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Sex difference in muscular strength in equally-trained men and women
Abstract
Sumario: The purposes of the present study were: (1) to determine the magnitude of the sex difference in upper and lower-body strenght in groups of men and women with similar physical activity backgrounds and (2) to determine the extent to which the sex difference in strenght is explained by differences in FFW and FFCSA. By deduction, the portion of the sex difference in strength not acounted for by FFW and FFCSA could be attributed to neuromuscular and/or other factors
... Males do tend to have more muscle mass than females, which results in a mean of 40-75% greater strength among males (Bishop, Cureton, and Collins, 1987), and this difference is more apparent in the upper than the lower body (Sale, 1999). However, when controlling for size and muscle mass, there is no difference in strength between females and males (Bishop, Cureton, and Collins, 1987;Lindle et al., 1997;Miller et al., 1993). ...
... Males do tend to have more muscle mass than females, which results in a mean of 40-75% greater strength among males (Bishop, Cureton, and Collins, 1987), and this difference is more apparent in the upper than the lower body (Sale, 1999). However, when controlling for size and muscle mass, there is no difference in strength between females and males (Bishop, Cureton, and Collins, 1987;Lindle et al., 1997;Miller et al., 1993). A female and a male of the same size and body composition will have the same approximate strength capabilities. ...
Myths of “Man the Hunter” and male biological superiority persist in interpretations and reconstructions of human evolution. Although there are uncontroversial average biological differences between females and males, the potential physiological advantages females may possess are less well‐known and less well‐studied. Here we review and present emerging physiological evidence that females may be metabolically better suited for endurance activities such as running, which could have profound implications for understanding subsistence capabilities and patterns in the past. We discuss the role of estrogen and adiponectin as respective key modulators of glucose and fat metabolism, both of which are critical fuels during long endurance activities. We also discuss how differences in overall body composition, muscle fiber composition, the metabolic cost of load carrying, and self‐pacing may provide females with increased endurance capacities. Highlighting these potential advantages provides a physiological framework that complements existing archaeological (Lacy and Ocobock, this issue) and cultural work reassessing female endurance and hunting capabilities as well as the sexual division of labor. Such a holistic approach is critical to amending our current understanding of hu(wo)man evolution.
... Men have more muscle mass and consequently can generate more muscle force and power than women, particularly in upper-body muscles even when training history is similar. 11 Moreover, women find men with muscular, mesomorphic builds most physically attractive. 12,13 Thus, fitness attributes that interest men the most appear to be those in which better performance would affirm or accentuate their masculinity. ...
... Similarly, women have greater joint range of motion than men at many joints, 14,15 and feedback on flexibility performance might affirm or accentuate their femininity. Nevertheless, although muscle strength of all major muscle groups, whether expressed in absolute or relative-to-body-mass terms, is greater in men than women, 10,11 and, although men participate in strength training more frequently than women, 10 no significant difference existed in interest in learning about leg or core/ abdominal strength. However, in the Psychology Sample, men were significantly more interested than women in learning their arm strength. ...
Unequal proportions of male and female participants in exercise research might be attributed, in part, to differences in interest and willingness to participate. We tested if men and women are equally interested and willing to undergo exercise research procedures and if they consider different factors when deciding to participate. Two samples completed an online survey. Sample 1 (129 men, 227 women) responded to advertisements on social media and survey-sharing web-sites. Sample 2 (155 men, 504 women) was comprised of undergraduate psychology students. In both samples, men were significantly more interested to learn their muscle mass amount, running speed, jump height, and ball throwing ability , and more willing to receive electrical shocks, cycle or run until exhaustion, complete strength training that causes muscle soreness, and take muscle-building supplements (all p ≤ 0.013, d = 0.23-0.48). Women were significantly more interested to learn their flexibility, and more willing to complete surveys, participate in stretching and group aerobics interventions, and participate in home exercise with online instruction (all p ≤ 0.021, d = 0.12-0.71). Women rated the following significantly more important when deciding to participate: study's implications for society; personal health status; confidence in own abilities; potential anxiety during testing; type of research facility; time to complete study; and invasiveness, pain/discomfort, and possible side effects of procedures (all p < 0.05, d = 0.26-0.81). Differences in interest and willingness to participate in research probably contribute to different proportions of men and women as participants in exercise research. Knowledge of these differences might help researchers develop recruitment strategies aimed at encouraging both men and women to participate in exercise studies.
