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Acquisition of procedural knowledge about pattern of stimuli that cannot be articulated
Abstract
This research demonstrates a process of nonconscious acquisition of information about a pattern of stimuli and the facilitating influence of this knowledge on subjects' subsequent performance. Subjects were exposed to a sequence of frames containing a target, and their task was to search for the target in each frame. The sequence of target locations followed a complex pattern. The specific sample of subjects was selected to ensure that they would be sufficiently motivated and that they would have appropriate analytical and verbal skills to report whatever they experienced while participating in the task: All subjects were faculty members of a psychology department. Extensive postexperimental interviews with subjects indicated that none of them noticed anything even remotely similar to the actual nature of the manipulation (i.e., the pattern). However, the accuracy and latency of their responses indicated that, in fact, they had acquired a specific working knowledge about the pattern, and that this knowledge facilitated their performance. The results demonstrate that nonconsciously acquired knowledge can automatically be utilized to facilitate performance, without requiring conscious awareness or control over this knowledge. This phenomenon is discussed as a ubiquitous process involved in the development of both elementary and high-level cognitive skills.
... Most of these studies have used a choice reaction time paradigm. Thus, Lewicki et al. (1988) used a four-choice reaction time (RT) task during which the stimulus could appear in one of four quadrants of a computer screen on any trial. Unknown to subjects, the sequential structure of the material was manipulated by generating sequences of 5 elements according to a set of simple rules. ...
... By contrast, the last 3 elements of each sequence were determined by their predecessors. Lewicki et al. (1988) hypothesized that this difference would be reflected in response latencies to the extent that subjects are using the sequential structure to respond to successive stimuli. The results confirmed the hypothesis: A progressively widening difference between the number of fast and accurate responses elicited by predictable and unpredictable trials emerged with practice. ...
... However, lack of awareness, or inability to recall the material, does not necessarily entail that these tasks require no attentional capacity. Nissen and Bullemer (1987) demonstrated that a task similar to that used by Lewicki et al. (1988) failed to elicit performance improvements with practice when a memory-intensive secondary task was performed concurrently. More recently, A. refined this result by showing that the ability to learn sequential material under attentional distraction interacts with sequence complexity. ...
How is complex sequential material acquired, processed, and represented when there is no intention to learn? Two experiments exploring a choice reaction time task are reported. Unknown to Ss, successive stimuli followed a sequence derived from a “noisy” finite-state grammar. After considerable practice (60,000 exposures) with Experiment 1, Ss acquired a complex body of procedural knowledge about the sequential structure of the material. Experiment 2 was an attempt to identify limits on Ss ability to encode the temporal context by using more distant contingencies that spanned irrelevant material. Taken together, the results indicate that Ss become increasingly sensitive to the temporal context set by previous elements of the sequence, up to 3 elements. Responses are also affected by priming effects from recent trials. A connectionist model that incorporates sensitivity to the sequential structure and to priming effects is shown to capture key aspects of both acquisition and processing and to account for the interaction between attention and sequence structure reported by Cohen, Ivry, and Keele (1990).
... Encoding processes impose on stimuli preexisting categories (or prototypes) even if the stimuli do not match the categories very well. This process of imposing such imperfectly fitting interpretive categories has been shown in a number of studies on pattern recognition and prototype abstraction (e.g., Posner, Goldsmith, & Welton, 1967) and on person perception (e.g., Cantor & Mischel, 1979;Higgins, King, & Mavin, 1982) and, more recently, in research on the nonconscious acquisition of information about covariations and its influence on subsequent encoding processes (Lewicki, 1986a(Lewicki, , 1986bLewicki, Czyzewska, & Hoffman, 1987;Lewicki, Hill, & Bizot, 1988). ...
... This question is of importance not only for our understanding of the general nature of memory representations but also because of its far-reaching implications for the development of encoding rules: If the information about a stimulus possessing a set of characteristics is stored in the same way, regardless of whether all the characteristics were directly perceived in the outside world or only inferred in the process of encoding, then it would mean that inferential rules that control the encoding processes are capable of fabricating selfsupportive evidence. Given the fact that encoding rules develop and become stronger as a function of the amount of evidence (stimuli) interpreted as consistent with the rules (Hochberg, 1978;Lewicki, 1986aLewicki, , 1986bLewickietaL, 1987;Lewicki et al., 1988), the lack of differentiation between directly perceived (actual) and inferred elements of stimuli would imply that encoding rules may gradually develop and become stronger in a self-perpetuating manner. ...
... Nevertheless, one can still identify the existence of that specific representation by using response latency measures, which constitute a more sensitive measure of whether the relevant knowledge about the covariation is stored in memory (Lewicki, 1986b). In several experiments, we found that response latency measures allow one to identify the existence of the specific memory representations that are relevant to the newly learned covariation even if the representations are not strong enough to influence subjects' judgments (Lewicki, 1986b;Lewicki et al., 1988). For example, in one of those experiments, Lewicki (1986b) observed a pattern of reaction times that was strong and consistent (with predictions based on Glucksberg & McCloskey's 1981 two-stage model of memory retrieval), which indicates that information about a respective covariation had been acquired; however, the encoding disposition (pertaining to the covariation) was not strong enough to influence subjects' actual judgments. ...
The process of encoding new information involves the imposition of preexisting interpretive categories on newly encountered stimuli, even if the categories do not match perfectly those stimuli. We hypothesized that such encoding of stimuli as supportive of preexisting encoding dispositions may become a source of a perceiver's subjective experiences that support these dispositions. Through this nonconsciously operating mechanism, encoding rules may gradually develop in a self-perpetuating manner, even in the absence of any objectively supportive evidence. Results demonstrated this self-perpetuating process in three studies involving different stimulus materials and experimental tasks (matrix-scanning paradigm and two “intuitive judgment” tasks). The self-perpetuating development of encoding biases is discussed as one of the elementary mechanisms involved in the development of interpretive categories and other individually differentiated cognitive dispositions.
... It has been demonstrated that encoding processes impose preexisting categories (or prototypes) on stimuli even if the stimuli do not match the categories perfectly. This process has been shown in a number of studies on pattern recognition and prototype abstraction (e.g., Posner, Goldsmith, & Welton, 1967), person perception (e.g., Cantor & Mischel, 1979;Higgins, King, & Mavin, 1982;Nisbett & Wilson, 1977), and more recently in research on the acquisition of information about covariation and its influence on subsequent encoding processes (Lewicki, 1986a(Lewicki, , 1986bLewicki, Czyzewska, & Hoffman, 1987;Lewicki & Hill, 1987;Lewicki, Hill, & Bizot, 1988). ...
... In the postexperimental interviews, none of the subjects mentioned anything even close to the real nature of the manipulation (i.e., the covariation manipulated in the learning phase). This came as no surprise, as none of the subjects who participated in the previous matrix-scanning and similar matrix-location experiments (Lewicki, 1986a;Lewickietal., 1987;Lewicki et al., 1988) had discovered the covariation. Matrix scanning is a very attention-consuming task, and subjects have no spare processing resources to consciously compare the matrices. ...
... For example, previous research indicates that subjects' stable dispositions (such as the permanent accessibility of the category of threat; Lewicki, 1986a, Experiments 4.9 and 8.1) specifically influence subjects' nonconscious sensitivity to covariations that involve features relevant to the dispositions. In a recent study, the nonconscious acquisition of information about the manipulated covariation between the gender of a stimulus person and some nonsalient characteristics of its silhouette was found only in subjects with strong gender identity as measured by the Bern Sex-Role Inventory (Hill & Lewicki, 1988). Thus, processing information about covariations is likely to be not indiscriminant. ...
It was hypothesized that encoding (interpretive) biases may develop in a self-perpetuating manner through biased, self-supportive encoding (even in the absence of any objectively supportive evidence). This process was investigated in 3 experiments with different stimulus materials (matrices of digits, silhouettes of persons, descriptions of personal problems). In the learning phase of each study, Ss nonconsciously acquired some encoding bias. In the testing phase, Ss' encoding of new material was predictably biased, and, consistent with the self-perpetuation hypothesis, the strength of the bias gradually increased over the segments of the material, even though the material did not contain any evidence supportive of the bias. Given the ambiguity of many (particularly social) stimuli, the self-perpetuation process may play a ubiquitous role in the development of interpretive categories and other individually differentiated cognitive dispositions.
... One basic requirement for the employment of tiiis methodology is the identification of the type of information that has been learned. Shanks Lewicki et al. (1988). This study was criticised by Perruchet, Gallego and Savy (1990) because Lewicki et al. (1988) conducted extensive interviews that probed for knowledge of the complex rules used for the generation of the stimulus series while the response time speed-up was caused by knowledge of simple event frequencies (both studies will be presented in detail in Chapter 2). ...
... Shanks Lewicki et al. (1988). This study was criticised by Perruchet, Gallego and Savy (1990) because Lewicki et al. (1988) conducted extensive interviews that probed for knowledge of the complex rules used for the generation of the stimulus series while the response time speed-up was caused by knowledge of simple event frequencies (both studies will be presented in detail in Chapter 2). ...
... One possibility is that these instructions may have resulted in the enhanced knowledge of the sequence in the generation task. Lewicki et al. (1988) attempted to provide evidence for the existence of unconscious complex rule learning in a choice response time task. A target letter was presented in one of the four quadrants of a computer screen. ...
