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Blood pressure-lowering activity present in the fruit body of Grifola frondosa (Maitake). I
Abstract
The fruit body of Grifola frondosa (maitake), Basidiomycetes, was confirmed to contain a substance with blood pressure-lowering activity. When powdered fruit body of maitake was given orally to spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), blood pressure reduction was observed, in contrast to the control group in which the blood pressure increased with ageing. Ether-soluble (ES) and hot water-soluble (WS) fractions were prepared from the fruit body and their hypertensive action was examined. Blood pressure-lowering activity was found when the dried ES fraction was administered orally at 30mg/kg, but the WS fraction was inactive. Thus, the ES fraction was further separated into setone-soluble (ES-AS) and insoluble (ES-AP) fractions. Administration of 20mg/kg dried material caused a blood pressure reduction of about 45mmHg in the former case and 65mmHg in the latter as compared with the control (about 220mmHg). When the EA-AP fraction was separated to 5 subfractions by thin layer chromatographic analysis, the most potent activity was observed in the subfraction which was detected on the spot of Rf=55.3. When authentic antihypertensive agents were examined in combination with maitake, a hypotensive effect was observed on administration of reserpine. This suggests that the blood pressure-lowering effect of maitake was brought about by a mechanism other than sympatholytic action.
... It was observed that glucans stimulated defense reactions against infections and cancer [16,17]. Besides this, reduction in stress and cholesterol level, hypoglycemic effects, and improvements of ulcerative colitis were also observed in the presence of the glucans [18][19][20][21]. Moreover, the production of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6, IL-1), and interferon-γ (IFN-γ) known as pro-inflammatory cytokines were also observed in the presence of β-glucans by activating the macrophage cells [22,23]. ...
... The ultrafine ground mushrooms were analyzed through a classifier analysis software (Mastersizer S v3.10, Malvern, UK). Three particle size of the mushroom powder was fractionated (10)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28)(29)(30), and 30-40 μm, respectively). ...
... The particle size analysis of G. frondosa powder was accomplished through an air classifying mill, and the result is given in (Figure 5(a)). Here, we used the three different sizes (10)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28)(29)(30), and 30-40 μm) of G. frondosa particle for further studies. The granulometric distribution of used G. frondosa powder is given in Supplementary Table 2. ...
Maitake (Grifola frondosa) mushroom has received an enormous amount of attention as a dietary supplement due to its high nutritional values. The particle sizes of G. frondosa mushrooms were monitored by a classifying mill. β-Glucans are the bioactive component of the mushroom, and it was revealed through Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), proton and carbon nuclear magnetic resonance (1H and 13C-NMR), matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization, and time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) spectrometry. The biocompatibility of G. frondosa particles, as well as induced osteogenesis of hMSCs, was evaluated through WST-1 assay and alizarin staining (ARS) technique, respectively. Notably, enhanced cell viability was noted in the presence of G. frondosa. Significantly improved calcium deposition has observed from hMSCs with G. frondosa, suggesting to their mineralization potential. The expression of osteogenic related gene markers was examined in the presence of G. frondosa through real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) technique. The upregulation of osteogenic gene markers in the presence of G. frondosa particles was indicating their superior osteogenic potential. Besides, G. frondosa also activated the secretion of various kinds of proteins from the hMSCs indicating their potential for tissue engineering applications. Enhanced secretion of different immunoglobulins was observed in rat serum in the presence of G. frondosa, further demonstrating their therapeutic nature. Therefore, G. frondosa is effective for enhanced osteogenesis and can be utilized as a natural, edible, and osteogenic agent.
... Thus, natural nutrients/elements can favorably influence the glucose/insulin system and the onset of age-related chronic disorders [29] . In this vein, recent publications suggest that consumption of Maitake mushroom promotes similar benefits [12,303132333435. An interesting aspect of the present study was the different responses of the two rat strains to whole Maitake der and its two fractions examined, ES and WS [12, 31]. ...
... In this vein, recent publications suggest that consumption of Maitake mushroom promotes similar benefits [12,303132333435. An interesting aspect of the present study was the different responses of the two rat strains to whole Maitake der and its two fractions examined, ES and WS [12, 31]. In the case of blood pressure regulation, the reasons behind some of the findings and differences are not entirely clear. ...
... In the case of blood pressure regulation, the reasons behind some of the findings and differences are not entirely clear. Previous reports found that SBP decreased significantly in SHR in response to the consumption of whole Maitake mushroom and the ether soluble fraction but not to water soluble fractions [31, 34]. There is also no ready explanation why we could not duplicate the SBP-lowering effects of whole Maitake powder, which was also shown by Kabir et al. [35]. ...
Maitake mushroom has been reported to favorably influence hypertension and diabetes mellitus. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of whole Maitake mushroom powder and two extracts designated as ether soluble (ES) and water soluble (WS) on Zucker fatty rats (ZFR), a model of insulin resistance, and on spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), a model of genetic hypertension. In the initial study, we followed four groups of eight ZFR and SHR receiving special diets: a baseline diet (BD), BD + whole Maitake mushroom powder (20% w/w), BD + fraction ES (0.10% w/w), and BD + WS (0.22% w/w). Different effects of these dietary regimens on the 2 rat strains were found. At 35 days, only consumption of the ES diet significantly decreased systolic BP (SBP) in SHR (average 197 vs. 176 mm Hg, p
... Nevertheless, a number of scientific and medical studies have been extensively performed on "Maitake D-fraction (PDF)" [19] , a bioactive extract from maitake mushroom, in the past 35 years. Such studies then revealed or postulated a number of physiological benefits including immunostimulatory, anticancer/antitumor, and antiviral effects [20][21][22][23] , and potential treatments of hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, obesity etc. [24][25][26] . Particularly, it is significant that its antiviral activity on human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) has been confirmed by the United States National Cancer Institute in 1992 [23] . ...
... Such studies then revealed or postulated a number of physiological benefits including immunostimulatory, anticancer/antitumor, and antiviral effects [20][21][22][23] , and potential treatments of hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, obesity etc. [24][25][26] . Particularly, it is significant that its antiviral activity on human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) has been confirmed by the United States National Cancer Institute in 1992 [23] . In addition, apoptosis-inducing activity of PDF has been also demonstrated in human prostate cancer cells in vitro [27,28] . ...