... . In adults, males tend to have a higher EE than females due to their higher muscle mass, which requires more energy for maintenance [21]. Regarding muscle strength, males tend to have higher strength levels due to the difference in muscle size, which favors males [22], which is larger in upper-body strength than it is in lower-body strength [23]. This suggests that sex plays a significant role in EE. ...
The main objective of this study was to determine the differences in energy expenditure (EE) according to sex during and after two different squat training protocols in a group of healthy young adults. Twenty-nine Sports Sciences students volunteered to participate in this study. They attended the laboratory on four different days and completed four sessions: two sessions with 3 sets of 12 repetitions at 75% of their one-repetition maximum (RM) and two sessions with 3 sets of 30 repetitions at 50% of their 1RM. Energy expenditure was evaluated using an indirect calorimeter. Males consistently demonstrated higher EE in all sessions and intensities. The linear regression model identified a significant association between sex, BMI, and total EE across all sessions and intensities. In conclusion, males exhibited higher EE in both protocols (50% and 75% of 1RM) throughout all sessions. Furthermore, sex and BMI were found to influence EE in healthy young adults. Therefore, coaches should consider sex when assessing EE, as the metabolic response differs between males and females.
... As SV players are disabled in their lower bodies, it is very important for them to have upper body physical fitness, core muscle strength and hand grip strength (Wiliński et al., 2022) to move on the floor using hands as well as react fast for getting into position early enough to execute properly each skill (Yüksel & Sevindi, 2018). The superiority of men vs women in the skill of setting may be justified by the superiority of men in general on anthropometric characteristics and their strength (Bishop et al., 1987;Wiliński et al., 2022) compared to women. ...
... Muscular stiffness, muscular elasticity and explosive strength are the main components of athletes' performance and vary according to gender and ethnicity [6]. Muscular elasticity and flexibility capacity is a determining factor influencing the number of repetitions of all exercises performed, regardless of gender. ...
This study aimed to assess whether gender and age influenced differences in some strength indices in female and male primary school students. A total of 105 primary school students were sampled, 46 girls and 59 boys. The muscle regions on which the tests were applied were: the lumbar region, lower limbs, upper limbs, and abdominal region. The tests performed on the subjects were in accordance with age-specific motor characteristics and the current school curriculum, they were as follows: torso raises from dorsal decubitus and torso raises from facial decubitus, squats, and push-ups. A significant difference was identified in the Push Up and Squats samples.
... In this regard, there are biological differences between males and females in body tissue composition and muscle architecture, which leads to differences in motor ability (Miller et al., 1993;Bartolomei et al., 2021). Despite using similar loads and having similar training experiences, males are stronger than females (Bishop et al., 1987). Indeed, even using the individualized relative load in females resulted in an external load that was too high to maintain jump enhancement during testing. ...
