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Anxiety sensitivity, anxiety frequency, and the prediction of fearfulness. Behavior Research and Therapy, 24, 1-8
Abstract
A distinction is proposed between anxiety (frequency of symptom occurrence) and anxiety sensitivity (beliefs that anxiety experiences have negative implications). In Study 1, a newly-constructed Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI) was shown to have sound psychometric properties for each of two samples of college students. The important finding was that people who tend to endorse one negative implication for anxiety also tend to endorse other negative implications. In Study 2, the ASI was found to be especially associated with agoraphobia and generally associated with anxiety disorders. In Study 3, the ASI explained variance on the Fear Survey Schedule—II that was not explained by either the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale or a reliable Anxiety Frequency Checklist. In predicting the development of fears, and possibly other anxiety disorders, it may be more important to know what the person thinks will happen as a result of becoming anxious than how often the person actually experiences anxiety. Implications are discussed for competing views of the ‘fear of fear’.
... While some individuals may perceive these symptoms as transient and benign, others may (mis)interpret such harmless bodily symptoms as threatening and indicative of a potentially serious physical harm (e.g., a serious illness, heart attack) or an upcoming panic attack. One trait-like, cognitive variable that might explain the individual difference in tendency to misinterpret and associate benign bodily symptoms with threat is known as anxiety sensitivity (AS) or the fear of anxiety-related symptoms (Reiss et al., 1986). This construct is distinct from other anxiety-related constructs, such as trait anxiety, which refers to a more general tendency to fear a wide range of stressors and across a variety of situations (McNally, 2002;Chorpita et al., 1996;Olatunji & Wolitzky-Taylor, 2009;Weems et al., 1997). ...
... For the assessment of fear of anxiety-related symptoms, six included studies used the Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI; Reiss et al., 1986) or its modified versions (ASI-Revised, Taylor & Cox, 1998;ASI-3, Taylor et al., 2007) in adult populations (see "Appendix D," studies 1-5, 11). The ASI and its modified versions have strong psychometric properties, including internal consistency, test-retest reliability, criterion validity, convergent, and discriminant validity (Allan et al., 2014;Dehon et al., 2005;Reiss et al., 1986;Rifkin et al., 2015;Rodriguez et al., 2004;Taylor et al., 2007;Vujanovic et al., 2007). ...
... For the assessment of fear of anxiety-related symptoms, six included studies used the Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI; Reiss et al., 1986) or its modified versions (ASI-Revised, Taylor & Cox, 1998;ASI-3, Taylor et al., 2007) in adult populations (see "Appendix D," studies 1-5, 11). The ASI and its modified versions have strong psychometric properties, including internal consistency, test-retest reliability, criterion validity, convergent, and discriminant validity (Allan et al., 2014;Dehon et al., 2005;Reiss et al., 1986;Rifkin et al., 2015;Rodriguez et al., 2004;Taylor et al., 2007;Vujanovic et al., 2007). Although the Anxiety Sensitivity Index is often used as a unidimensional measure (Asmundson et al., 2011), previous studies have found multidimensional latent structure, identifying three, lower-order factors (i.e., physical, social, and cognitive domains), which load onto a single, higher-order, general factor (Asmundson et al., 2011;Calamari et al., 2008;Dehon et al., 2005;Farris et al., 2015;Taylor et al., 2007;Vujanovic et al., 2007;Walsh et al., 2004). ...
Although anxiety sensitivity (AS), or the fear of anxiety-related symptoms, has been identified as a risk factor for the development of anxiety psychopathology, the pathways through which this fear is learned have not been fully elucidated. In the current review and meta-analysis, we aimed to systematically examine the association between parent-to-child fear learning pathways (vicarious learning, negative information, reinforcement, and punishment) and AS. A comprehensive search of literature was conducted in PsychINFO, PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science databases, using search terms combining categories related to fear learning pathways, anxiety-related symptoms, parents, children, and adolescents. Based on this search strategy, 28 studies were identified as relevant, of which 11 were included in the systematic review and 10 in the meta-analysis. The overall findings indicated that parent-to-child fear learning pathways are significantly associated with AS. The meta-analysis demonstrated a small but significant association between fear learning pathways and AS, although the type of fear learning pathway did not significantly moderate this relationship. However, age emerged as a significant moderator, suggesting a stronger association in children and adolescents compared to adults. Given that these findings are primarily based on cross-sectional studies, this review underscores the need for longitudinal and experimental research to further clarify the role of parent-to-child fear learning pathways in anxiety sensitivity. Additionally, a better understanding of these pathways may help inform existing interventions and fear prevention strategies, such as those aimed at reducing parental modeling of fearful behaviors or promoting positive verbal messages about anxiety symptoms.
... The second reason panic disorder is well-suited to this effort is that there are well-established cognitive behavioral theories that posit causal relationships among the relatively small number of symptoms of panic attacks and panic disorder (Barlow, 1988;Beck, 1988;D. M. Clark, 1986;Ehlers & Margraf, 1989;Reiss et al., 1986;van den Hout & Griez, 1983). Cognitive behavioral theories of panic disorder are thus well-aligned with the conceptual framework of network theory and hold the promise of enriching this framework by identifying specific causal relationships among symptoms. ...