SX-fraction (SXF) is a bioactive glycoprotein with anti-diabetic and hypoglycemic activities that have been documented in several reports. We have reviewed those studies herein and also explored the possible mechanism of its hypoglycemic activity. The early animal studies of SXF using diabetic mice showed the significant reduction in the three diabetic parameters, serum glucose, insulin, and triglyceride, suggesting its anti-diabetic activity. The limited clinical studies also showed that SXF led to the significant reduction in the fasting blood glucose levels of type 2 diabetic patients within 2 wk or a month, suggesting its hypoglycemic activity. To explore the hypoglycemic mechanism of SXF, its possible effects on the insulin signal transduction pathway was examined in vitro. Particularly, activities of insulin receptor, insulin receptor substrate 1, and protein kinase B, which are essential elements playing a key regulatory role in the signal pathway, were studied using skeletal muscle L6 cells. The status of these three parameters were examined under a high glucose (35 mmol/L) milieu with SXF and assessed using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Such studies revealed that all three parameters (insulin receptor, insulin receptor substrate 1, and protein kinase B) were inactivated by high glucose, indicating a disruption of the signal pathway. However, such an inactivation was reversed or re-activated by SXF to successfully carry out the sequential signaling events. In fact, a measurement of glucose uptake in cells showed that SXF did increase a glucose uptake while high glucose decreased it. Therefore, SXF has anti-diabetic and hypoglycemic activities through activation of the insulin signal pathway and appears to be a safe, natural agent for lowering the serum glucose levels in type 2 diabetic patents and improving their diabetic conditions.
... The fruiting bodies and liquid culture mycelium of this mushroom is known to contain effective antitumor and immunomodulating polysaccharide in different fractions. Other medicinal uses of this mushroom (Table 5) include, antiviral, anti HIV, cardiovascular, hepatoprotective, blood pressure regulation, control of diabetes, reduction of cholesterol, treatment of chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), and antioxidant activity (Adachi et al. 1988;Kubo et al. 1994;Kabir et al. 1987;Kubo and Nanba 1997;Mizuno and Zhuang 1995;Nanba 1993;Fukushima et al. 2001). ...
... frondosa) reduced blood pressure in rats without changing plasma HDL levels (Mizuno and Zhuang 1995). Adachi et al. (1988) found a blood pressure lowering effect with the powder of G. frondosa fed to hypertensive rats in their normal food. ...
Maitake (Grifola frondosa) is a basidiomycete fungus belonging to the Polyporaceae family, due to its medicinal properties, it has been used in Eastern cultures for thousands of years. Fruit body and liquid-cultured mycelium of this mushroom have been reported to contain useful antitumor and immunomodulating polysaccharides from various fractions. These polysaccharides have been identified as many types of glucans (β-(1→3)-, β-(1→6). It contains a polysaccharide compound beta-glucan which is not found in other types of mushroom. It is reported to help strengthen the body's natural immune system and improve general health. D-Fraction, MD fraction and extracts with whole maitake powder have shown particular promises as immunomodulating agents and as an adjunct to cancer and HIV therapy. They are also beneficial for the treatment of hyperlipidemia, hypertension, hepatitis, cardiovascular disease, as well as demonstrate hepatoprotective, antidiabetic, antioxidant, antiviral and anti-inflammatory properties. Present review focuses on the pharmacological and medical aspects of G. frondosa. Abstract Maitake (Grifola frondosa) is a Basidiomycete fungus belonging to the Polyporaceae
... These immunoregulatory effects enable G. frondosa polysaccharide to have antitumor and antivirus capabilities. The hypoglycemic 22,23 , hypolipidemic 24 , hypotensive 25,26 , antioxidant 27 , hepatoprotective 28 , anti-radiation 29 , and antibacterial effects 30 of G. frondosa polysaccharide have also been reported. ...
Mercury is considered to be “a global pollutant” and raises concern worldwide. Once mercury enters the body, it will be distributed all over the body but will accumulate in the brain, kidney and liver. To date, no substance originating from edible fungi capable of adsorbing mercury has been reported. We found that the mushroom Grifola frondosa exhibited mercury adsorption capacity. A polysaccharide-peptide (GFPP), displaying the unique N-terminal amino acid sequence of APPGMHQKQQ and 7 partial sequences with high reliability obtained by LC-MS/MS, was isolated by hot-water extraction of its fruiting bodies followed by ion exchange chromatography and gel filtration chromatography. Two rat models were employed to determine the dose and the duration of HgCl2 treatment (given by acute administration or continuous treatment) to test if G. frondosa could promote mercury elimination. For rats subjected to acute treatment with HgCl2, both GFPP and G. frondosa fruiting bodies (GFFF) could accelerate the decline of blood mercury level, which fell precipitously by 50% on the second day. GFPP and GFFF also promoted elimination of the burden of mercury in the liver and kidneys. For rats receiving continuous HgCl2 treatment, G. frondosa prevented the progressive increase of blood mercury level, and kept the blood mercury level within a relatively stable range.
... Hot aqueous extract of Pleurotus cornucopiae shows an antihypertensive effect in mice. The extracted d-glucopyranose mannitol from edible mushroom Pleurotus cornucopiae inhibits angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE), which converts angiotensin I to the potent vasopressor octapeptide angiotensin II, which is responsible for increasing the blood pressure (Hagiwara et al. 2005;Adachi et al. 1988). Mushroom intake has a cholesterol-lowering effect through different mechanisms, such as decreasing very low-density (VLDL) lipoproteins, improving lipid metabolism, inhibiting the activity of β-hydroxy β-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) reductase which takes part in lipid metabolism, and consequently preventing the development of atherosclerosis (Guillamon et al. 2010). ...
Medicinal mushrooms are higher fungi with additional nutraceutical attributes having low fat content and a trans-isomer of unsaturated fatty acids along with high fibre content, triterpenes, phenolic compounds, sterols, eritadenine and chitosan. They are considered as the unmatched source of healthy foods and drugs. They have outstanding attractive taste, aroma and nutritional value, so are considered as functional food, which means they are beneficial to the body not only in terms of nutrition but also for improved health. Medicinal mushrooms and their extract have a large number of bioactive components called secondary metabolites. The presence of polysaccharide β-glucans or polysaccharide–protein complexes content in mushroom extract have great therapeutic applications in human health as they possess many properties such as anti-diabetic, anti-cancerous, anti-obesity, immunomodulatory, hypocholesteremia, hepatoprotective nature along with anti-aging. The present review focuses on the comprehensive account of the medicinal properties of various medicinal mushrooms. This will further help the researchers to understand the metabolites and find other metabolites as well from the mushrooms which can be used for the potential development of the drugs to treat various life-threatening diseases.