There are limited data concerning the disparity between males and females in post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) based on isometry. Therefore, this study aimed to establish if sex differences exist in the PAPE effect on jump height. The study included 30 males and 15 females aged between 19 and 25, with relative strength in the back squat of at least 110% of body weight and a minimum of 3 years of resistance training experience. A baseline countermovement jump (CMJ) was performed, and the PAPE protocol, which involved three 4-s sets of isometric fullback squats with a 1-min rest interval, was introduced. Five CMJs were performed over the following 9 minutes in 2 minutes rest intervals. Changes (Δ) towards the baseline and each jump height results were calculated and analyzed in the absolute (cm) and relative (%) approach. The repeated measures ANOVA with sex as between-groups effect and time of the changes as within-group effect were conducted. Results showed statistically significant interaction (sex×time) in absolute changes (Δ cm) (F = 2.50, η 2 = 0.05, p = 0.0447), which indicated that the sex effect has changed over time. Post-hoc test showed that during the first 3 minutes, men and women benefited equally, but in the fifth and seventh minutes, the observed changes were greater in men, thus close to significance (p = 0.0797, p = 0.0786), and in the last minute, the difference was statistically significant (p = 0.0309). Also, a statistically significant interaction effect was observed for relative changes (Δ %) (F = 4.22, η 2 = 0.09, p = 0.0027). At the beginning (the first and third minutes), changes in females were greater than in males, but the differences were insignificant. However, after 5 minutes, the decrease in females was observed with statistically significant differences in the last minute compared to males (p = 0.0391). Chi-Squared analysis indicated that the time to peak performance was insignificant (χ 2 = 7.45, p = 0.1140) in both sexes. The introduced PAPE protocol based on isometry improved jump height in both sexes, with performance enhancement recorded in the third-minute post-activation. However, performance decreased in females over the next 6 minutes, while it was maintained in the male group. Despite the generally positive short-term effects of the protocol on females, the usefulness of the protocol is limited. Koźlenia D and Domaradzki J (2023), The sex effects on changes in jump performance following an isometric back squat conditioning activity in trained adults.
... This is in line with a study by Bishop et al., which discovered that males had larger muscles than females due to occupations, sports, and activities that need greater muscle strength than female. 35 Additionally, Leblanc et al. reported that gender was the strongest predictor of lower body strength, with correlation coe±cients ranging from À0.772 to À0.634. 36 Minematsu et al. demonstrated that gender a®ected physical performance for all types of muscle strength and interactions (gender à muscle strength). ...
Background: The decline in lower limb muscle strength, one of the risk factors for falling in the older adults, puts older persons at an increased risk of falling. The assessment of the lower limb muscle strength is very important.
Objective: The purpose of this study was to construct the equation for predicting knee extensor muscle strength based on demographic data and the results of the Five-Time Sit-to-Stand Test (FTSST).
Methods: A total of 121 healthy elders (mean age [Formula: see text]) were asked to complete the FTSST and submit the demographic information. By using a stationary push–pull dynamometer, the knee extensor strength of each participant was assessed. The multiple regression analysis was used to explore knee extensor strength prediction equation.
Results: The findings demonstrated that the knee extensor strength equation was developed using variables obtained from gender, weight, and time to complete the FTSST. The equation was found to have a high correlation ([Formula: see text]) and 70.1% estimation power. Its formula was as follows: Knee extensor [Formula: see text] (gender; [Formula: see text] or [Formula: see text])[Formula: see text][Formula: see text][Formula: see text]0.189 (weight)[Formula: see text][Formula: see text][Formula: see text]2.617 (time to complete the FTSST). However, there was an estimating error in this equation of 4.72[Formula: see text]kg.
Conclusion: The determining factors influencing knee extensor strength, which can be utilized to estimate the strength in elderly individuals, are demographic variables including gender, weight, and the time taken to complete the FTSST.
... Participant age, height, weight, BMI, resting HR, and resting BP was determined before and after the intervention. Size is reported here as fat-free crosssectional area (FFCSA) of the forearm and upper arm and was calculated to estimate lean mass (Aghazadeh et al., 1993;Bishop et al., 1987). The equation utilized to determine FFSCA was: ...
