completed the Single Category Implicit Association Test as an indirect measure. The results showed that the indirect measure of trick detection had higher accuracy than the direct measure. Our results suggest that while humans cannot consciously detect the magic deception, they do have a sense of what occurred on an unconscious level.
This paper addresses a criticism of coaching that is rather overlooked in the respective literature but highly discussed among clients. It is often claimed that coaching is nothing more than a chat among friends or colleagues and has, therefore, no added value for a potential customer.
Design/methodology/approach –The paper draws on the respective interdisciplinary literature
to identify limitations and biases that are present in general discussions with friends or colleagues
but professional coaches should betrained to overcome.
Findings –Questions and discussion are indeed at the core of a coaching session, thus bearing much resemblance to a friendly chat. However, the resemblance is superficial. In this paper ten
main differencesbetween a coaching session and a discussion with a non-expert are found and analyzed.
They are grouped into three categories: Biases, Heuristics and Personal Limitations.
Research limitations/implications –Further research will be needed to test empirically the use of input from behavioural economics as a basis for coaching and also toenrich it with additional factors.
Moreover, practitioners can use the proposed factors to increase their effectiveness as well as to create a unique selling proposition for their business.
Originality/value–The paper discusses specific skills and capabilities that a professional coach must have and provides significant implications for both researchers and practitioners.
http://ijbesar.teiemt.gr/docs/volume9_issue2/added_value_of_coaching.pdf
Development, learning, and consciousness - Volume 17 Issue 3 - Mark L. Howe, F. Michael Rabinowitz
The aim of this theoretical article is to characterize the viewpoint of the “experiencing self,” as described in dual information processing theory, and apply it to a wide variety of diverse and important psychological and philosophical conundrums including stress and anxiety, identity, free will, duality, and the origins of insight. It first describes “two selves theory.” In it the rational-cognitive system relies on concepts, memory, and symbols as its raw materials. The experiential system relies on percepts, images, and present-moment experience. Because the experiential system intelligently processes percepts, and humans can only consciously understand concepts, its functioning has been hidden from our grasp. Using its defining characteristics, this paper will attempt to recreate and understand its view. Epstein’s “experiencing self” fits the characteristics of a self that only processes percepts. The reality it perceives meets criteria for a psychological unconscious. A fundamental cause of anxiety may originate from the stressful differences between what’s perceived and what’s conceived. The experiential information processing system may be inherently monist because perceptual reality has not yet been differentiated by language (conceptualized). Any considerations of stress must include comparison between perceptual and conceptual views; resolution of important psychological and philosophical conundrums may also be resolved using this approach. Psychological treatments and educational efforts aimed at uncovering, understanding, and accounting for the existence of both views may have beneficial effect on individuals and society.
Basic and applied research on memory should and can inform each other to their mutual benefit much in the same way that laboratory and nonlaboratory studies can (see Bahrick, 1991; Tulving, 1991). Nonetheless, it is a challenge to integrate the wide-ranging contents of the presentations of this conference and to formulate implications for memory theory. Each paper contributed some interesting and unique findings and conceptual points, not all of which can be assimilated. With respect to memory theory, there were a number of themes that cut across several to most of the presentations. We begin with a consideration of those themes.
Tested the 2-process theory of detection, search, and attention presented by the current authors (1977) in a series of experiments. The studies (a) demonstrate the qualitative difference between 2 modes of information processing: automatic detection and controlled search; (b) trace the course of the learning of automatic detection, of categories, and of automatic-attention responses; and (c) show the dependence of automatic detection on attending responses and demonstrate how such responses interrupt controlled processing and interfere with the focusing of attention. The learning of categories is shown to improve controlled search performance. A general framework for human information processing is proposed. The framework emphasizes the roles of automatic and controlled processing. The theory is compared to and contrasted with extant models of search and attention. (31/2 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reviews the evidence presented by D. E. Dulany et al (see record