... Maitake mushrooms (Grifola frondosa), have also demonstrated anticancer activity by increasing immune-competent cell activity that occurs from the combination of beta-1,6 glucan and beta-1,3 branched chains (Adachi et al., 1988;Hishida et al., 1988). An antitumor effect was found when the extract (MD-fraction) from maitake mushrooms was applied to rodents with tumors. ...
Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) including Japanese Kampo is known to have anticancer potential. An increasing number of cancer survivors are using CAM for disease prevention, immune system enhancement, and symptom control. Although there have been abundant previous clinical reports regarding CAM, scientific investigations aimed at acquiring quantifiable results in clinical trials, as well as basic research regarding CAM, have only recently been undertaken. Recent studies suggest that CAM enhancement of immune function is related to cytokines. This review provides a translational aspect of CAM, particularly Hozai in Kampo from both scientific and clinical points of view for further development of CAM for cancer treatment.
... The present study examines in a rodent model the potential for two commercially available fractions labeled SX and D derived from the edible maitake mushroom to overcome many age-associated metabolic perturbations such as the progressive elevation of blood pressure (BP) and disordered glucose metabolism. Previous studies have found that whole powder and crude fractions of the mushroom might do so [8][9][10][11][12][13]. As a secondary gain, the influences of SX and D on the renin-angiotensin system (RAS), insulin sensitivity, and inflammation were also examined. ...
Objective: We assessed the ability of two commercially-available fractions labeled SX and D derived from the edible maitake mushroom to overcome many age-associated metabolic perturbations such as progressive, age-related elevation of blood pressure, over activity of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS), decreased insulin sensitivity, and inflammation in an in vivo laboratory model. Design and Method: We divided forty mature, female Sprague-Dawley rats (SD) into five groups of eight. SD ingested regular rat chow containing added sucrose (20% w/w). The groups received baseline diet alone (control) or baseline diet containing captopril, niacin-bound chromium, maitake fraction SX, or maitake fraction D. In addition to blood pressure readings, the following procedures were implemented: losartan and insulin challenges, evaluation of serum ACE activity, glucose tolerance testing, blood chemistries, LNAME challenge, and measurement of various circulating cytokines. Results: We found that implementation of all test conditions stopped the gradual elevation of systolic blood pressure (SBP) in the SD over the four months of study, even reversing some of the previous elevation that occurred over time. In general, the treatment groups showed decreased activity of the RAS estimated by less lowering of SBP after losartan challenge and decreased serum ACE activity and were more sensitive to exogenous insulin challenge. TNFa levels decreased in all four test groups suggesting a lessening of the inflammatory state. Conclusions: We believe our data suggest that maitake mushroom fractions lessen age-related hypertension, at least in part, via effects on the RAS; enhance insulin sensitivity; and reduce some aspects of inflammation -- actions that should lead to a longer, healthier life span.
... taining SX‑fraction for 2‑4 weeks. According to Maitake Products, Inc., Ridgefield Park, NJ, an unpublished 2‑month Japanese trial involving 14 diabetic patients found that fasting blood glucose and haemoglobin Alc significantly decreased after a month of supplementation with the mushroom fraction, as did body weight, cholesterol and triglycerides. [54] Inositol Inositol is an important part of several key bodily processes including the health of cell membranes and blood cholesterol levels. Furthermore, inositol may have a role to play in reversing the effects of diabetic neuropathy (nervous damage) caused by diabetes. [55,56] Magnesium Although the relationship between magnesium and d ...
Nutraceuticals are one of the promising approaches for prevention and treatment of a large number of ailments. Nutrients, herbals and dietary supplements are major constituents of nutraceuticals, which make it instrumental in maintaining health, act against various disease conditions and thus promote the quality of life. Diabetes mellitus is one of them. It is a multifactorial metabolic disorder reflected by high blood sugar/glucose level. In spite of significant development in drug discovery to treat this disease, extensive efforts are on for finding a holistic approach by combining compounds from natural and synthetic drugs. Botanicals, vitamins, antioxidants, minerals, amino acids and fatty acids, collectively referred as ‘nutraceuticals’, are important sources of new therapies for type 2 diabetes (T2D) and insulin resistance. This review summarizes nutraceuticals with proven antidiabetic potential in pre-clinical and clinical studies and explores the possibility of a new approach, ‘polypathy’ for synergistic management of diabetes.
... Maitake mushroom and various extracts from it have consistently ameliorated perturbed glucose-insulin metabolism, lowered elevated blood pressure, and decreased circulating levels of triglycerides and cholesterol in rodents that are insulin-resistant and/or hyperglycemic [1][2][3][4][5][6][7]. Recently, a more purified fraction of the element in maitake mushroom influencing the glucose-insulin system, a glycoprotein referred to hereon as maitake SX, has been produced in quantity [8][9][10]. ...
Abstract We assessed whether fraction SX derived from maitake mushroom could play a beneficial role in the treatment of a laboratory model of type-1 diabetes by decreasing circulating glucose levels and lowering blood pressure (BP). We injected 50 mg/kg body weight (BW) streptozotocin (STZ) intraperitoneally (i.p.) into 48 male Sprague-Dawley rats (SD) to produce a laboratory model of type-1 diabetes. SD were divided into four groups of 12 SD. A control group ate straight pulverized rat chow. To three treatment groups, we added into the pulverized rat chow: gliclazide (10 mg/kg), pioglitazone (10-30 mg/kg), or maitake SX (2.5 g/kg). In addition to measuring BW, circulating glucose level, and BP, the following procedures were also carried out: insulin challenge (insulin sensitivity), losartan challenge (renin-angiotensin system activity), Nw-nitro-L arginine-methyl ester hydrochloride (LNAME) challenge (nitric oxide [NO] system activity), and evaluation of serum angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) activity. All treatments compared with control generally decreased circulating glucose levels, but only the maitake SX consistently enhanced measured insulin sensitivity. We found that maitake SX could significantly lower systolic blood pressure (SBP) in diabetic SD. In general, only SD receiving maitake SX, not the two drugs, showed decreased activity of the renin-angiotensin system and increased NO system activity compared with control under the conditions examined. Our results suggest that maitake SX may be useful for treating perturbations in glucose-insulin metabolism and elevated BP in type-1 diabetes.