The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of local heating and cooling with isometric exercise training of upper arm and forearm. College-aged (n=12; 21±1 y) volunteers performed 4-wk isometric exercise training of the non-dominant arm (upper arm, isometric bicep curl; forearm, handgrip), while the dominant arm served as the control. Training was performed 3x/wk and consisted of 1 set of isometric handgrip and bicep curl until volitional exhaustion at 60% pre-training MVC for the forearm (handgrip) and 1RM for the upper arm (bicep curl). Randomized ordering of heating (40°C; 15 min) and cooling (12°C; 15 min) preceded each training session. Indirect assessment of muscle size (fat-free cross-sectional area [FFCSA]) was made before and after the training period via skin fold and limb circumference measures. Biceps 1RM increased significantly (p < 0.05) after the intervention in both conditions (trained: +6%; control: +7%), whereas only the control arm increased time to fatigue (+40%; p < 0.05). FFSCA of the upper arm remained unchanged (p>0.05) in both conditions. An effect of time was noted for forearm MVC (+8%; p < 0.05), while both groups increased (p < 0.05) time to fatigue (trained: +82%; control: +64%). A trend toward an effect of time was also noted for FFCSA of the forearm (+3%; p <.10). While the intervention employed here led to many notable adaptations, the thermal stress did not appear to exert a clear benefit. Coupled with the practicality and feasibility, improving size and performance in such a short time frame has therapeutic and ergogenic aid implications.
The present study aimed to determine gender differences in the hand grip strength (HGS) and to examine the relations between HGS, anthropometric characteristics, and physical activity (PA) in Greek young adults. A cross-sectional observational study of 276 students (21.5 ± 4.1 years, 122 men, 154 women) was conducted at the University of Patras, Greece. HGS was assessed via a hand-held grip strength dynamometer; body composition was determined by bioelectrical impedance analysis; and calf, mid-arm, and waist circumferences with inelastic tape. PA was assessed with the modified Baecke Questionnaire for Habitual Physical Activity (mBQHPA). The mean of HGS was 37.15 ± 11.2 kg. Men had significantly (p < 0.001) greater HGS than women. Statistically large correlation was detected between HGS and muscle mass (r = 0.73; p ≤ 0.001), gender (r = 0.6; p ≤ 0.001), mid-arm (r = 0.74; p ≤ 0.001), and calf circumference (r = 0.69; p ≤ 0.001). Results show that fat mass was a risk factor associated with HGS, found using regression analyses in both genders. However, PA was a significant associated factor only for women participants (ΟR = 0.77; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.17-1.38; p ≤ 0.05). In summary, the HGS of Greek physiotherapy students was associated with muscle mass, gender, mid-arm, and calf circumference.
Objective:
Traumatic brain injury (TBI), a common cause of adult growth hormone deficiency (AGHD), affects 20% of Veterans returning from Iraq and Afghanistan (OEF/OIF/OND). Growth hormone replacement therapy (GHRT) improves quality of life (QoL) in AGHD but remains unexplored in this population. This pilot, observational study investigates the feasibility and efficacy of GHRT in AGHD following TBI.
Design:
In this 6-month study of combat Veterans with AGHD and TBI starting GHRT (N = 7), feasibility (completion rate and rhGH adherence) and efficacy (improvements in self-reported QoL) of GHRT were measured (primary outcomes). Secondary outcomes included body composition, physical and cognitive function, psychological and somatic symptoms, physical activity, IGF-1 levels and safety parameters. It was hypothesized that participants would adhere to GHRT and that QoL would significantly improve after six months.
Results:
Five subjects (71%) completed all study visits. All patients administered daily rhGH injections, 6 (86%) of whom consistently administered the clinically-prescribed dose. While QoL demonstrated numeric improvement, this change did not reach statistical significance (p = 0.17). Significant improvements were observed in total lean mass (p = 0.02), latissimus dorsi strength (p = 0.05), verbal learning (Trial 1, p = 0.02; Trial 5, p = 0.03), attention (p = 0.02), short-term memory (p = 0.04), and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms (p = 0.03). Body weight (p = 0.02) and total fat mass (p = 0.03) increased significantly.
Conclusion:
GHRT is a feasible and well-tolerated intervention for U.S. Veterans with TBI-related AGHD. It improved key areas impacted by AGHD and symptoms of PTSD. Larger, placebo-controlled studies testing the efficacy and safety of this intervention in this population are warranted.