Past research on sequence learning shows that exposure to a structured series of events under incidental learning conditions results in a dissociation between performance measures of learning and measures of conscious memory. A criticism directed to previous studies, however, was that the performance speed-up did not always reflect the type of knowledge that was being tested by the tasks of conscious memory. Thus, any observed dissociation was due to a methodological artefact rather than the existence of two independent knowledge bases. The main aim of the experiments reported in this thesis was to identify the type of information that is expressed in performance measures of sequence learning under incidental conditions. Experiments 1 and 2 tested whether practice with a complex sequential structure leads to learning of rules or learning of instances and supported an instance-based process of learning. Experiments 3 and 4 demonstrated the presence of higher order sequential effects in a response time task that may have contaminated the response time index of learning in previous studies. Experiments 5 and 6 examined whether sequence learning is based on an associative or a chunking mechanism and supported the latter mechanism. Experiment 7 demonstrated a correspondence between response times and recognition ratings for chunks. Finally, Experiment 8 examined the effect of contextual interference and arbitrary parsing of the sequence during practice, on both response times in a transfer phase and tasks of conscious memory. Results showed that a combination of low contextual interference and unfavourable parsing slowed down response time performance during transfer but did not affect recognition memory. Results from all experiments provided useful insights into the characteristics of a learning mechanism based on chunking and were evaluated in terms of proposed models of sequence learning.
... Implicit learning is a non-conscious process by which task performance is facilitated, without the verbalized awareness of the subject. The functional significance of implicit learning is to increase processing of information to a greater extent than can be achieved through conscious functions alone (Lewicki et al., 1988;Chun and Jiang, 1998). Implicit learning is thought to engage cognitive resources and processes such as working memory (Lewicki et al., 1988;Bo et al., 2011). ...
... The functional significance of implicit learning is to increase processing of information to a greater extent than can be achieved through conscious functions alone (Lewicki et al., 1988;Chun and Jiang, 1998). Implicit learning is thought to engage cognitive resources and processes such as working memory (Lewicki et al., 1988;Bo et al., 2011). Several experimental paradigms have been used to study implicit learning, including implicit motor sequence learning (Nissen and Bullemer, 1987) and contextual cueing (Chun and Jiang, 1998), where the associations between spatial configuration and target location are learned in an incidental manner. ...
... the two target conditions during the implicit session, suggests that subjects not only detected the predictive sequence in an implicit manner, but that the predictive information provided by this sequence was also utilized implicitly, in order to facilitate processing of deterministic targets, albeit to a significantly lesser extent compared with explicit contextual processing. This is in line with evidence showing that knowledge that is acquired in a non-conscious manner can automatically be used to facilitate performance (Lewicki et al., 1988). ...
... More recently, there is a large implicit learning literature show- ing that the acquisition of various skills shows improvement over time and is typically not conscious (Reber, 1989). For example, Lewicki, Hill, and Bizot (1988) presented psychology faculty members with a task in which a complex rule specified the pre- sentation of a target letter (to one of four quadrants on a screen) and participants pressed one of four keys corresponding to the target location. With practice, the participants showed gradual improvements, as evidenced by faster reaction times. ...
... Consider also the vocalization called "motherese," in which a mother's vocalizations to her infant is characterized by slow and deliberate vocal productions with heightened pitch and exagger- ated pitch contours (Chang & Thompson, 2010). There is evidence that (even as early as 1 month), infants respond more readily to motherese, compared with more neutrally toned adult speech (Cooper & Aslin, 1994), and motherese not only has unique acoustic properties that are ideal for the infant's immature auditory system (Fernald, 1992), but it facilitates polysyllabic discrimina- tions (Karzon, 1985) and is commonplace in virtually every ex- amined culture (Falk, 2009). In simple terms, motherese may be the language equivalent of bicycle training wheels. ...
In a rooftop office, above a Minneapolis flour mill in 1943, B. F. Skinner discovered “shaping” by training a pigeon to send a small wooden ball down a miniature alley to hit a set of toy pins. Skinner recalled that the day was one of great illumination and emboldened his later suggestions that human behaviors may arise from behavior–environment interactions that are relatively malleable (selectionism) rather than arising from hypothetical inner constructs that are relatively fixed (essentialism). The present article extends selectionism to 4 current topics in psychology (personality change, implicit theories of intelligence, skill learning, and language) and highlights the advantages of selectionism, in contrast to essentialism.
... Further, even though the rules of the artificial grammar can be applied under new conditions, participants are typically unable to verbalize what the rules are (e.g., Reber, 1967Reber, , 1989. This type of statistical learning has been demonstrated in a variety of situations, including language learning, categorization, sequence/probability learning, production/economic systems, and location prediction (e.g., Reber, 1967;Fried & Holyoak, 1984;Cleeremans & McClelland, 1991;Broadbent & Aston, 1978;and Lewicki, Hill, & Bizot, 1988;respectively). While it is true that explicit instruction on word usage and grammar are helpful, much of the learning of these rules could be accomplished implicitly. ...
... Users can learn about interactions in a variety of unexpected situations, expending little to no effort in the process. In addition, users can learn about regularities in the environment but have no conscious access to that information, even though they can apply the knowledge appropriately (e.g., Broadbent & Aston, 1978;Cleeremans & McClelland, 1990;Fried & Holyoak, 1984;Lewicki, Hill, & Bizot, 1988;Reber, 1967). In some regards, these types of learning are incredibly valuable because they support effective interactions. ...
... First, much of the current interest and debate in sequence learning using the SRT task has centered around the implicit learning-explicit learning distinction (e.g., Clegg, DiGirolamo, & Keele, 1998;Nissen & Bullemer, 1987;Perruchet & Amorim, 1992;Shanks & St. John, 1994;Willingham, Greenley, & Bardona, 1993). Although some researchers have reported that normal and amnesic participants are unaware of the invariant pattern (e.g., Lewicki, Hill, & Bizot, 1988;Nissen & Bullemer, 1987), some participants can become aware of the repeating pattern (Cleeremans & McClelland, 1991;Nissen & Bullemer, 1987;Perruchet & Amorim, 1992), leading to the current debate about whether this type of learning is really implicit (Shanks & St. John, 1994). ...
... Implicit sequence learning has previously been studied using the SRT task (Lewicki et al., 1988;Mayr, 1996;Nissen & Bullemer, 1987;Willingham, Nissen, & Bullemer, 1989). Significant differences exist between the temporal contextual cuing task and the SRT task. ...
Previous research has shown how spatial attention is guided to a target location, but little is understood about how attention is allocated to an event in time. The authors introduce a paradigm to manipulate the sequential structure of visual events independent of responses. They asked whether this temporal context could be implicitly learned and used to guide attention to a relative point in time or location, or both, in space. Experiments show that sequentially structured event durations, event identities, and spatiotemporal event sequences can guide attention to a point in time as well as to a target event's identity and location. Cuing was found to rely heavily on the element immediately preceding the target, although cuing from earlier items also was evident. Learning was implicit in all cases. These results show that the sequential structure of the visual world plays an important role in guiding visual attention to target events.
... One key advantage of incidental learning procedures is that they produce very rapid learning, appearing after only a few repetitions of each stimulus pairing (in some cases, after a single presentation; Lewicki, 1985Lewicki, , 1986Lewicki et al., 1992). This has been observed in sequence learning (Nissen & Bullemer, 1987), the Hebb digits task (Mckelvie, 1987), hidden covariation detection (Lewicki et al., 1988), and the colour-word contingency learning task (Lin & MacLeod, 2018;Schmidt et al., 2010;Schmidt & De Houwer, 2016; for reviews, see ...
Absolute pitch (AP) is the ability to identify and name an isolated tone by ear. The review begins with a brief overview of AP and the seeming bizarreness of its rarity. I then consider some reasons why AP learning may be inherently more difficult than typically assumed. First, the simplicity of what needs to be learned could be overstated if not taking into consideration the diversity of auditory stimuli (e.g., varying in timbre and octave) within each pitch class. A further reason for the rarity of AP could simply be the lack of extensive appropriate training. I then discuss implicit AP, which seems to be possessed by most, even non-musicians. Implicit AP refers to the ability to identify pitches absolutely at a more unconscious level but the inability to verbally label them. The review then considers growing evidence against the notion that AP is essentially unlearnable without the right genetic endowments and/or early music education. Procedures that might inhibit or facilitate AP learning are discussed. Incidental (i.e., non-intentional) learning may be particularly effective in training this difficult-to-acquire skill. A new multifactorial perspective of AP acquisition is presented along with some open questions for future research.
... In the present study, we aimed to test for a context-specific and rapid interaction of habitual and goal-directed behaviour. To do this, we used a revised and refined variant of the Action Sequence Task (AST), which we have used previously (Frölich et al., 2023), and which is built on the serial reaction time task (Robertson, 2007;Lewicki et al., 1988;Nissen and Bullemer, 1987). In the AST, participants extensively repeat an action sequence under time pressure, since participants are instructed to respond within a tight deadline of a few hundred milliseconds (e.g., 600ms). ...
Habits are an important aspect of human behaviour. Habits are reflexive, inflexible, and fast, in contrast to goal-directed behaviour which is reflective, flexible, and slow. Current theories assume that habits and goal-directed actions are controlled by two separate but interacting systems. However, it is not clear how these two systems interact when actions must be made under time pressure. Here we use a task which induces habitual behaviour in the form of action sequences, while concurrently requiring participants to perform goal-directed actions that are either congruent or incongruent with the habit. This task thus allows for concurrent measurement of both goal-directed and habitual behaviour, thereby permitting a nuanced analysis of the interaction between these two control modes. Using computational modelling, we find that models where the influence of the habit depends on the number of repetitions, explain participant behaviour better than models that assume the habit to be constant. We further show that roughly half of the participants modulate their use of the habit depending on the context, i.e. they selectively inhibit the habit's influence when it is incongruent to their explicit goals, but not when both are congruent and the influence of the habit is adaptive. Additional drift-diffusion modelling of choice and reaction time data shows that proactive control is mobilized in the congruent task context whereas reactive control is mobilized in the incongruent task context. The present study thus indicates that habitual control is context-dependent and can be adaptively deployed via proactive and reactive control, rather than being a fixed or isolated mechanism.