... The present study examines in a rodent model the potential for two commercially available fractions labeled SX and D derived from the edible maitake mushroom to overcome many age-associated metabolic perturbations such as the progressive elevation of blood pressure (BP) and disordered glucose metabolism . Previous studies have found that whole powder and crude fractions of the mushroom might do so8910111213. As a secondary gain, the influences of SX and D on the renin-angiotensin system (RAS), insulin sensitivity, and inflammation were also examined. ...
We assessed the ability of two commercially-available fractions labeled SX and D derived from the edible maitake mushroom to overcome many age-associated metabolic perturbations such as progressive, age-related elevation of blood pressure, over activity of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS), decreased insulin sensitivity, and inflammation in an in vivo laboratory model.
We divided forty mature, female Sprague-Dawley rats (SD) into five groups of eight. SD ingested regular rat chow containing added sucrose (20% w/w). The groups received baseline diet alone (control) or baseline diet containing captopril, niacin-bound chromium, maitake fraction SX, or maitake fraction D. In addition to blood pressure readings, the following procedures were implemented: losartan and insulin challenges, evaluation of serum ACE activity, glucose tolerance testing, blood chemistries, LNAME challenge, and measurement of various circulating cytokines.
We found that implementation of all test conditions stopped the gradual elevation of systolic blood pressure (SBP) in the SD over the four months of study, even reversing some of the previous elevation that occurred over time. In general, the treatment groups showed decreased activity of the RAS estimated by less lowering of SBP after losartan challenge and decreased serum ACE activity and were more sensitive to exogenous insulin challenge. TNFa levels decreased in all four test groups suggesting a lessening of the inflammatory state.
We believe our data suggest that maitake mushroom fractions lessen age-related hypertension, at least in part, via effects on the RAS; enhance insulin sensitivity; and reduce some aspects of inflammation--actions that should lead to a longer, healthier life span.
... The results obtained in this study were similar to other reports on hypotensive effects of some naturally occurring plant extracts. 17,18) As evidenced from the pharmacological antagonists studies, the hypotensive effects of the ethanol extract of Pavetta crassipes was not attenuated by cholinergic, a-adrenoceptor, histaminergic, serotonergic receptor activity. 6,19) This suggests that the hypotensive effect is not mediated via any of these receptor mechanisms. ...
Pavetta crassipes leaf is routinely used locally in Nigeria for the management of respiratory disorders and hypertension. The hypotensive and other cardiovascular effects of Pavetta crassipes were investigated in cats and rats. The effects of the extract on rat and cat blood pressures, isolated rat atria, rat portal vein, isolated rat aorta and rat vas deferens were studied. Specific receptor antagonists (atropine, mepyramine, phentolamine, propranolol) were used to elucidate the underlying mechanism(s) involved in the cardiovascular changes induced by P. crassipes. The results revealed that the ethanolic extract of Pavetta crassipes lowered the blood pressures of cats and rats in a dose dependent manner. The extract also caused a concentration-dependent decrease in the force of contraction of the isolated rat atria and rat portal vein. The decreases in blood pressure values were attenuated in the presence of a beta-adrenoceptor antagonist, propranolol. The extract also attenuated isoprenaline-induced contraction of the rat atria. However, the extract did not affect contractions evoked by KCl, norepinephrine and 5-HT on the rat aorta. Pavetta crassipes contains biologically active substances that may be useful in the management of hypertension.
... Maitake has potential benefit for the treatment of various malignancies, hypertension, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, obesity, and hepatitis B infection. [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8] Maitake's antiviral activity against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) (AIDS) was also confirmed by the US National Cancer Institute in 1992. 9 Maitake PETfraction is the standardized essence extracted from the fruit body of the Maitake mushroom and is classified as a biological response modifier. ...
Maitake PETfraction is a standardized essence extracted from the mushroom Maitake (Grifola frondosa) that has antitumor activity in tumor-bearing mice. In addition, PETfraction induces apoptosis in human prostate and bladder cancer cells and suppresses the proliferation in vitro of several canine tumor cell lines, such as lymphoma (Cl-1), mammary gland (CF33), and connective tissue (CF21).
Maitake PETfraction is effective as a single agent in dogs with lymphoma.
Fifteen dogs with confirmed intermediate or high-grade lymphoma were enrolled into this prospective, noncontrolled, clinical trial. Inclusion criteria were an expected survival time of at least 2 weeks and no major organ dysfunction.
Maitake PETfraction was administered at a dose of 3 drops/kg/day divided into 2 doses given 1 hour before feeding. Dogs were evaluated by physical examination with tumor measurement, body weight, CBC, and chemistry profile before treatment and after 2, 4, 8, and 12 weeks. At each visit, owners completed a questionnaire addressing overall quality of life, appetite, and any adverse effects noted.
A decrease in lymph node size of greater than 50% (objective response) was not seen in any of the dogs. Thirteen dogs developed progressive disease before the 4th week. The median treatment duration was 27 days (range, 9-228). PETfraction was well accepted, and minimal adverse effects were observed. Two dogs developed hyphema. It was not known if this was related to progressive lymphoma or was an adverse effect of treatment.
No objective responses were observed to administration of Maitake PETfraction, and the drug was well tolerated in these dogs.
In the present era, extracts derived from maitake mushroom and other mushrooms are considered by some to be frontline medical “drugs,” even though the scientific study of mushrooms only began during the last two decades.