1985-29949-001) in support of their conclusion that implicit learning of artificial grammars is really explicit learning. It is argued that the constraints of the task by Dulany et al to assess Ss' knowledge base carries demand characteristics that may make implicit knowledge appear to be explicitly represented. Related issues, such as the nature of conscious and unconscious control of action, the degree of abstractness of tacit knowledge, the existence of formal vs informal (correlated) grammars, and the nature of intuition, are discussed. A functionalist position in all matters is advocated. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reports 2 experiments that examined the generalization of the "mere exposure" effect. Both experiments demonstrated that positive affect, produced by repeated viewing of a set of stimuli, generalizes to previously unseen stimuli that are similar to the exposed stimuli along certain abstract dimensions. Exp I, with 82 Ss, used letter strings constructed according to a complex rule system. Positive affect attributable to exposure generalized to novel letter strings that obeyed the rule system. Affective generalization was related to Ss' judgments of whether the novel strings obeyed the rule system. Exp II (40 Ss), in which the stimuli were complex visual patterns created by distorting standard forms, yielded an orderly gradient of affective generalization to novel patterns at varying levels of distortion. Results indicate that the exposure effect behaves in a manner similar to "implicit" concept learning and rule induction. The generalization techniques developed here provide a novel method for studying the affective processing of stimuli. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reviews evidence which suggests that there may be little or no direct introspective access to higher order cognitive processes. Ss are sometimes (a) unaware of the existence of a stimulus that importantly influenced a response, (b) unaware of the existence of the response, and (c) unaware that the stimulus has affected the response. It is proposed that when people attempt to report on their cognitive processes, that is, on the processes mediating the effects of a stimulus on a response, they do not do so on the basis of any true introspection. Instead, their reports are based on a priori, implicit causal theories, or judgments about the extent to which a particular stimulus is a plausible cause of a given response. This suggests that though people may not be able to observe directly their cognitive processes, they will sometimes be able to report accurately about them. Accurate reports will occur when influential stimuli are salient and are plausible causes of the responses they produce, and will not occur when stimuli are not salient or are not plausible causes. (86 ref)
Recent research on the acquisition of cognitive dispositions indicates that the cognitive system is capable of unconsciously processing even nonsalient and "hidden" patterns of stimuli that, due to the limited controlled processing capabilities of the cognitive system, cannot be detected on the level of conscious cognition. The information about such unconsciously processed patterns of stimuli is stored in memory and it unconsciously influences subsequent cognitive processes. It is argued that to account for observable phenomena of social behavior and to explain the development of stable (personality) dispositions, research in personality and social psychology should focus on reconstructing the process of such unconscious earning and investigate the dynamics of the development of the unconscious algorithms of encoding social stimuli. Recent cognitive research on unconscious information processing is demonstrated to provide a conceptual framework for addressing issues of particular relevance to personality and social psychology.
Investigated information processing in situations in which there was insufficient evidence to make a judgment and no possibility of avoiding a judgment. The research was inspired by the question-answering model of S. Glucksberg and M. McCloskey (see record
1982-07068-001), which states that if it is important to find an answer to a question, then the failure of a preliminary memory search to find any relevant information leads to additional attempts that may employ gradually looser criteria of relevance than that used originally. It was hypothesized that the criterion of relevance could become loose enough to include a memory representation of a single and not salient instance. The hypothesis was tested in 3 experiments in which 160 college and 70 high school students participated. In Exp I the experience of a single instance was provided to the Ss by means of subliminally exposed words, and the dependent measure was Ss' choice of "better fitting" words. In Exps II and III, Ss were provided with single instances by means of a quasi-natural interaction with a person who was similar to 1 of 2 other persons to whom the Ss were subsequently exposed. The dependent measure was Ss' choice of one of those persons as more friendly, and the choice was made again under quasi-natural conditions. All 3 experiments confirmed the model and indicated that Ss based their judgments on the single instance to which they were exposed. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The research program presented in this book is concerned with the processing of social information. . . . The program explores complex or "high level" processing of information that is not mediated by conscious awareness, and social cognition seems to be an appropriate area in which to investigate this kind of processing.
Thus this book is addressed not only to personality and social psychologists, but also to cognitive psychologists concerned with information processing in general. The former may find this research relevant because most of the experiments describe some mechanisms of acquisition and utilization of social information—problems they are working on themselves. The latter may want to ignore the specific stimulus material (i.e., social information) employed in most of the experiments and focus on the general nature of the cognitive mechanisms studied.
The research program presented in this book began with observations which suggest that nonconscious acquisition and processing of information play a major role in human development and adjustment. These observations are discussed in Chapter 1, which is devoted to the starting points of the entire program. Chapter 2 presents preliminary theoretical assumptions that clarify exactly what I had in mind when initiating this research.