The relationship between maximum voluntary concentric strength, muscle fibre type distribution and muscle cross-sectional areas were examined in 23 subjects (7 female and 11 male phys. ed. students as well as 5 male bodybuilders). Maximal knee and elbow extension as well as elbow flexion torque at the angular velocities 30, 90 and 180 degrees per second was measured. Muscle biopsies were taken from vastus lateralis and m. triceps brachii. The muscle cross-sectional area of the thigh and upper arm was measured with computed tomography scanning. The maximal torque correlated strongly to the muscle cross-sectional area times an approximative measure on the lever arm (body height). Maximal tension developed per unit of muscle cross-sectional area did not correlate significantly with per cent type I fibre area and did not differ between the female and male students or bodybuilders. Neither did the relative decrease in torque with increasing contraction velocity show any significant relationship to the per cent type I fibre area. The total number of muscle fibres was estimated by dividing the muscle cross-sectional area with the mean fibre area of m. triceps brachii. The number of fibres did not seem to differ between the sexes.
Thirteen measures of static strength, 13 body-size measurements, and the somatotypes of 77 male subjects were obtained and the interrelationships among these measures were investigated. Summary descriptive statistics are given for the 29 variables studied. Simple and selected partial correlations were calculated and the results interpreted at the 0.05 level of significance.
The zero-order correlations revealed that body weight, lean body mass and mesomorphy yielded the highest correlations with mean total strength. Stature, skinfold measurements and the length of the lever arms of the body were not related to mean total strength; however, the relationship between the strength and length of specific torso and arm linkages while weak is definitely indicated. The first-order partial correlations (weight held constant) between body size measures, lean-body mass and strength measures were about the same as the identical zero-order correlations; however, with weight held constant the skinfold measurements yielded many significant correlations with muscle strength. By holding the effects of stature constant the somatotype. components produced several significant correlations with the static-strength measures. The second-order partial correlations (weight and stature held constant) revealed that the subscapular and suprailiac skinfolds are more of a factor in the exertion of static strength than the triceps skinfold.
It would appear that the measures of body size, typology and composition used in this analysis were not effective predictors of muscle strength as measured by the static-contraction method.
(C)1969The American College of Sports Medicine
This description of some of the present knowledge on skeletal muscle fibers, their metabolic potentials, and their interplay with the degree of physical activity has revealed that skeletal muscle of man has a very large capacity for adaptation. Moreover, this adaptability appears to be of utmost importance for the metabolic response as well as for performance. Although all this is true, it should not distract us from the fact that we are lacking the most important information. The questions that need to be answered are: What triggers the changes to take place? Which are the regulatory mechanisms?
The present study was designed to investigate the isokinetic peak torque at the highest speed of muscle shortening (210 degrees/second) related to age, sex, and physical performance. The subjects were 569 normal boys and girls, 13 to 17 years of age, and 35 swimmers, 11 to 21 years of age. Peak torque of knee extensor muscles increased linearly with age for boys from 13 to 17 years, while it remained relatively constant for girls 14 to 17 years of age. The relationship (boys r = .688, p < .001; girls r = .373, p < .01) between peak torque of knee extensors and mean speed in meters per second of 50 meters maximal run was significant. Significant correlations (boys r = .728, p < .001; girls r = .515, p < .05) were also obtained between peak torque of arm pull muscles and the best record in time of 100 meters free style swimming.
In conclusion, there still appear to be basic physiological differences between the male and female, although this review would suggest that these differences aren't as great as one might expect from data collected from 'normal' populations. With further training, better coaching, better equipment and facilities, and a greater emphasis on women in sport, the gap between the sexes should close. evidence suggests that those differences reported for normal individuals in previous studies are largely the result of the female becoming sedentary with the approach of menarche. Whether this gap can be completely closed will have to await further study of a longitudinal nature.