... Related to this and most importantly for the present purposes, contingency learning occurs very rapidly and is already observed early in the experiment, for instance, with an effect already present and significant with the first block of 18 to 48 trials (Lin & MacLeod, 2018;Schmidt et al., 2010, Schmidt & De Houwer, 2016. A wide range of similar laboratory tasks exist (e.g., Lewicki et al., 1988), but some work has applied a similar logic to music-related skills, such as note position identification and execution, a component of sight-reading Schmidt et al., 2023). Thus, incidental learning procedures seem well suited for rapidly automatizing complex skills. ...
Absolute pitch is the ability to automatically identify and name the pitches of tones without the help of a reference tone. Contrary to the common idea that absolute pitch is almost impossible to acquire after a critical period, some research suggests possible improvements in pitch identification in adulthood. Recently, using a simple incidental contingency learning approach, rapid and robust learning of associations between pitches and note names was observed. In the current work, we explored the item specificity of this learning. In our new task, we used three types of instrument tones (i.e., three timbres). For two timbres, contingencies between tones and notes names were directly manipulated. We then tested whether learning transferred (generalized) to tones from a third timbre, for which contingencies were not directly manipulated. Our results indicate clear automatic response biases in response times due to the learned contingencies that transferred from trained to untrained tones. Explicit identification of tones also increased at post-test for both trained and untrained tones. These results demonstrate that learning is not purely instrument specific and that learning of the pitch class is observed. Our results also shed light on the possible underlying representations that participants learn in our paradigm.
... In covariation learning, individuals are exposed to a simple, nonsalient covariation between stimuli or stimulus features over a large number of trials. Because the covariation pattern is not salient, participants are unable to describe the pattern verbally (Hill, Lewicki, Czyzewska, & Boss, 1989;Lewicki, 1986aLewicki, , 1986bLewicki, Czyzewska, & Hoffman, 1987;Lewicki, Hill, & Bizot, 1988;Lewicki, Hill, & Sasaki, 1989). In the matrix-scanning covariation design used in this study, the participants' task was to detect the location of a target, the number 6, in a visual display or matrix of digits and to respond by pushing a corresponding button (see Figure 1). ...
This study suggests that perceptually based implicit learning may either be preserved following a severe closed-head injury (CHI) or recover within the 1st year. Nineteen severe CHI patients and 19 controls searched visual matrices and indicated the quadrant location of a target. Participants were exposed to the following covariation pattern: AAAABAAA. For Covariation A blocks, the matrices systematically co-occurred with a unique location of the target. This relationship was altered for the B block. Despite CHI participants' overall slower response times (RTs), both groups demonstrated the expected decline in RTs across the first 4 Covariation A blocks followed by an increase when the covariation changed. Both groups also exhibited retention of their learning after a 20-min delay. Explicit knowledge tests indicated that participants lacked awareness for the covariation.
... The series of locations follows a regularity that is not revealed to participants. Although in most studies this series of locations is structured to follow a fixed and repeating sequence (e.g., Nissen & Bullemer, 1987), some authors have used sequential mate-rial generated on the basis of a complex set of rules from which one can produce several alternative deterministic sequences (e.g., Lewicki, Hill, & Bizot, 1988;Stadler, 1989) or have based the sequence on the output of probabilistic and noisy, finite-state grammars (Cleeremans & McClelland, 1991;Jimenez et al., 1996a). In general, the results obtained in each version of this paradigm have uniformly shown that participants' performance with the SRT task expresses sensitivity to the sequential constraints regardless of the nature of the generation rules, and that this sensitivity is not necessarily accompanied by conscious awareness of the relevant sequential constraints when assessed by a comparable direct measure. ...
The role of attention in implicit sequence learning was investigated in 3 experiments in which participants were presented with a serial reaction time (SRT) task under single- or dual-task conditions. Unlike previous studies using this paradigm, these experiments included only probabilistic sequences of locations and arranged a counting task performed on the same stimulus on which the SRT task was being carried out. Another sequential contingency was also arranged between the dimension to be counted and the location of the next stimulus. Results indicate that the division of attention barely affected learning but that selective attention to the predictive dimensions was necessary to learn about the relation between these dimensions and the predicted one. These results are consistent with a theory of implicit sequence learning that considers this learning as the result of an automatic associative process running independently of attentional load, but that would associate only those events that are held simultaneously in working memory.
... Moreover, this inability to articulate is not simply due to our inability to assign specific and precise word-labels to something that we know intuitively. We really do not know about the learned relations between the relevant variables, in the sense that we cannot explain them no matter how many words we would be allowed to use (Lewicki, 1982(Lewicki, , 1985(Lewicki, , 1986a(Lewicki, , 1986bLewicki & Hill, 1987, 1989Lewicki, Hill, & Bizot, 1988;Lewicki, Hill, & Czyzewska, 1992, 1994. For example, if a visitor from another world would ask us to teach him or her how we recognize objects in three-dimensional space as being rectangular and how we know which corner of the object is closest to our eyes (see Figure 2), we would not even know where to begin the requested lesson. ...
H. Hendrickx, J. De Houwer, F. Baeyens, P. Eelen, and E. Van Avermaet (1997) reported a series of (mostly unsuccessful) studies on nonconscious hidden covariation detection (HCD); for example, they reported that out of 3 attempts to replicate P. Lewicki et al.’s studies, only 1 produced the expected results. They concluded that HCD may be not as general and robust as the previous research suggested, and they considered boundary conditions. In this article, the authors discuss a number of weaknesses of H. Hendrickx et al.’s experiments (and systematic deviations from the original methodology) that are potentially responsible for the lack of the expected results and discuss missing facts in their arguments (e.g., they failed to mention any published replications of the HCD studies from other than the present authors’ laboratories). It is argued that when all evidence is considered, the proper conclusion is that nonconscious processing of covariations is not only general and robust but also a ubiquitous phenomenon mediating a variety of processes of acquisition of information.
... Yet subjects still used this information to solve problems. Similarly, Lewicki, Hill, and Bizot (1988) showed that although unconsciously acquired knowledge can facilitate performance, it cannot always be articulated. Hence, if people will not tally or cannot explicate their forecasting strategies, they cannot reconstruct them. ...
This review begins with a discussion of Meehl's (1957) query regarding when to use one's head (i.e., intuition) instead of the formula (i.e., statistical or mechanical procedure) for clinical prediction. It then describes the controversy that ensued and analyzes the complexity and contemporary relevance of the question itself. Going beyond clinical inference, it identifies select cognitive biases and constraints that cause decision errors, and proposes remedial correctives. Given that the evidence shows cognition to be flawed, the article discusses the linear regression, Bayesian, signal detection, and computer approaches as possible decision aids. Their cost–benefit trade-offs, when used either alone or as complements to one another, are examined and evaluated. The critique concludes with a note of cautious optimism regarding the formula's future role as a decision aid and offers several interim solutions.
... Studies of the depth of CEOs' functional experience have focused on the length of tenure and the hierarchical structure of political connections. Tenure-based studies mainly consider the effective accumulation of relevant expertise gained by managers as tenure increases, including the ability to be more thoughtful in strategy formulation and implementation [33], the ability to achieve implicit learning through a better understanding of practices and existing knowledge [34], and the ability to learn experientially through a combination of resources [35]. All three modes may enable firms to achieve better performance returns. ...
The impact of a chief executive officer’s (CEO’s) functional experience on firm performance has gained the attention of many scholars. However, the measurement of functional experience is rarely disclosed in the public database. Few studies have been conducted on the comprehensive functional experience of CEOs. This paper used the upper echelons theory and obtained deep-level curricula vitae (CVs) data through the named entity recognition technique. First, we mined 15 consecutive years of CEOs’ CVs from 2006 to 2020 from Chinese listed companies. Second, we extracted information throughout their careers and automatically classified their functional hierarchy. Finally, we constructed breadth (functional breadth: functional experience richness) and depth (functional depth: average tenure and the hierarchy of function) for empirical analysis. We found that a CEO’s breadth is significantly negatively related to firm performance, and the quadratic term is significantly positive. A CEO’s depth is significantly positively related to firm performance, and the quadratic term is significantly negative. The research results indicate a u-shaped relationship between a CEO’s breadth and firm performance and an inverted u-shaped relationship between their depth and firm performance. The study’s findings extend the literature on factors influencing firm performance and CEOs’ functional experience. The study expands from the horizontal macro to the vertical micro level, providing new evidence to support the recruitment and selection of high-level corporate talent.
... To investigate the interaction between habitual and goaldirected behavior with purely trial-based goal-directed value processing under time pressure, we developed a novel paradigm, which we call the Action-Sequence Task (AST). In the AST, participants implicitly learn an action sequence similar to the so-called serial reaction time task (SRTT) (Nissen and Bullemer, 1987;Lewicki et al., 1988;Robertson, 2007), while occasionally and probabilistically being prompted to act in accordance with an explicitly instructed goal-directed task, in the presence of a demanding time limit. In choice trials of this goal-directed task, participants are asked to quickly choose one of two different response options. ...