Although the button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) accounts for slightly over half of total world mushroom production, specialty mushrooms, e.g., shiitake (Lentinula edodes), straw (Volvariella volvacea), oyster (Pleurotus spp.), and enokitake (Flammulina velutipes), are increasing in popularity. These species contain moderate quantities of good quality protein and are good sources of dietary fiber, Vitamin C, B vitamins, and minerals. Lipid levels are low, but unsaturated to saturated fatty acid ratios are high (about 2.0 - 4.5:1). Some species (e.g., shiitake) accumulate cadmium and selenium and other heavy metals, and some may contain toxic substances such as the heat labile cardiotoxic proteins volvatoxin in the straw mushroom and flammutoxin in enokitake. Extensive clinical studies, primarily in Japan, have clearly demonstrated that a number of species have medicinal and therapeutic value, by injection or oral administration, in the prevention/treatment of cancer, viral diseases (influenza, polio), hypercholesterolemia, blood platelet aggregation, and hypertension. Most of the studies have focused on shiitake, enokitake, Pleurotus spp., and on the generally nonculinary Ganoderma spp. Many of the active substances which include polysaccharides (e.g., β-glucans), nucleic acid derivatives (the hypocholesterolemic eritadenine), lipids, peptides, proteins, and glycoproteins, have been isolated and identified. Some of the mechanisms of activity have been elucidated, e.g., antiviral activity via stimulation of interferon production in the host. Additional medical claims less well documented may nonetheless have some validity and merit further study. Copyright © International Association of Milk, Food and Environmental Sanitarians.
This study was performed to investigate the anti-diabetic mechanism of crude polysaccharides isolated from the fruiting bodies of Grifola frondosa. We treated 3T3-L1 adipocyte cells to observe whether the crude polysaccharides isolated from Grifola frondosa would stimulate insulin sensitivity. Significant insulin sensitizing activity was observed in the 3T3-L1 adipocytes, and giving the crude polysaccharide of Grifola frondosa with 1 nM of insulin caused glucose uptake to increase to a similar level as giving 50 nM of insulin alone. To confirm the mechanism for the anti-diabetic effect of the crude polysaccharides, we performed further examinations witiiin KK-Ay mice, an animal model of type 2 diabetes. The crude polysaccharides reduced blood glucose levels in the KK-Ay mice for 2 weeks after feeding, and also significantly lowered plasma insulin levels. These results suggest that the anti-diabetic mechanism of the crude polysaccharide of Grifola frondosa is related to the enhancement of insulin sensitivity.
A variety of nutritional supplements are commercially available for the potential therapeutic purpose for dogs and other domestic animals with cancers. However, the efficacy of these supple- ments on those cancer-bearing animals has not been verified and remains uncertain, due to the lack of the sufficient scientific studies/data. To address this important issue, we examined actual anticancer effects of five selected commercial products on the two types of canine cancer models in vitro. Among them, PET-Fraction (PET-F) obtained from maitake mushroom has been shown to have potent anticancer effect on canine cancer cells. In comparison with this PET-F, possible anti- cancer effects of the rest of four products were examined. Two of four products were found to have the significant anticancer effects on both cancer cells, while other two products had little effects. Nevertheless, PET-F exhibited the best anticancer effect. Cell cycle analysis indicated that the PET- F-induced growth reduction was attributed to a G1 cell cycle arrest, and Western blot analysis fur- ther revealed that such a growth reduction was coupled with apoptosis. Moreover, anticancer ac- tivity of PET-F was remarkably enhanced with vitamin C, but no such synergistic effect was seen with other four products. Therefore, although two other products besides PET-F yet have anti- cancer activities, PET-F appears to be the most potent and promising commercial product that can be useful in effectively and safely treating canine cancers.
Maitake (Grifola frondosa) was hydrothermally extracted at 4 different temperatures (121, 130, 140, and 150°C) for 30 and 60 min, and the total phenolic content (TPC), antioxidant activity, and β-glucan content of the extracts was evaluated. The highest TPC was detected in the extract at 150°C treated for 60 min with 13.61 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/g. The antioxidant activity of the maitake extracts, evaluated by determining DPPH radical scavenging activity (RSA), ABTS RSA, reducing power, and tyrosinase inhibitory activity increased with increasing treatment temperature and time. The content of β-glucan was the highest (5.13%) in the extract prepared at 140°C for 30min. These results suggest that hydrothermal extraction could be used as a tool to increase the antioxidant activity of maitake extracts.
This review contains the most recent information on the various substances isolated and Identified in the maitake mushroomGrifola, their source and significance. The majority of the references concern the anti-tumour polysaccharides that have been extracted from fruiting bodies and mycelia, but certain species can also act as metabolic regulators and contain enzymes, essential amino acids, lipids and vitamins. The use of edible fungi in the development and application of beneficial biological activities ofters an advantage in that the active principle is safe and can be tolerated by humans. Cultivation of such edible mushrooms would provide an adequate supply but is unnescessary if mycelial cultures grown in large-scale fermentations can produce the same active principle. It is hoped that this article will be infromative as the search continues for new uses for edible fungi and for educating the public about their potential value.
Contents of polyphenol compounds and the physiological activity of extracts from Grifola frondosa by water and methanol extraction were investigated to determine their functional effects. A functional beverage was developed using the extracts. The yield and phenolic compounds content of the water extracts were highest (49.2% and 327 mg/ 100 g, respectively), while for the methanol extraction method they were 28.7% and 130 mg/100 g, respectively. DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) radical scavenging activity was 76.3% for the water extract and 65.4% for methanol extract, whereas the superoxide dismutasc (SOD)-like activity was low (26.3-36.8% at 1,000 μg/mL concentration). Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory effect of water extract (75.1%) was higher compared to the methanol extracts (41.2%). Tyrosinase inhibition activity was 42.5% for the water extracts and 31.8% for the methanol extracts at 1,000 μg/mL concentration. The most acceptable formulation for G. frondosa beverage developed was 0.5% G. frondosa water extract, 8.0% oligosaccharide, 2.0% green tea extract, 2.0% jujube extract, 1.0% Solomon's seal extract, 0.01% vitamin C. and 2.0% apple extract. The final product had 9.8 Brix and color values of L, 35.2+1.1; a, 3.2+0.2; b. 13.6+0.3.
Grifola frondosa, also known as Maitake mushroom, is a lignin- and cellulose-degrading basidiomycete with excellent nutritional and medicinal properties. This article presents a state-of-the-art review of G. frondosa active compounds belonging to the group of polysaccharides (1-6-beta-glucans and 1-3-beta-D-glucans), glycoproteins, proteins, and low-molecular-weight compounds. Medicinal effects and modes of action are presented in detail, including anticancer activity, immunostimulation, effects on angiogenesis, reduction of benign prostatic hyperplasia, antibacterial and antiviral effects, effects on lipid metabolism and hypertension, antidiabetic activity, vitality and performance enhancement, antioxidant effects, and beneficial cosmetic effects on skin. Possibilities for cultivation of G. frondosa fruit bodies and mycelium biomass are listed, with emphasis on biotechnological cultivation of mycelia in bioreactors by submerged cultivation in liquid media for the production of intra- and extracellular polysaccharides.