The subsequent six chapters contain reports of 34 experiments on nonconscious information processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined 2 possible bases for grammatical judgments following syntactical learning: unconscious representations of a formal grammar, as in A. S. Reber's (see record
1976-21811-001) hypothesis of implicit learning, and conscious rules within information grammars. 50 undergraduates inspected strings generated by a finite-state grammar, viewed either one at a time or all at a time, with implicit or explicit learning instructions. 15 undergraduates served as controls. In a transfer test, Ss and controls judged the grammaticality of grammatical and nongrammatical strings and reported the bases for their judgments. Concurrent with previous results, Ss correctly classified a significant number of novel strings, indicating the operation of grammatical abstraction. However, reported rules predicted those grammatical judgments without significant residual. Ss acquired correlated grammars—personal sets of conscious rules, each of limited scope and many of imperfect validity. The rules embodied abstractions, consciously represented novelty that could account for abstraction embodied in judgments. It is argued that a better explanation of these results credits grammatical judgments to conscious rules within informal grammars rather than to unconscious representations of a formal grammar. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In two experiments, subjects were exposed for 12 hr to a sequence of frames containing a target, and their task was to search for the target in each frame. The sequence was divided into logical blocks of seven trials each. Locations of the target in the seventh trial of each block were predictable on the basis of the specific sequences of target locations in four out of the previous six trials. Pilot studies and extensive postexperimental interviews indicated that none of the subjects noticed anything even close to the real nature of the manipulation (i.e., the pattern). However, the predicted patterns of latency of their responses to the critical trials indicate that they had, in fact, acquired some intuitive (unconscious) knowledge about how the pattern of prior trials was related to the critical trial. The phenomenon is discussed as a ubiquitous unconscious process involved in the development of both elementary and high-level cognitive skills. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Explored the effect of instructional set on implicit learning of a synthetic language, using 20 undergraduates as Ss. Specifically, the neutral, implicit instructions used in previous studies were compared with explicit instructions which directed Ss to search for the complex rules that determined letter orderings. Ss given the explicit instructions were poorer at memorizing exemplars from the language, learned less about the underlying structure, and tended to invent nonrepresentational rules. Results have strong implications for a theory of implicit learning which stresses a nonconscious abstraction system that operates when the stimulus environment exhibits exceedingly complex structure and Ss are not actively trying to break the code. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Three experiments with 134 undergraduates and 80 recent high school graduates investigated processing of covariation between verbally described psychological characteristics and appearance of a set of stimulus persons. Based on S. Glucksberg and M. McCloskey's (see record
1982-07068-001) 2-stage question-answering model, it was hypothesized that if the information related to the manipulated covariation was processed and registered, it would result in an increase of processing time for questions that might be considered relevant to the covariation. Results indicate that although Ss were unable to articulate the manipulated covariation in any of the experiments, the pattern of response latencies obtained conformed exactly to the predictions. In 2 of these experiments, effects of the stimulus material in Ss' subsequent judgments were found, consistent with the model. Ss behaved as if they had "learned" the rule implied by the covariation and followed it in their subsequent judgments. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Responds to comments by A. S. Reber et al (see record
1986-03030-001) on the present authors' (see record
1985-29949-001) analysis of consciousness and abstraction in the case of syntactical learning and judgment. The methodological criticism of Reber et al is rejected, and it is asserted that assessment at the moment of judgment rather than recall maximizes the validity of reports of rules in consciousness at many moments of judgment. Broader issues discussed include judgment after early learning and after automatization, correlated grammars and consciousness, the scope and mental abstractness of rules, conscious and unconscious control, and intuition. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Subjects learned artificial grammars under two conditions of acquisition: paired-associate learning and observation of exemplars. The former procedure was strongly associated with the establishment of a fairly concrete memorial space consisting of specific items and parts of items and the use of an analogic strategy for making decisions about novel stimuli. The observation procedure was strongly associated with the induction of an abstract representation of the rules of the grammar and the use of a correspondence strategy for decision making. Moreover, this latter procedure led to more robust knowledge and better overall performance. Analyses of both objective response patterns and subjective introspections yielded coordinated data in support of this distinction. The relationships between acquisition condition and cognitive strategy are discussed from a functionalist point of view.RésuméLes sujets doivent apprendre des grammaires artificielles selon deux modalités d'acquisition: un apprentissage par paires associées ou l'observation d'examples. On peut trés nettement associer la premiére procédure à la constitution d'un espace mnémonique de type concret consistant en des thémes ou parties de thémes spécifiques et impliquant l'utilisation d'une stratégie analogique lorsqu'il s'agit de prendre des décisions concernant des stimuli nouveaux. La procédure d'observation entraîne l'induction d'une représentation abstraite de régles grammaticales et l'utilisation d'une stratégie de correspondance lors des prises de décision.En outre cette procédure entraîne un savoir plus durable et de meilleures performances. Les analyses des exemples des réponses objectives et des introspections subjectives fournissent des données appuyant cette distinction. On part d'un point de vue fonctionnaliste pour discuter des relations entre la modalité d'acquisition et la stratégie cognitive.
Acquisition of procedural knowledge about a pattern of stimuli without declarative knowledge
- H G Hoffman
Hoffman, H. G. (1986). Acquisition of procedural knowledge about a pattern of stimuli without declarative knowledge. Unpublished manuscript.
Sight and mind: An introduction to visual perception New York: Ox-ford Univ Conscious, subconscious, unconscious: A cognitive perspective The unconscious reconsidered
- L Kaufman
Kaufman, L. (1974). Sight and mind: An introduction to visual perception. New York: Ox-ford Univ. Press. Kihlstrom, J. (1984). Conscious, subconscious, unconscious: A cognitive perspective. In K. S. Bowers & D. Meichenbaum (Eds.), The unconscious reconsidered (pp. 149-211). New York: Wiley.
Categories and concepts
- E E Smith
- D L Medin
Smith, E. E., & Medin, D. L. (1981). Categories and concepts. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press. (Accepted May 4, 1987)
Syntactic learning and judgments: Still unconscious and still abstract
- Reber