Human behavior consists in large parts of action sequences that are often repeated in mostly the same way. Through extensive repetition, sequential responses become automatic or habitual, but our environment often confronts us with events to which we have to react flexibly and in a goal-directed manner. To assess how implicitly learned action sequences interfere with goal-directed control, we developed a novel behavioral paradigm in which we combined action sequence learning through repetition with a goal-directed task component. So-called dual-target trials require the goal-directed selection of the response with the highest reward probability in a fast succession of trials with short response deadlines. Importantly, the response primed by the learned action sequence is sometimes different from that required by the goal-directed task. As expected, we found that participants learned the action sequence through repetition, as evidenced by reduced reaction times (RT) and error rates (ER), while still acting in a goal-directed manner in dual-target trials. Specifically, we found that the learned action sequence biased choices in the goal-directed task toward the sequential response, and this effect was more pronounced the better individuals had learned the sequence. Our novel task may help shed light on the acquisition of automatic behavioral patterns and habits through extensive repetition, allows to assess positive features of habitual behavior (e.g., increased response speed and reduced error rates), and importantly also the interaction of habitual and goal-directed behaviors under time pressure.
... To investigate the interaction between habitual and goaldirected behavior with purely trial-based goal-directed value processing under time pressure, we developed a novel paradigm, which we call the Action-Sequence Task (AST). In the AST, participants implicitly learn an action sequence similar to the so-called serial reaction time task (SRTT) (Nissen and Bullemer, 1987;Lewicki et al., 1988;Robertson, 2007), while occasionally and probabilistically being prompted to act in accordance with an explicitly instructed goal-directed task, in the presence of a demanding time limit. In choice trials of this goal-directed task, participants are asked to quickly choose one of two different response options. ...
Human behaviour consists in large parts of action sequences that are often repeated in mostly the same way. Through extensive repetition, sequential responses become automatic or habitual, but our environment often confronts us with events to which we have to react flexibly and in a goal-directed manner. To assess how implicitly learned action sequences interfere with goal-directed control, we developed a novel behavioural paradigm in which we combined action sequence learning through repetition with a goal-directed task component. So-called dual-target trials require the goal-directed selection of the response with the highest reward-probability in a fast succession of trials with short response deadlines. Importantly, the response primed by the learned action sequence is sometimes different from that required by the goal-directed task. As expected, we found that participants learned the action sequence through repetition, as evidenced by reduced reaction times and error rates, while still acting in a goal-directed manner in dual target trials. Specifically, we found that the learned action sequence biased choices in the goal-directed task towards the sequential response, and this effect was more pronounced the better individuals had learned the sequence. Our novel task may help shed light on the acquisition of automatic behavioural patterns and habits through extensive repetition, allows to assess positive features of habitual behaviour (e.g. increased response speed and reduced error rates), and importantly also the interaction of habitual and goal-directed behaviours under time pressure.
... Implicit sequence learning describes the acquisition of skills and knowledge, generated by repeatedly executing or processing serially ordered movements or percepts (e.g., Fiser & Aslin, 2002;Isbilen et al., 2020;Nissen & Bullemer, 1987;Saffran et al., 1997). The learning is implicit since the performer develops no reportable awareness of the dependencies between sequence elements (Cleeremans et al., 1998;Lewicki et al., 1988). Implicit sequence learning is fundamental to a range of human abilities (e.g., motor function, language, social interaction) (Clegg et al., 1998;Hamrick et al., 2018) and is impaired in a number of neurodevelopmental, neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders (Clark & Lum, 2017). ...
Implicit sequence learning describes the acquisition of serially ordered movements and sequentially structured cognitive information, that occurs without awareness. Theta, alpha and beta cortical oscillations are present during implicit motor sequence learning, but their role in this process is unclear. The current study addressed this gap in the literature. A total of 50 healthy adults aged between 19 and 37 years participated in the study. Implicit motor sequence learning was examined using the Serial Reaction Time task where participants unknowingly repeat a sequence of finger movements in response to a visual stimulus. Sequence learning was examined by comparing reaction times and oscillatory power between sequence trials and a set of control trials comprising random stimulus presentations. Electroencephalography was recorded as participants completed the task. Analyses of the behavioral data revealed participants learnt the sequence. Analyses of oscillatory activity, using permutation testing, revealed sequence learning was associated with a decrease in theta band (4–7 Hz) power recorded over frontal and central electrode sites. Sequence learning effects were not observed in the alpha (7–12 Hz) or beta bands (12–20 Hz). Even though alpha and beta power modulations have long been associated with executing a motor response, it seems theta power is a correlate of sequence learning in the manual domain. Theta power modulations on the serial reaction time task may reflect disengagement of attentional resources, either promoting or occurring as a consequence of implicit motor sequence learning Cortical oscillations are present during implicit motor sequence learning, but their role in this process is unclear. In this study we found that implicit motor sequence learning modulated theta power, but not alpha or beta. These results suggest disengaging theta regulated attentional processes could be a correlate of implicit learning.
... Implicit knowledge acquisition is regarded as a foundational process which develops "abstract and tacit knowledge of all kinds" [12]. Moreover, researchers have supported the notion that this form of learning allows for more information to be absorbed by the learner [13]. ...
A serious tabletop game called “Gr8 Success!” has been developed for an undergraduate Communication skills module at the North-West University (NWU) in South Africa. This paper presents the details of the development process and discusses the first play tested prototype of the serious game in question. The game is described in the context of a conceptual framework being developed by researchers at the Serious Game Institute of South Africa (SGI-SA).
... In the context of medical decisionmaking, Quirk (2006) mentions the essential relationship between metacognition and intuition and highlights the role of metacognitive strategies in developing intuitive powers. He highlights one study by Lewicki et al. (1988), who demonstrated the ability of intuition to handle complex problem-solving rules and finally raised the possibility "that intuition incorporates elements of metacognition at the unconscious level" (p. 41). ...
The growing importance of metacognition has opened a broad avenue of research in decision-making literature. Nevertheless, most studies on metacognition have primarily focused on decision-making ability or processes, largely ignoring the role of individual differences. The present study aims at addressing this gap by examining the role of metacognition (knowledge about cognition and regulation of cognition) on the various decision-making styles: rational, intuitive, dependent, avoidant and spontaneous. Data collected from 139 MBA students enumerate the importance of knowledge about cognition and regulation of cognition in explaining the decision-making styles. While knowledge about cognition was positively associated with intuitive and spontaneous decision-making styles, regulation of cognition emerged to be positively related to rational decision-making style. Both knowledge and regulation of cognition could explain these decision-making styles over and above the demographic variables of age, gender and work experience. The maladaptive decision styles of dependent and avoidant decision-making could neither be explained by knowledge about cognition nor regulation of cognition.
... There have been several methods in order to measure whether the second language learners have had both implicit and explicit Knowledge. The general methods should prompt the second language learners to verbalize any rules or patterns they might have noticed while performing the experimental tasks (Lewicki, Hill, & Bizot, 1988;Payne, 1994, Rebuschat, 2013. ...
This research aims to investigate the role of implicit and/or explicit knowledge in the production of grammatical errors in academic texts. Explicit knowledge is defined as conscious and declarative knowledge used to monitor language production while implicit knowledge is defined as an intuitive knowledge which enables the second language learners to use the language spontaneously without any reflection (Zhang, 2015). The reasons why this research is conducted is due to the fact that the students are still producing errors even though they have learnt English since elementary school. The data is gained from the academic text written down by fifteen English department students studying in a university in Jakarta. It is analyzed by using two different measurements: (1) Delayed Grammatical Judgment Tests (GJT), and (2) Interview including Metalingual Comment to investigate the role of explicit knowledge in the production of grammatical errors. The other two measurements are also used; they are (1) Timed Grammaticality Judgment Test (TGJT), and (2) Oral Production Test (OPT) to investigate the role of implicit knowledge. The results show that 19.2% of grammatical errors are produced due to the implicit knowledge and 80.8% is due to explicit knowledge. Since the explicit knowledge plays an important role in producing the grammatical errors, it can be concluded that teaching English grammar for university students is still important. If possible, the English Grammar lessons should be given more rooms in the overall curriculum
... The current study compared performance across the SRT and the ASRT tasks in an effort to shed light on underlying learning mechanisms. Researchers (e.g., Lewicki et al., 1988;Ullman, 2004) have suggested that SL relies on the procedural memory system, as opposed to declarative memory. Hence, SL should be less dependent on general cognitive abilities, such as nonverbal intelligence or working memory capacity, whereas explicit analytical problem solving should be more dependent on these abilities (Gebauer & Mackintosh, 2007;Reber, Walkenfeld, & Hernstadt, 1991). ...
The Serial Reaction Time (SRT) and the Alternating Serial Reaction Time (ASRT) tasks are widely used assessments of sequence learning (SL) wherein repetitive patterning of visual-spatial elements leads participants to anticipate locations of subsequent elements in the series. In the SRT task, the predictive dependencies involve adjacent elements whereas in the ASRT task they involve nonadjacent elements, due to the insertion of random elements into the pattern. We tested college students (N = 74) to explore whether the SRT and the ASRT tasks relied on similar underlying learning mechanisms while also examining associations between task performance and nonverbal fluid intelligence, visual-spatial working memory, and sentence processing ability. There was no correlation in performance across the two SL tasks (r =-.18), suggesting distinct learning mechanisms. Whereas 95.9% of participants demonstrated sequence-specific learning in the SRT task, only 64.9% demonstrated learning in the ASRT task. SL in the ASRT but not the SRT task was associated with nonverbal intelligence, visual-spatial working memory, and sentence comprehension. The observed results run counter to the claim that the ASRT relies only on implicit learning mechanisms presumed to be unrelated to executive functioning or general intelligence.