Upper arm strength, right and left grip strength, and several anthropometric measures were recorded during a comprehensive medical examination in an epidemiological study in Tecumseh, Michigan. In the present analysis the relationship between muscular strength and body size was determined to facilitate comparisons of strength among individuals irrespective of differences in size, and more generally to derive sex, age and size specific standards for evaluating results of strength tests. Preliminary regressions of arm strength and summed grip strength on age and twelve size variables were performed. Most of the explained variation in strength variables was accounted for by five size variables, height, weight, biacromial diameter, arm girth, and triceps skinfold thickness. A canonical analysis was performed on the three strength variables and the five selected size variables, age and sex specific. After comparison of the relative weighting of strength variables in the subgroups, the unweighted sum of strength measures was adopted as a strength index. The regressions of the index on the five size variables provide age, sex and size specific means for use as a standard. Comparison of the multiple correlation coefficients from the regressions with the corresponding canonical correlation coefficients indicates the nearly optimal character of the index.
The results from nine separate studies reporting comparable static and dynamic muscle strength measurements between men and women have been reviewed. The statistical data from these studies are presented in graphical and tabular form illustrating, when appropriate, the mean ± 1 S.D., and the mean percentage difference between men and women for the given measurement. The following differences in strength measurements were observed: upper extremity strength measurements in women were found to range from 35 to 79% of men's, averaging 55.8%; lower extremity strength measurements in women ranged from 57 to 86% of men's, averaging 71.9%; trunk strength for women ranged from 37 to 70% of men's averaging 63.8%; and dynamic strength indicators revealed that women were from 59 to 84% as strong as men, with an average of 68.6%. In view of the wide range of mean percentage differences in muscle strength measurements between men and women, the author stresses the importance of exercising extreme care in making extrapolations from such data and recommends a method for making such extrapolations when the absence of direct measurements makes this necessary.
An ergonomic study was designed and conducted to determine maximum weights and work loads acceptable to female workers. The study was identical to an earlier study conducted with male industrial workers. Sixteen housewives and 15 female workers from local industry performed 3 lifting, 3 lowering, 4 pushing, 1 pulling, 1 walking, and 6 carrying tasks in a controlled environment of 70F and 45% relative humidity. Each task was performed for 40 min at each of 3 different rates of work. A psychophysical methodology was used whereby subjects controlled their own work load by adjusting the weight of the object. Forty two measurements of body size were obtained from each subject prior to the test, and measurements of heart rate were continuously recorded during the test. The results are used to predict the maximum weights and work loads that are acceptable to various percentages of the female population. Comparison of the results with earlier studies shows that the average weight handled by industrial men was significantly greater than the average weight handled by industrial women, which in turn was significantly greater than the average weight handled by housewives. However, there was considerable overlap among the 3 groups. Women exhibited less variation in adjusting object weight; consequently, the differences between the sexes are less for weights and work loads acceptable to 90% of the population, that for weights and work loads acceptable to 50% of the population. The sex differences in object weight were greater for the lifting lowering, and carrying tasks, than they were for the pushing, pulling and walking tasks. Sex differences in object weight were also greater at low rates of work than at high rates of work. Although women handled significantly less weight than men, they experienced similar or significantly higher heart rates.
Summary By means of the ultrasonic photography of the cross-section of the acting muscle bundle, together with the measurement of the muscle strength developed by the subject with maximum effort, the strength per unit area of the muscle was calculated in 245 healthy human subjects, including 119 male and 126 female.The result was summarized as the following:1.
The ultrasonic method used in this work was possibly admitted as the best way to calculate the cross-sectional area of the muscle.
2.
The arm strength was fairly proportional to the cross-sectional area of the flexor of the upper arm regardless of age and sex.
3.
The strength per unit cross-sectional area of flexor of the upper arm was 6.3 kg/cm2 in the average, standard deviation of 0.81 kg/cm2. When cross-sectional area of muscle was measured at extensive position of the forearm the strength per unit area was calculated to be 4.7 kg/cm2 at flexed position of the forearm.
4.
As to the individual variation, the strength per unit area was distributed in a range from 4 kg/cm2 to 8 kg/cm2.
5.
The strength per unit cross-sectional area was almost the same in male and female regardless of age. In addition to that, there was not found any significant difference in ordinary and trained adult.