A novel small-molecule polysaccharide with a molecular mass of 2.6 kDa, was isolated from the culinary-medicinal Maitake mushroom Grifola frondosa. GFPS is composed of fucose, rhamnose, galactose, glucose, and mannose; galactose, glucose, and mannose were the dominant monosaccharides. Absorption peaks at 1077 cm-1, 1024 cm-1, and 873 cm-1, as revealed by infrared spectrum, suggesting that GFPS consists of pyranoside. GFPS significantly enhanced the production of nitric oxide and secretion of cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, and interleukin-δ) from macrophages in vitro. These results indicate that this novel small-molecule polysaccharide might be beneficial for immune defense.
Mushrooms are the fungi that have been used as food since time immemorial. Nutritionally they are a valuable source of health food, which is low in calories, and rich in carbohydrates, essential amino acids, fibre, important vitamins and minerals. Mushrooms have also been used in medicine for centuries in the Orient but their potential as health potentiators and elicitors of immune system is recent. In the last two decades there has been an upsurge on the use of mushrooms as nutraceuticals and many edible species have been thoroughly investigated and authenticated for medicinal use. The species that have been properly analysed for medicinal value are: Ganoderma lucidum (Reishi), Lentinus edodes (Shiitake), Grifola frondosa (Maitake), Agaricus blazei (Hime-matsutake), Cordyceps militaris (Caterpillar fungus), Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster mushroom) and Hericium erinaceous (Lions mane). There are many more species of cultivated and wild edible and non-edible mushrooms that have been analysed for both their nutritional and nutraceutical components but to a lesser extent than those listed above. The active constituents found in mushrooms are polysaccharides, dietary fibres, oligosaccharides, triterpenoids, peptides and proteins, alcohols and phenols, and mineral elements such as zinc, copper, iodine, selenium and iron, vitamins, amino acids etc. These have been found to boost the immune system, have anti-cancerous properties, act as anti-hypercholesterolaemic and hepato-protective agents, show anti-HIV activity and anti-viral activity, and ameliorate the toxic effect of chemo- and radiotherapy. Many of the species are known to be aphrodisiacs. Many commercial products from these mushrooms are available in the market. Prominent among these are: Lentinan from Lentinus edodes, Concord Sunchih and Reishi Plus from Ganoderma lucidum, Grifon from Grifola frondosa and Didanosine from Cordyceps militaris. The nutraceuticals have been found to relieve the stress and pressure of modern society by stimulating both basic and secondary immune responses of the immune system. There are more than 5000 species of mushrooms recorded from all over the world out of which around 2000 are identified as edible. A large number of the species are yet to be analysed for their nutraceutical/medicinal potential.
The straw mushroom Volvariella volvacea is one of the common edible mushrooms in Hong Kong and is widely cultivated in Southeast Asian countries. It has been reported to produce a hypotensive response in animals including humans. An aqueous extract of the mushroom (SME) was prepared and given through intravenous injections to normotensive rats. The blood pressure changes produced by SME alone or in the presence of various drugs were studied. The effects of SME on the kidney function of water-loaded rats and on isolated tissue preparations of the tail artery and right atrium were examined. An i.v. injection of SME produced a hypotensive effect in rats with an ED50 of 25 mg dry weight/kg body weight. This hypotensive effect of SME was attenuated or blunted in the presence of hexamethonium, phentolamine, pyrilamine and cimetidine suggesting the involvement of the α-adrenergic component of the autonomic system and/or histamineergic stimulation. SME did not increase urinary excretion nor sodium diuresis. It produced positive chronotropic and inotropic effects on isolated right atria and induced contraction of isolated tail artery strips. This latter contractile response was inhibited by antagonists of serotonin and α-adrenoceptor, ketanserin and phentolamine respectively. Partial purification using dialysis and liquid chromatography revealed that the hypotensive active substances had molecular masses between 8000 and 12000 dalton. These substances were heat stable and resistant to trypsin digestion. In view of the similarity in blood pressure and cardiovascular response, SME might contain serotonin-like substances.
Water extract from Agrocybe cylindracea strain B (ACE), an edible mushroom produced in Taiwan, has previously been studied for its antioxidative activities. ACE is an efficient antioxidant in vitro. Since oxidative alterations of DNA can be linked to the develop-ment of cancer, we decided to study whether ACE protects DNA against oxidative stress. We report here that pUC18 plasmid DNA and HepG2 cells' DNA are damaged by • OH radicals generated from Cu (II) plus H 2 O 2 . The DNA damage was quantified by deter-mining the diminution of supercoiled DNA forms and the DNA migration after oxidative attack using agarose gel electrophoresis. The IC 50 values of ACE were 69.7 µg/mL and 91.6 µg/mL for cupric-mediated • OH formation by determining the diminution of super-coiled DNA forms and Comet assay, respectively. The antioxidant capacity of ACE was significantly higher than that of Lentinus edodes extract (LEE) and the two known scavengers of hydroxyl radical, mannitol and thiourea. ACE and LEE could also inhibit the oxidative degradation of 2'-deoxyribose caused by • OH radicals generated from metal ions plus H 2 O 2 . The malondialdehyde (MDA) inhibition effect of active fractional protein from ACE was better than that of LEE. The major protein components of ACE were different from LEE.
The aim of this study was to select fast growing strains able to resist Trichoderma viride in a short-time experiment to be realized with a concurrently performed fruiting experiment. The test was realized in Teflon®
tubes. Five strains of Grifola frondosa (Dicks: Fr.) Gray and five strains of Fomitopsis pinicola (Swartz: Fr.) Karst. were used as test organisms. Different factors that can influencing substrate invasion rate and resistance
to T. viride were analyzed: substrate composition, quantity of substrate included in the tubes and colony size of the tested strain at
the time of the inoculation of the pest.
Results sometimes showed great variations in behavior between strains, but also for a given strain growing on different substrates,
indicating the importance of trophic factors in the resistance capacity. We also showed that substrate quantity and colony
size can modify the capacity to resist. However there was no correlation between growth rate on agar-malt medium, substrate
invasion rate, resistance to T. viride and fruiting capacity, showing the importance to test these different factors to select the best strains which can be further
recombined.