... Bowers (1984) wurde von Hammond et al. (1987) unterstützt, die zeigten, dass bei bestimmten Aufgaben, wenn die Testpersonen in einem Bereich getestet werden, in dem sie einschlägige Erfahrung haben, ein nicht-analytischer oder intuitiver Ansatz eine bessere Leistung erbringt als die Verwendung einer formalen analytischen Methode. Lewicki et al. (1988) zeigten, dass Testpersonen lernten, eine komplex gemusterte Sequenz vorherzusagen, ohne sich der Regeln des Musters bewusst zu sein. Versuche einer bewussten Analyse der Sequenz waren fruchtlos, da die dem Muster zugrundeliegenden Faktoren sehr komplex waren. ...
In der deutschen Literatur wird das Thema Intuition noch nicht differenziert in seinen wichtigen Facetten betrachtet.
Bislang wird Intuition vornehmlich auf Basis der Arbeiten von Prof. Gigerenzer, als Erfahrungsintuition bzw. heuristische Entscheidungen auf Basis sog. Daumenregeln beschrieben. Amerikanische Forschungsarbeiten werden bislang weniger
berücksichtigt. Häufig wird unter Intuition das sog., unbegründete Bauchgefühl untersucht (Prof. Klein). Diese Arbeiten gehen sogar soweit, dass antitipatorische Entscheidungen einbezogen werden (Dr. Radin). Daher soll in dieser Studie die Intuition dreigeteilt untersucht werden, um auch die wirklich unbewussten, intuitiven Entscheidungen einzubeziehen. Dieser Ansatz ist besonders innovativ, weil zum Thema Intuition bisher nur Studien auf Basis von Einzeltheorien im Vergleich zur Rationalität vorliegen. In diesem
Forschungsprojekt sollen vier wichtige, unterschiedliche Entscheidungsgrundlagen (RHIBA) erstmals zusammenhängend im Vergleich erforscht werden:
(R) Rationale, kognitive Entscheidungsfindung,
(H) Heuristische Entscheidungen („Faustregeln“),
(I) Intuitive Entscheidungen bzw. das sog. Bauchgefühl oder (P) die unbegründete
Entscheidung
(A) Antizipation) RHIA. Das Fehlen einer solchen zusammenhängenden Untersuchung mag in der Komplexität des Versuchsaufbaus liegen. Für die Forschung und insbesondere die Entwicklung von Anwendungsfeldern wäre das Gelingen eines solchen Prototypens von entscheidender Bedeutung.
... In addition to many studies revealing effects of exposure on accuracy and processing of stimuli across an experimental session, research has also focused on how aligning or convergent co-occurrences in the input can lead to nonconscious learning of patterns (e.g., Lewicki, Hill, & Bizot, 1988). For example, work in mathematical problem solving has shown both rapid learning effects with difficult word problems (Christianson, Mestre, & Luke, 2012) and facilitatory effects of semantic cues (namely the congruence of the semantic relationship between two elements in the representative equation and the mathematical function of that equation) on learning to correctly identify mathematical models from word problems (Martin & Bassok, 2005). ...
Previous work has ostensibly shown that readers rapidly adapt to less predictable ambiguity resolutions after repeated exposure to unbalanced statistical input (e.g., a high number of reduced relative-clause garden-path sentences), and that these readers grow to disfavor the a priori more frequent (e.g. main verb) resolution after exposure (Fine, Jaeger, Farmer, & Qian, 2013). However, recent work has failed to replicate effects indicating a penalty for the a priori preferred, more frequent continuation, despite finding a speedup in syntactic repair times after initial exposure to the dispreferred, infrequent structure (Harrington Stack, James, & Watson, 2018). The current study reports three self-paced reading experiments that test whether co-occurring cues (explicit comprehension questions, preceding semantic cues, and font color) help facilitate adaptation to reduced relative/main verb garden-path sentences. Results suggest that readers do not overcome preexisting expectation biases by rapidly adapting to statistically novel linguistic contexts even with convergent probabilistic cues. An emphasis is placed on the difference between syntactic satiation effects and expectation adaptation, the latter of which we argue can only be determined through a penalty for an a priori preferred resolution after repeated exposure to its a priori less-preferred counterpart.
... bspw. Frensch & Miner, 1994;Lewicki, Czyzewska & Hoffman, 1987;Lewicki, Hill & Bizot, 1988;Nissen & Bullemer, 1987), bei dem Vpn auf Ereignisabfolgen zu reagieren haben, wird von impli¬ zitem Lernen gesprochen, wenn bei regelgesteuerter Darbietung von Ereig¬ nissequenzen ein im Vergleich zur zufallsgesteuerten Darbietung beschleu¬ nigtes Antwortverhalten feststellbar ist, ohne dass die Vpn die zugrunde lie¬ gende Regel formulieren könnten. ...
Im Anschluss an eine Bestimmung der Begriffe des impliziten Lernens und Wissens und einen Aufriss ihrer didaktischen Bedeutung werden wesentliche Untersuchungsparadigmen und Befunde der empirischen Erforschung impliziter Lernprozesse vorgestellt. In der Folge wird der facettenreiche Begriff des impliziten Lernens eingeführt, der sich aus den Arbeiten des Wissenstheoretikers Michael Polanyi ergibt. Dabei wird vor allem auf die Grenzen der Explikation impliziten Wissens eingegangen. Diese Betrachtungen verlagern das didaktische Interesse vom Lernen in unterrichtsähnlichen Situationen auf ein Lernen durch Erfahrung und vom Lernen mit entpersonalisierten Medien der Wissensbewahrung auf ein Lernen im face-to-face-Kontakt zwischen Experten und Novizen. Darüberhinaus bleiben die Implikationen “impliziten Lernens” in dem Maße jedoch unklar, in dem ungeklärt ist, wie Austauschbeziehungen zwischen bewussten und unbewussten Formen der Informationsverarbeitung sowie ein Oszillieren zwischen methodenbewusstem und intuitivem Handeln psychologisch zu modellieren und didaktisch zu gestalten sind. Dies betrifft unter anderem Fragen der Makro- und Mikrostrukturierung von Lehr-Lern-Prozessen und das Problem der Ausbalanzierung kontrollierter Problemlöse- und Abstraktionsprozesse einerseits und impliziter Lernprozesse andererseits.
... However, this is a real interpretation of vernacular housing, and the Turkish public seems to be genuinely fond of the feature simply because it feels familiar. In fact, according to Lewicki, et al. (1988), through repeated encounters over time with different (or similar) examples, a predominantly non-conscious learning process may start to take place. On the basis of this process, the individual constructs a mental representation of these regularities together with the ranges of values typically associated with such attributes and relationships (Purcell and Nasar, 1992). ...
This study aims to discover the user satisfaction concerning curved areas in the main living rooms of apartment housing. For this purpose, a total of three apartment buildings that have differently scaled and differently located curvilinear forms in the main living room and that are occupied by upper-middle socioeconomic status dwellers from three suburban sites in Ankara, Turkey, which were previously threatened with squatter housing, have been studied. The use of the space, the users' perception of the curved form, and the way it has been decorated and used have been examined with the help of a detailed questionnaire. The aim of the study is to question the functionality of such curved areas, which differed in scale and location. It is assumed that problems would occur related to the size of the curved areas. According to the results, most of the users believed that the curved area was aesthetically pleasing. On the other hand, complaints also varied depending on the size and usage patterns of the curved area. Compared to female respondents, male respondents found the three different types of curved areas more favorable. Additionally, older respondents gave less favorable ratings than younger respondents.
... Thus, it can be said that the antiquity of reciprocity among employees lead to engage an employee in KW behaviours. Therefore, when an employee requests knowledge as a part of social exchange and perceives negative behaviour like withholding from the actor or co-worker, then he or she develops an unreceptive feeling of distrust, i.e., a presence of trepidation and skepticism on other and/or a sensation that the other may harm him or her (Govier, 1994;Lewicki et al., 1988). Interpersonal distrust may motivate negative norm of reciprocity and ineffective social exchanges (Blau, 1964), affect tolerability of any behaviours (Seiter et al., 2002) in harmonious relationship with negative return and as such, reciprocate employees' KW behaviours (Connelly et al., 2012). ...
Both academia and corporate concerns consider the importance of knowledge sharing between organisational members because, the appropriate sharing of knowledge is crucial to be creative and spread the innovation within an organisation. This paper links knowledge sharing (KS) with knowledge withholding (KW), which is meant to interrupt this transfer and also different from related concepts like knowledge barriers, deception, aggression etc. Firstly, this study suggests KS and KW are distinct and independent connected with Herzberg's two-factor theory. Secondly, KW, which has not rightly meant in courtesy of KS in earlier studies, is defined as a shadowy barrier. Thirdly, this shadowy term is classified along with its nature and appearances. Lastly, we recommend that in dyadic relations, KW activates a reciprocal psychological distrust loop that hamper spreading of innovation linking with social exchange theory and the norm of reciprocity. Future research areas are also discussed with theoretical and practical implications.
... Ericsson & Charness, 1994), implicit learning from developing a better understanding of tacit routines and knowledge (cf. Lewicki, Hill, & Bizot, 1988), and experiential learning through experimenting with resource combinations (cf. Armstrong & Mahmud, 2008). ...
Although more generalist CEOs command a significant pay premium and are known for initiating a variety of strategic changes, whether their sought-after experience is associated with higher firm performance remains unexplored. Drawing on instrumental leadership and domain expertise frameworks, we propose a negative association between more generalist CEO experience (across different industries or firms) and firm performance, but one that is alleviated by longer tenure. Based on a sample of 16,158 CEO-firm-year observations from 2243 firms, we find support for a negative association between more generalist CEO experience and firm performance, which is alleviated with longer CEO tenure. These preliminary results have implications for the increasingly common practice of seeking to hire more generalist CEOs in an effort to improve firm performance.
... The recommendations from the literature paint a complicated picture. Some researchers have found that intuitive processing led to superior performance even in a task environment with very complex variable relationships (Lewicki, Czyzewska, & Hoffman, 1987;Lewicki, Hill, & Bizot, 1988;Lewicki, Hill, & Czyzewska, 1992). Other researchers have found that intuition leads to flawed judgments, such as imperfectly assessing covariation (Arkes, 1981(Arkes, , 1991Arkes et al., 1986). ...
Accountability is often presented as a panacea for behavioral ailments. This one-size-fits-all approach to a multi-dimensional construct ignores a key component of the effectiveness of accountability systems: situational context. Situational contexts such as highly stochastic environments (e.g., financial markets, world politics) and politically-charged domains (e.g., national security decision-making, domestic policy) form accountability boundary conditions, beyond which previous experimental effects may not generalize. In a series of studies, I explore the relatively under-explored frontiers of accountability effects, including those that apply to highly stochastic environments; politically-charged outcomes, where the tendency towards motivated reasoning dominates; and rapidly evolving states of information, where one’s ability to update one’s beliefs has serious implications for the quality of one’s judgments and decisions. In this series of studies, I find that accountability effects only appeared under certain conditions. In general, holding people accountable for their judgments did not improve performance on highly stochastic or politically-charged tasks—in fact, it sometimes made performance worse. However, certain types of accountability were able to boost performance in some contexts. These studies demonstrate the value of incorporating situational context into accountability experiments.
... The other possible condition in which a person might predict the appearance of a relevant event is a repetitive and fixed order of target stimuli presentations; this is referred to as implicit learning (Cleeremans, Destrebecqz, & Boyer, 1998;Lewicki, Hill, & Bizot, 1988;Nissen & Bullemer, 1987;Reber, 1993). Nissen and Bullemer (1987) created a popular method to study implicit sequence learning called the serial reaction time (SRT) task. ...
The anticipation of future events based on a background experience is one of the main components of any goal‐directed behavior. Anticipatory attention can be either voluntary (explicit) or involuntary (implicit). We presumed that these two types of anticipatory attention differed in terms of cortical functional organization. We examined this assumption with an experimental model consisting of three experimental sessions (cued attention, implicit learning, and baseline) that were equal in terms of stimuli, motor responses, and cognitive task. Participants were asked to discriminate the temporal order of stimuli within a pair presented in either the visual or auditory sensory modality. Prestimulus functional connectivity was assessed via alpha‐band coherence computed in the source space for preselected regions of interests. Functional links between the cortices of the frontoparietal control system increased during the cued attention condition and did not increase during the implicit anticipation condition. The buildup of implicit anticipation was accompanied by the strengthening of functional links between the intraparietal, ventral premotor, and presupplementary motor areas. It was discovered that both cued and implicit types of anticipation were underlain by functional modality‐specific cortical links.
... The portions of the sequence that led to faster RTs in the implicit learning measure were the same chunks that were available to declarative memory in a post-task free generation test. Similarly, Perruchet, Gallego, and Savy (1990) provided an alternative explanation for the faster RTs to transitions that conformed to a complex second order conditional sequence on a serial reaction time task (Lewicki, Hill, & Bizot, 1988), since participants were shown to have explicit knowledge that the target in this task moved through all possible locations before returning to previous ones. This knowledge was sufficient to explain the improvement in RTs that had previously been ascribed to implicit learning of the complex sequence. ...
Impaired procedural learning has been suggested as a possible cause of developmental language disorder and dyslexia (Nicolson & Fawcett, 2007; Ullman & Pierpont, 2005). However, studies investigating this hypothesis have so far delivered inconsistent results. These studies typically use extreme group designs, frequently with small sample sizes and measures of procedural learning with unreported reliability. This thesis first used a meta-analysis to examine the existing evidence for a procedural deficit in language disorders. The experimental studies then took a different approach to previous studies, using a concurrent correlational design to test large samples of children unselected for ability on a wide range of implicit (serial reaction time, Hebb serial learning, contextual cueing and probabilistic category learning) and declarative learning tasks and literacy, language and arithmetic attainment measures. The reliability of the tasks was also carefully assessed. A final study explored the hypothesis from an extreme group design perspective, comparing a typically developing sample with a group of dyslexic children matched for reading ability. None of the studies found evidence of a relationship between procedural learning and language-related abilities. By contrast, a relationship between verbal declarative learning and attainment was found replicating earlier studies. Crucially, the first large-scale study showed that procedural learning tasks of a similar length to those typically used in earlier studies had unacceptably low reliability and correlated poorly with each other and with attainment. The second large-scale study, used extended procedural learning tasks that had proved reliable in adults, but found similar low levels of reliability in children. Additionally, the level of attention children paid during these extended tasks accounted entirely for the relationship between procedural learning and attainment. The results in this thesis highlight the importance of establishing task reliability, as well as considering the potential effects of individual differences in basic cognitive processes such as attention in all investigations of procedural learning.
... A final consideration is that representations that only include correlated dimensions are a straightforward prediction of hypothesis testing models, but it is less clear why exemplar representations that only include information on correlated dimensions would be developed in the absence of rules in intentional conditions. Indeed, some experimenters have observed rule-like performance without access to rules and have raised the possibility of an unconscious learning mechanism that abstracts rules and generalizations (e.g., Elio & Anderson, 1981;Lewicki, Hill, & Bizot, 1988;Reber et al., 1985). This unconscious abstraction mechanism differs from the rule precursor formulation in that the rule precursor formulation assumes that an analogical process governs decision making, but certain dimensions exert a selective influence on retrieval processes and similarity calculations. ...
Four experiments examined sensitivity to feature frequencies and feature correlations as a function of intentional and incidental concept learning. Feature frequencies were encoded equally well across variations in learning strategies, and although classification decisions in both intentional and incidental conditions preserved correlated features, this sensitivity was achieved through different processes. With intentional learning, sensitivity to correlations resulted from explicit rules, whereas incidental encoding preserved correlations through a similarity-based analogical process. In incidental tasks that promoted exemplar storage, classification decisions were mediated by similarity to retrieved examples, and correlated features were indirectly preserved in this process. The results are discussed in terms of the diversity of encoding processes and representations that can occur with incidental category learning.
... Thus, it can be said that the antiquity of reciprocity among employees lead to engage an employee in KW behaviours. Therefore, when an employee requests knowledge as a part of social exchange and perceives negative behaviour like withholding from the actor or co-worker, then he or she develops an unreceptive feeling of distrust, i.e., a presence of trepidation and skepticism on other and/or a sensation that the other may harm him or her (Govier, 1994;Lewicki et al., 1988). Interpersonal distrust may motivate negative norm of reciprocity and ineffective social exchanges (Blau, 1964), affect tolerability of any behaviours (Seiter et al., 2002) in harmonious relationship with negative return and as such, reciprocate employees' KW behaviours (Connelly et al., 2012). ...
Both academia and corporate concerns consider the importance of knowledge sharing between organisational members because the dissemination of innovation through an organisation is linked directly to company competitiveness. Success has been still acute, regardless of the efforts to increase knowledge sharing in organisations. The appropriate transfer of knowledge is crucial to be creative and spread the innovation within an organisation. This paper links knowledge sharing (KS) with knowledge withholding (KW), which is meant to interrupt this transfer and also different from related concepts like knowledge barriers, deception, aggression etc. Firstly, this study suggests KS and KW are distinct as well as independent and links with Herzbergs two-factor theory, to prove and clarify the difference. Secondly, KW, which has not rightly meant in courtesy of knowledge sharing in earlier studies, is defined as a shadowy barrier. Thirdly, this shadowy term is classified along with its nature and appearances. Lastly, we recommend that in dyadic relations, KW activates a reciprocal psychological distrust loop that hamper spreading of innovation, using social exchange theory and the norm of reciprocity. Future research areas are also
discussed with theoretical and practical implications.
The main aim of the present study was to evaluate on a serial reaction time task the effect of stimulus-response (S-R) practice on sequence learning. The experiment used a pointing task which allowed recording reaction times and movement times. The basic manipulation consisted in varying the amount of S-R practice prior to sequence practice. Two main findings from this study may be highlighted. Firstly, the benefit from extensive S-R practice was mainly observed in the random practice phase. Secondly, S-R learning and sequence learning were reflected by different components of performance. The movement times were selectively sensitive to the acquisition of S-R regularities whereas the reaction times were selectively sensitive to the acquisition of sequence regularities. The implications of these results on the comprehension of the sequence learning mechanism were then discussed.
This experiment compared the performance with explicit (rule-application and rule-discovery) and implicit (nonrule-instructed) learning approaches on the performance of a probabilistic video game task requiring fine motor control. The task required visual tracking of a small ball of light and “catching” it by means of joystick manipulation. A general pattern of improvement with practice occurred for all conditions. All conditions showed use of predictive relations among stimulus events. However, task performance of the rule-application and rule-discovery conditions were inferior to the nonrule-instructed implicit condition, particularly during the early phases of rule acquisition and application. This pattern strongly suggests substantial performance costs associated with attempting to discover or apply probabilistic rules. Decrements are likely due to increased cognitive demands associated with attempting to remember and strategically apply provided probability rules or attempting to discover and apply potentially important and useful probability information from a complex visual display.