The optimization of solid-state fermentation conditions for mycelial growth in wheat by culinary-medicinal maitake mushroom, Grifola frondosa (Dicks.: Fr.) S.F. Gray was studied. The results from the center of the design analysis showed that the recommended optimal conditions for carbon, nitrogen sources, and temperature were 19 mg lactose/g, 2.0 mg malt extract/g, and 30 degrees C, respectively. Under these conditions, the mycelial biomass of 533.1 mg/g was obtained in fermented wheat, comparable to that (545.7 mg/g) obtained using the one-factor-at-a-time method. Based on the results obtained, EC50 values of ethanolic and hot water extracts from fermented wheat were 1.13-15.27 mg/mL, indicating that fermented wheat was effective in antioxidant activity, reducing power, scavenging ability on 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radicals, and chelating ability on ferrous ions. Total phenol contents of both extracts were 13.35 and 23.01 mg/g, respectively. Accordingly, the information obtained would be applicable for the cultivation and consumption of G. frondosa-fermented wheat to provide its beneficial health effects.
Insulin resistance is a prominent feature of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), and insulin-sensitizing drugs are used to induce ovulation. Recently, it was reported that an extract from Maitake mushroom (Grifola frondosa) improves insulin resistance.
The objective was to explore the effects of Maitake extract (SX-fraction: MSX) to induce ovulation in patients with PCOS in comparison with and in combination with clomiphene citrate (CC).
We conducted an open trial with 80 patients with PCOS at three clinics in Japan. Seventy-two (72) new patients were randomly assigned to receive MSX or CC monotherapy for up to 12 weeks. Eighteen (18) patients who did not respond to MSX or CC were subjected to combination therapy of MSX and CC for up to 16 weeks. Eight (8) patients with documented history of failure to CC received combination therapy from the beginning. Ovulation was assessed by ultrasonography.
Twenty-six (26) patients in the MSX group and 31 in the CC group were evaluated for ovulation. The ovulation rates for MSX and CC were as follows: 76.9% (20/26) and 93.5% (29/31), respectively by the patients (NS), and 41.7% (30/72) and 69.9% (58/83), respectively, by the cycles (p = 0.0006). In the combination therapy, 7 of 7 patients who failed in MSX monotherapy and 6 of 8 patients who failed in CC monotherapy showed ovulation.
The present study suggests that MSX alone may induce ovulation in PCOS patients and may be useful as an adjunct therapy for patients who failed first-line CC treatment.
Maitake D-fraction or PDF is the bioactive extract of maitake mushroom (Grifola frondosa) and its active constituent is the protein-bound polysaccharide (proteoglucan), or more specifically known as beta-glucan. PDF has been extensively studied and a number of its medicinal potentials/properties have been unveiled and demonstrated. Those include various physiological benefits ranging from immunomodulatory and antitumor activities to treatment for hypertension, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, viral infections (hepatitis B and human immunodeficiency virus), and obesity. Particularly, two major biological activities of PDF, immunomodulatory and antitumor activities, have been the main target for scientific and clinical research. To demonstrate and confirm such biological activities, numerous studies have been performed in vitro and in vivo or in clinical settings. These studies showed that PDF was indeed capable of modulating immunologic and hematologic parameters, inhibiting or regressing the cancer cell growth, and even improving quality of life of cancer patients. Synergistic potentiation of PDF with vitamin C demonstrated in vitro is rather interesting and may have clinical implication, because such combination therapy appears to help improve the efficacy of currently ongoing cancer therapies. Recently, intravenous administration of vitamin C has been often used to increase its physiological concentration and this useful procedure may further make this combination therapy feasible. Therefore, PDF may have great potential, either being used solely or combined with other agents, for cancer therapy. Such relevant and detailed studies will be described and discussed herein with a special focus on the combination of PDF and vitamin C as a viable therapeutic option.
A lectin, which exerted a hypotensive action in rats after intravenous injection via the jugular vein, was isolated from the mycelia of the edible mushroom Tricholoma mongolicum. The lectin possessed a molecular weight of 37 K and its hypotensive activity was dose-dependent. Administration of the lectin at a dose of 10 mg/kg body weight caused a mean arterial blood pressure reduction of 95.3 +/- 7.4 mmHg. The lectin's hypotensive action was not mediated via autonomic ganglion transmission, alpha-adrenoceptors, beta-adrenoceptors, cholinergic receptors, histaminergic receptors, nor the renin-angiotensin system, but it was probably mediated through vasorelaxation via adenosine A2 receptors and/or nitric oxide production.
Cordyceps sinensis is a herb medicine in China for the treatment of general debility after sickness and for persons of advanced age. In the present study, cordyceps sinensis was extract by phosphate buffer saline (PBS) and dialyzed overnight against PBS using a membrane cut off at 3,500 dalton molecular weight. The resulting macromolecule fraction (defined as CS) was assayed in anesthetized rats for hypotensive effects and in isolated aorta for vasorelaxant effects. Intravenous injection of CS (8,16, 24 and 32 mg/kg, respectively) suppressed significantly the mean arterial pressure (MAP) in a dose-dependent manner. 32 mg/kg of CS induces the maximal hypotensive response with a 58 +/- 4 mm Hg (from 107 +/- 6 to 49 +/- 3 mm Hg) change in MAP and a over 45 min action duration. In aortic rings precontracted with phenylephrine treatment with CS between 0.5 and 500 microg/ml induced dose dependent relaxation. Maximal vasorelaxant response evoked by 150 microg/ml CS was 68.9 +/- 7.3%. Furthermore, CS-induced vasorelaxation is mediated by the endothelium possibly by stimulating the release of the nitric oxide and endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor. In conclusion, the present study revealed that presence of a constituent in CS which reduces MAP by relaxing the vascular beds directly. However, the effect may be caused by a single active ingredient or by the combined action of many active agents found in the extract.