Two experiments examined the relation between explicit knowledge and motor performance on the serial reaction time task developed by Nissen and Bullemer (1987). Tests of free recall and recognition of sequence components revealed that reliable explicit knowledge was acquired after an amount of practice that was hardly sufficient to improve mean motor performance. In addition, reaction time improvement was limited to the ending trials of the 3- and 4-trial sequence components that Ss recalled or recognized. These results were replicated in Experiment 3, in which Ss were trained under attentional distraction in the task developed by Cohen, Ivry, and Keele (1990). Overall, these findings undermine the most direct experimental support for the widespread view that conscious knowledge and performance in sequence-learning tasks tap 2 independent knowledge bases in normal Ss.
What does it mean to be human? Increasingly, we recognize that we are infinitely complex beings with immense emotional and spiritual, physical and mental capacities. Presiding over these human systems, our brain is a fully integrated, biological, and extraordinary organ that is preeminent in the known Universe. Its time has come. This book is grounded in the Intelligent Complex Adaptive Learning System (ICALS) theory based on over a decade of researching experiential learning through the expanding lens of neuroscience.
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-Dr. Florin Gaiseanu, Research Professor, Science and Technology of Information Bucharest (Romania) and Barcelona (Spain), Hoor Member of NeuroQuanology (Europe) and International Journal of Neuropsychology and Behavioral Sciences (USA)
This chapter explores how our two primary modes of thinking (intuitive and analytical thought), heuristics, and our feelings are integrated into our design processes. It then reviews the effectiveness of formal design education obtained through academic classes and of informal design training obtained through workshops and short courses.KeywordsThinkingIntuitionAnalysisHeuristicsFeelingsEmotionsLearningEducationTrainingWorkshops
Psychological situationism is the view that our behavior is ordered by external features of situations as opposed to robust character traits. Philosophical situationists have taken this claim to be conservatively revisionary for ethics; on their view, situationism problematizes only character, not any essential features of our ethical deliberation. Little has been said, however, about how these revisions motivate situationists’ claim that we ought to redirect our attention from cultivating virtues to managing situational influences on behavior. Virtue theorists have typically responded to situationists by arguing that skill-based practical wisdom—the exercise of which underwrites all other virtues—can be appropriately sensitive to situational influences. Following this response, discussions about the prescriptive consequences of situationism have largely resulted in a stalemate. In this paper, I argue that situationism faces a dilemma: it is either too conservative to be ethically revisionary or too radical to inform our ethical deliberation. I argue that both horns of this dilemma are unacceptable. Thus, we should reject situationist revisions to our ethical deliberation, and conclude that situationism is not conservatively revisionary for ethics.
The study investigated the role of top-down versus bottom-up connectivity, during the processing of implicit or explicit predictive information, in Parkinson's disease (PD). EEG was recorded during the performance of a task, which evaluated the ability to utilize either implicit or explicit predictive contextual information in order to facilitate the detection of predictable versus random targets. Thus, subjects performed an implicit and explicit session, where subjects were either unaware or made aware of a predictive sequence that signals the presentation of a subsequent target, respectively. We evaluated EEG event-related directed connectivity, in PD patients compared with healthy age-matched controls, using phase transfer entropy. PD patients showed increased top-down frontal-parietal connectivity, compared to control subjects, during the processing of the last (most informative) stimulus of the predictive sequence and of random standards, in the implicit and explicit session, respectively. These findings suggest that PD is associated with compensatory top-down connectivity, specifically during the processing of implicit predictive stimuli. During the explicit session, PD patients seem to allocate more attentional resources to non-informative standard stimuli, compared to controls. These connectivity changes shed further light on the cognitive deficits, associated with the processing of predictive contextual information, that are observed in PD patients.
Implicit Learning (IL) involves the fundamental problem of human potential development, and it has been a hot and difficult topic for many years. Traditional artificial neural networks can simulate IL, but there are some shortcomings. A few years ago, people used a morphological neural network (MNN) to simulate IL, but the support in theory and practice is weak. The contribution of this study is threefold. Firstly, based on the theory of unified framework of morphological associative memories (UFMAM), this paper makes a deep exploration for simulating IL by MNNs. Since both MNN and UFMAM are based on strict mathematical morphology, the research is established on a solid theoretical basis. Secondly, three experiments were designed, and the results were analyzed and discussed according to the theory of UFMAM. Thus, the depth and breadth of this research of IL were further expanded, new simulation methods and research examples were provided, and the MNN model of IL was established. Thirdly, it provides an example for the coordinated development of artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive psychology, neural science and brain science. The research shows that the IL model based on MNN is superior to the traditional IL model in automation, comprehension, abstraction and anti-interference. Therefore, it will play an important role in the future study of IL and bring new inspiration to reveal the neural mechanism of IL. There is an inseparable relationship between MNN and IL, i.e. the former provides new research tools and means for the latter, while the latter provides psychological and neuroscientific supports for the former, which will make both of them have a more solid scientific foundation. It is reasonable to believe that computer simulation of IL and other cognitive phenomena will have an important impact on promoting the coordinated development of multidisciplinary.
Artykuł bada Arystotelesowskie rozumienie znaczenia percepcyjnego i rozumowego poznania dla tworzenia i odbioru poezji. We wstępnym opisie Arystotelesowskiej psychologii poznawczej ukazuje, że percepcja jest dla niego wystarczająco ważna, by objąć bogate, złożone wzorce zachowań ludzkich i zwierzęcych oraz bada interakcję między percepcją (poznanie szczególnego oraz „że”) i wyjątkowych zdolności rozumu (które umożliwiają poznanie uniwersalnego oraz „dlaczego”) w ludzkim zachowaniu. Pozostała część artykułu odnosi tę problematykę do licznych zagadnień związanych z Poetyką: (1) skoro Arystotelesowska technê jest określana jako twórcza zdolność wykorzystująca rozum, to jak poetycka technê może przejawić się w dziele poetów działających poprzez nie-rozumowy zwyczaj lub talent? (2) dlaczego Arystoteles uważa, iż przyjemność wynikająca z naśladowania wymaga ingerencji rozumu? (3) co ma Arystoteles na myśli, kiedy przeciwstawia historię (zajmującą się tym, co szczególne) poezji (zajmującej się tym, co ogólne)? (4) jak można pogodzić Arystotelesowskie podkreślanie uniwersalności i racjonalności w kompozycji fabuły poetyckiej z jego skłonnością do akceptowania w poezji irracjonalności i nieprawdopodobieństwa?
Po okresie stosunkowo łatwego tworzenia i użytkowania
asynchronicznych szkoleń elektronicznych wyzwania współczesnej
dydaktyki akademickiej oraz szybki rozwój technologii
ICT spowodowały podniesienie wymagań jakościowych
wobec nowych kursów e-learningowych. Powinny one cechować
się wysokim stopniem multimedialności, co oznacza
konieczność wbudowania w nie elementów grafiki, animacji,
filmów, symulacji interaktywnych oraz przede wszystkim
technologii Web 2.0. Profesjonalna produkcja tego typu
szkoleń elektronicznych jest kosztowna i wymaga współpracy
wielu specjalistów: autorów treści e-learningowych, projektantów
szkoleń elektronicznych (instructional designers), grafików,
programistów, lektorów, administratorów platform
e-learningowych. Wyzwanie to podjął zespół projektowy
Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego, przystępując do opracowania
i wdrożenia sześciu w pełni multimedialnych, interaktywnych
kursów e-learningowych: „Bioinformatyka strukturalna”,
„Fuzje i przejęcia”, „Prawa i obowiązki podatnika
w postępowaniach”, „Projektowanie i wdrażanie kursów
e-learningowych 2.0”, „Repetytorium z fizyki z elementami
matematyki” oraz „Studenckie inicjatywy gospodarcze”.
Zainicjowany przez Radę Programową ds. Nauczania na
Odległość UG projekt, pt. „Akademickie kursy kształcenia na
odległość na Uniwersytecie Gdańskim”, został dofinansowany
z funduszy europejskich – Programu Operacyjnego Kapitał
Ludzki. W niniejszym artykule przedstawiono założenia
i rezultaty wdrożenia tego projektu.