Maitake (Grifola frondosa) is the Japanese name for an edible fungus with a large fruiting body characterized by overlapping caps. It is a premier culinary as well as medicinal mushroom. Maitake is increasingly being recognized as a potent source of polysaccharide compounds with dramatic health-promoting potential. The most recent development is the MD-fraction, a proprietary maitake extract its Japanese inventors consider to be a notable advance upon the preceding D-fraction. The D-fraction, the MD-fraction, and other extracts, often in combination with whole maitake powder, have shown particular promise as immunomodulating agents, and as an adjunct to cancer and HIV therapy. They may also provide some benefit in the treatment of hyperlipidemia, hypertension, and hepatitis.
We examined benefits of a water-soluble extract of maitake mushroom designated as Fraction X (FXM) on the glucose/insulin metabolism of insulin-resistant KK mice, and compared the results of FXM with those of a sulphonylurea, Glipizide.
In several acute studies, insulin-resistant KK mice were gavaged with a single dose of varying concentrations of FXM, or a single dose of one concentration of the oral hypoglycaemic drug, Glipizide. In the one chronic study, KK mice were gavaged with FXM, Glipizide, or an equal volume of isotonic saline (baseline control) twice daily. Retro-orbital blood was drawn on the morning of the 4th and 7th days before the early gavage. Blood glucose was measured by routine laboratory procedures, and serum insulin was estimated by a radioimmunoassay (RIA) assay developed specifically for rodents.
At a dose of FXM (140 mg/mouse), a statistically significant lowering of circulating glucose concentrations was again seen at 8-12 h and 16-18 h after oral gavage. The lowering approximated 25% of the original concentration. Oral gavage of Glipizide resulted in statistically significantly lower values of circulating glucose (25-37% lower compared with baseline) at 8-24 h post dosing. In the chronic study, the circulating concentrations of glucose and insulin of mice taking 140 mg FXM per day were decreased significantly at days 4 and 7.
FXM, a natural extract obtained from maitake mushroom, favourably influences glucose/insulin metabolism in insulin-resistant KK mice. The lowering of both circulating glucose and insulin concentrations suggests that FXM works primarily by enhancing peripheral insulin sensitivity.
The postulated anticancer effect of D-fraction, the bioactive extract of maitake mushroom, on three types (CF33, CF21, and CL-1) of canine cancer cells was evaluated. The effect of D-fraction on several human cancer cells was also investigated. The effect of other beta-glucan products was likewise examined. D-fraction was highly effective on the canine cancer cells, either potently inhibiting cell growth or directly killing cells. Similar effects were also demonstrated in certain human cancer cells. However, other beta-glucan products relevant to D-fraction had no such effects on canine cancer cells. Therefore, D-fraction is a potent natural agent that could be useful in treating canine cancers as well as other veterinary cancers.
Vascular biology assumes a pivotal role in the initiation and perpetuation of hypertension and target organ damage sequelae. Endothelial activation, oxidative stress, and vascular smooth muscle dysfunction (hypertrophy, hyperplasia, remodeling) are initial events that start hypertension. Nutrient-gene interactions determine a broad array of phenotypic consequences such as vascular problems and hypertension. Optimal nutrition, nutraceuticals, vitamins, antioxidants, minerals, weight loss, exercise, smoking cessation, and moderate restriction of alcohol and caffeine in addition to other lifestyle modifications can prevent, delay the onset, reduce the severity, treat, and control hypertension in many patients. An integrative approach combining these lifestyle suggestions with the correct pharmacological treatment will best achieve new goal blood pressure levels, reduce cardiovascular risk factors, improve vascular biology and vascular health, and reduce target organ damage including coronary heart disease, stroke, congestive heart failure, and renal disease. The expanded scientific roles for nutraceutical supplements will be discussed in relation to the prevention and treatment of essential hypertension with emphasis on mechanisms of action and clinical integration with drug therapy as indicated based, in part, on the Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure, the European Society of Hypertension, the European Society of Cardiology, the International Society of Hypertension, the Canadian Society of Hypertension, and other hypertension guidelines.
Previous studies have indicated that MD-fraction (MDF), in which the active component is beta 1,6-glucan with beta 1,3-branches, has anti-tumor activity as an oral agent and acts as an immune adjuvant. Since some other beta glucans appear to promote mobilization of hematopoietic stem cells, the effects of a beta glucan extract from the Maitake mushroom "MD-fraction" on hematopoietic stem cells were examined in a colony forming assay. Here we report for the first time that MDF has a dose response effect on mouse bone marrow cells (BMC) hematopoiesis in vitro. Using the Colony Forming Unit (CFU) assay to detect formation of granulocyte-macrophage (CFU-GM) colonies, and the XTT cytotoxicitiy assay to measure BMC viability, the data showed that the addition of MDF significantly enhanced the development of CFU-GM in a dose range of 50-100 microg/ml (p<0.004). The mechanism of action included significant increase of nonadherent BMC viability, which was observed at MDF doses of 12.5-100 microg/ml (p<0.005). In the presence of Doxorubicin (DOX), MDF promoted BMC viability and protected CFU-GM from DOX induced toxicity. In addition, MDF treatment promoted the recovery of CFU-GM colony formation after BMC were pretreated with DOX. These studies provided the first evidence that MDF acts directly in a dose dependent manner on hematopoietic BMC and enhances BMC growth and differentiation into colony forming cells.
The fermentation of Grifola frondosa was investigated in the shake flasks and a 5-L jar fermenter in batch and fed-batch modes. In the shake-flask experiments, the preferable mycelial growth and exopolysaccharide (EPS) production was observed at relatively low pH; maltose and glucose were preferred carbon sources for high mycelial production. The EPS was doubled after 13 d of cultivation when glucose was increased from 2% to 4%. Yeast extract (YE) (0.4%) in combination with corn steep powder (CSP) (0.6%) and YE (0.8%) in combination with CSP (1.2%) were preferred nitrogen sources for high mycelial production and EPS production, respectively. All plant oils tested significantly stimulate cell growth of G. frondosa but they failed to enhance EPS production. The EPS products usually consisted of two fractions of different molecular sizes varied by the plant oils used. The fed-batch fermentation by glucose feeding was performed when the glucose concentration in the medium was lower than 0.5% (5g/L), which greatly enhanced the accumulation of mycelial biomass and EPS; the mycelial biomass and EPS were 3.97g/L and 1.04g/L before glucose feeding, which reached 8.23g/L and 3.88g/L at 13 d of cultivation. In contrast, the mycelial biomass and EPS in the batch fermentation were 6.7g/L and 3.3g/L at 13 d of cultivation.
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