Investigated information processing in situations in which there was insufficient evidence to make a judgment and no possibility of avoiding a judgment. The research was inspired by the question-answering model of S. Glucksberg and M. McCloskey (see record
1982-07068-001), which states that if it is important to find an answer to a question, then the failure of a preliminary memory search to find any relevant information leads to additional attempts that may employ gradually looser criteria of relevance than that used originally. It was hypothesized that the criterion of relevance could become loose enough to include a memory representation of a single and not salient instance. The hypothesis was tested in 3 experiments in which 160 college and 70 high school students participated. In Exp I the experience of a single instance was provided to the Ss by means of subliminally exposed words, and the dependent measure was Ss' choice of "better fitting" words. In Exps II and III, Ss were provided with single instances by means of a quasi-natural interaction with a person who was similar to 1 of 2 other persons to whom the Ss were subsequently exposed. The dependent measure was Ss' choice of one of those persons as more friendly, and the choice was made again under quasi-natural conditions. All 3 experiments confirmed the model and indicated that Ss based their judgments on the single instance to which they were exposed. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined 2 possible bases for grammatical judgments following syntactical learning: unconscious representations of a formal grammar, as in A. S. Reber's (see record
1976-21811-001) hypothesis of implicit learning, and conscious rules within information grammars. 50 undergraduates inspected strings generated by a finite-state grammar, viewed either one at a time or all at a time, with implicit or explicit learning instructions. 15 undergraduates served as controls. In a transfer test, Ss and controls judged the grammaticality of grammatical and nongrammatical strings and reported the bases for their judgments. Concurrent with previous results, Ss correctly classified a significant number of novel strings, indicating the operation of grammatical abstraction. However, reported rules predicted those grammatical judgments without significant residual. Ss acquired correlated grammars—personal sets of conscious rules, each of limited scope and many of imperfect validity. The rules embodied abstractions, consciously represented novelty that could account for abstraction embodied in judgments. It is argued that a better explanation of these results credits grammatical judgments to conscious rules within informal grammars rather than to unconscious representations of a formal grammar. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Tested the 2-process theory of detection, search, and attention presented by the current authors (1977) in a series of experiments. The studies (a) demonstrate the qualitative difference between 2 modes of information processing: automatic detection and controlled search; (b) trace the course of the learning of automatic detection, of categories, and of automatic-attention responses; and (c) show the dependence of automatic detection on attending responses and demonstrate how such responses interrupt controlled processing and interfere with the focusing of attention. The learning of categories is shown to improve controlled search performance. A general framework for human information processing is proposed. The framework emphasizes the roles of automatic and controlled processing. The theory is compared to and contrasted with extant models of search and attention. (31/2 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In two experiments, subjects were exposed for 12 hr to a sequence of frames containing a target, and their task was to search for the target in each frame. The sequence was divided into logical blocks of seven trials each. Locations of the target in the seventh trial of each block were predictable on the basis of the specific sequences of target locations in four out of the previous six trials. Pilot studies and extensive postexperimental interviews indicated that none of the subjects noticed anything even close to the real nature of the manipulation (i.e., the pattern). However, the predicted patterns of latency of their responses to the critical trials indicate that they had, in fact, acquired some intuitive (unconscious) knowledge about how the pattern of prior trials was related to the critical trial. The phenomenon is discussed as a ubiquitous unconscious process involved in the development of both elementary and high-level cognitive skills. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Explored the effect of instructional set on implicit learning of a synthetic language, using 20 undergraduates as Ss. Specifically, the neutral, implicit instructions used in previous studies were compared with explicit instructions which directed Ss to search for the complex rules that determined letter orderings. Ss given the explicit instructions were poorer at memorizing exemplars from the language, learned less about the underlying structure, and tended to invent nonrepresentational rules. Results have strong implications for a theory of implicit learning which stresses a nonconscious abstraction system that operates when the stimulus environment exhibits exceedingly complex structure and Ss are not actively trying to break the code. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reviews the evidence presented by D. E. Dulany et al (see record
1985-29949-001) in support of their conclusion that implicit learning of artificial grammars is really explicit learning. It is argued that the constraints of the task by Dulany et al to assess Ss' knowledge base carries demand characteristics that may make implicit knowledge appear to be explicitly represented. Related issues, such as the nature of conscious and unconscious control of action, the degree of abstractness of tacit knowledge, the existence of formal vs informal (correlated) grammars, and the nature of intuition, are discussed. A functionalist position in all matters is advocated. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Three experiments with 134 undergraduates and 80 recent high school graduates investigated processing of covariation between verbally described psychological characteristics and appearance of a set of stimulus persons. Based on S. Glucksberg and M. McCloskey's (see record
1982-07068-001) 2-stage question-answering model, it was hypothesized that if the information related to the manipulated covariation was processed and registered, it would result in an increase of processing time for questions that might be considered relevant to the covariation. Results indicate that although Ss were unable to articulate the manipulated covariation in any of the experiments, the pattern of response latencies obtained conformed exactly to the predictions. In 2 of these experiments, effects of the stimulus material in Ss' subsequent judgments were found, consistent with the model. Ss behaved as if they had "learned" the rule implied by the covariation and followed it in their subsequent judgments. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Responds to comments by A. S. Reber et al (see record
1986-03030-001) on the present authors' (see record
1985-29949-001) analysis of consciousness and abstraction in the case of syntactical learning and judgment. The methodological criticism of Reber et al is rejected, and it is asserted that assessment at the moment of judgment rather than recall maximizes the validity of reports of rules in consciousness at many moments of judgment. Broader issues discussed include judgment after early learning and after automatization, correlated grammars and consciousness, the scope and mental abstractness of rules, conscious and unconscious control, and intuition. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reports 2 experiments that examined the generalization of the "mere exposure" effect. Both experiments demonstrated that positive affect, produced by repeated viewing of a set of stimuli, generalizes to previously unseen stimuli that are similar to the exposed stimuli along certain abstract dimensions. Exp I, with 82 Ss, used letter strings constructed according to a complex rule system. Positive affect attributable to exposure generalized to novel letter strings that obeyed the rule system. Affective generalization was related to Ss' judgments of whether the novel strings obeyed the rule system. Exp II (40 Ss), in which the stimuli were complex visual patterns created by distorting standard forms, yielded an orderly gradient of affective generalization to novel patterns at varying levels of distortion. Results indicate that the exposure effect behaves in a manner similar to "implicit" concept learning and rule induction. The generalization techniques developed here provide a novel method for studying the affective processing of stimuli. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reviews evidence which suggests that there may be little or no direct introspective access to higher order cognitive processes. Ss are sometimes (a) unaware of the existence of a stimulus that importantly influenced a response, (b) unaware of the existence of the response, and (c) unaware that the stimulus has affected the response. It is proposed that when people attempt to report on their cognitive processes, that is, on the processes mediating the effects of a stimulus on a response, they do not do so on the basis of any true introspection. Instead, their reports are based on a priori, implicit causal theories, or judgments about the extent to which a particular stimulus is a plausible cause of a given response. This suggests that though people may not be able to observe directly their cognitive processes, they will sometimes be able to report accurately about them. Accurate reports will occur when influential stimuli are salient and are plausible causes of the responses they produce, and will not occur when stimuli are not salient or are not plausible causes. (86 ref)
Recent research on the acquisition of cognitive dispositions indicates that the cognitive system is capable of unconsciously processing even nonsalient and "hidden" patterns of stimuli that, due to the limited controlled processing capabilities of the cognitive system, cannot be detected on the level of conscious cognition. The information about such unconsciously processed patterns of stimuli is stored in memory and it unconsciously influences subsequent cognitive processes. It is argued that to account for observable phenomena of social behavior and to explain the development of stable (personality) dispositions, research in personality and social psychology should focus on reconstructing the process of such unconscious earning and investigate the dynamics of the development of the unconscious algorithms of encoding social stimuli. Recent cognitive research on unconscious information processing is demonstrated to provide a conceptual framework for addressing issues of particular relevance to personality and social psychology.
The research program presented in this book is concerned with the processing of social information. . . . The program explores complex or "high level" processing of information that is not mediated by conscious awareness, and social cognition seems to be an appropriate area in which to investigate this kind of processing.
Thus this book is addressed not only to personality and social psychologists, but also to cognitive psychologists concerned with information processing in general. The former may find this research relevant because most of the experiments describe some mechanisms of acquisition and utilization of social information—problems they are working on themselves. The latter may want to ignore the specific stimulus material (i.e., social information) employed in most of the experiments and focus on the general nature of the cognitive mechanisms studied.
The research program presented in this book began with observations which suggest that nonconscious acquisition and processing of information play a major role in human development and adjustment. These observations are discussed in Chapter 1, which is devoted to the starting points of the entire program. Chapter 2 presents preliminary theoretical assumptions that clarify exactly what I had in mind when initiating this research.
The subsequent six chapters contain reports of 34 experiments on nonconscious information processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Subjects learned artificial grammars under two conditions of acquisition: paired-associate learning and observation of exemplars. The former procedure was strongly associated with the establishment of a fairly concrete memorial space consisting of specific items and parts of items and the use of an analogic strategy for making decisions about novel stimuli. The observation procedure was strongly associated with the induction of an abstract representation of the rules of the grammar and the use of a correspondence strategy for decision making. Moreover, this latter procedure led to more robust knowledge and better overall performance. Analyses of both objective response patterns and subjective introspections yielded coordinated data in support of this distinction. The relationships between acquisition condition and cognitive strategy are discussed from a functionalist point of view.RésuméLes sujets doivent apprendre des grammaires artificielles selon deux modalités d'acquisition: un apprentissage par paires associées ou l'observation d'examples. On peut trés nettement associer la premiére procédure à la constitution d'un espace mnémonique de type concret consistant en des thémes ou parties de thémes spécifiques et impliquant l'utilisation d'une stratégie analogique lorsqu'il s'agit de prendre des décisions concernant des stimuli nouveaux. La procédure d'observation entraîne l'induction d'une représentation abstraite de régles grammaticales et l'utilisation d'une stratégie de correspondance lors des prises de décision.En outre cette procédure entraîne un savoir plus durable et de meilleures performances. Les analyses des exemples des réponses objectives et des introspections subjectives fournissent des données appuyant cette distinction. On part d'un point de vue fonctionnaliste pour discuter des relations entre la modalité d'acquisition et la stratégie cognitive.
Acquisition of procedural knowledge about a pattern of stimuli without declarative knowledge
- H G Hoffman
Hoffman, H. G. (1986). Acquisition of procedural knowledge about a pattern of stimuli without declarative knowledge. Unpublished manuscript.
Sight and mind: An introduction to visual perception New York: Ox-ford Univ Conscious, subconscious, unconscious: A cognitive perspective The unconscious reconsidered
- L Kaufman
Kaufman, L. (1974). Sight and mind: An introduction to visual perception. New York: Ox-ford Univ. Press. Kihlstrom, J. (1984). Conscious, subconscious, unconscious: A cognitive perspective. In K. S. Bowers & D. Meichenbaum (Eds.), The unconscious reconsidered (pp. 149-211). New York: Wiley.
Categories and concepts
- E E Smith
- D L Medin
Smith, E. E., & Medin, D. L. (1981). Categories and concepts. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press. (Accepted May 4, 1987)
Syntactic learning and judgments: Still unconscious and still abstract
- Reber