... If one believes arousal to be dangerous, a given instance of elevated arousal is more likely to be interpreted as a threat. To evaluate this hypothesis, they developed the anxiety sensitivity index, a measure intended to assess the belief that the bodily sensations that accompany anxiety are dangerous (Reiss et al., 1986), and there is considerable evidence linking scores on the anxiety sensitivity index to the experience of panic attacks (McNally, 2002). Learning theorists have similarly posited that in those with panic disorder, arousal-related bodily sensations have become associated with panic. ...
... Similarly, experiencing fear and anxiety in response to arousal-related bodily sensations strongly predicts anxiety and PTSD (Chambless & Gracely, 1989;Olatunji & Wolitzky-Taylor, 2009; and interoceptive exposure targeting this fear of somatic sensations is a component of the transdiagnostic Unified Protocol (Barlow et al., 2017;Ellard et al., 2010). Accordingly, there is good reason to suspect that the amplifying feedback loop between arousal and perceived threat, and the arousal schema component that moderates its strength, are transdiagnostic components at play within the systems giving rise to multiple disorders (Boswell et al., 2013;Reiss et al., 1986;Smits et al., 2019). Similarly, avoidance may limit opportunities for positive experiences, prompt feelings of isolation and loneliness, and foster negative information processing biases, thereby feeding into the system that gives rise to depression (Fried et al., 2015;Trew, 2011). ...
The network theory of psychopathology posits that mental disorders are systems of mutually reinforcing symptoms. This framework has proven highly generative but does not specify precisely how any specific mental disorder operates as such a system. Cognitive behavioral theories of mental disorders provide considerable insight into how these systems may operate. However, the development of cognitive behavioral theories has itself been stagnant in recent years. In this article, we advance both theoretical frameworks by developing a network theory of panic disorder rooted in cognitive behavioral theory and formalized as a computational model. We use this computational model to evaluate the theory’s ability to explain five fundamental panic disorder-related phenomena. Our results demonstrate that the network theory of panic disorder can explain core panic disorder phenomena. In addition, by formalizing this theory as a computational model and using the model to evaluate the theory’s implications, we reveal gaps in the empirical literature and shortcomings in theories of panic disorder. We use these limitations to develop a novel, theory-driven agenda for panic disorder research. This agenda departs from current research practices and places its focus on (a) addressing areas in need of more rigorous descriptive research, (b) investigating novel phenomena predicted by the computational model, and (c) ongoing collaborative development of formal theories of panic disorder, with explanation as a central criterion for theory evaluation. We conclude with a discussion of the implications of this work for research investigating mental disorders as complex systems.
... Distress tolerance, the ability to withstand negative emotional states (Zvolensky et al., 2010), has likewise been investigated cross-sectionally in the association between childhood maltreatment and PTSD, depression, anxiety, and alcohol use in adulthood (Robinson et al., 2021). Anxiety sensitivity, the fear of anxiety and anxious arousal (Reiss et al., 1986), has been examined in relation to childhood adversity and adult outcomes, including sleep disturbance (Amarneh et al., 2023), risk of substance use relapse (King et al., 2020), and borderline personality disorder (Bounoua et al., 2015). Although most of these studies show cross-sectional associations, they suggest that emotion dysregulation, distress tolerance, and anxiety sensitivity could be important transdiagnostic mechanisms that may serve as proximal outcomes following ACEs and may link to subsequent psychopathology. ...
... dimensions of anxiety sensitivity: physical, cognitive, and social concerns. The SSASI was adapted from the widely used and highly reliable Anxiety Sensitivity Index (Reiss et al., 1986). As noted by Zvolensky et al. (2018b), the SSASI offers a brief alternative to lengthier measures assessing anxiety sensitivity. ...
Childhood experiences, both adverse and positive, influence mental health outcomes in adulthood. This study examined the prevalence of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) and Positive Childhood Experiences (PCEs) among a sample of Black Americans (N = 999, M = 45.6 years, SD = 17.16 years, range = 18–82 years) and investigated how ACEs, PCEs, and their interaction were each associated with key transdiagnostic factors known to underlie mental health problems: emotion dysregulation, distress tolerance, and anxiety sensitivity in adulthood. Participants completed the ACEs scale, Benevolent Childhood Experiences (BCEs) scale, Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale-short form, Distress Tolerance Scale-short form, and Short Scale Anxiety Sensitivity Index. Participants reported moderate ACEs (M = 2.97) and relatively high BCEs (M = 8.44). Results revealed that ACEs and BCEs were inversely but only modestly associated. In linear regressions that accounted for both ACEs and BCEs together, higher ACEs were associated with higher levels of emotion dysregulation and anxiety sensitivity and lower levels of distress tolerance. Meanwhile, higher BCEs were associated with lower emotion dysregulation and anxiety sensitivity and higher distress tolerance. While the interaction between ACEs and BCEs was not significant for any outcome, post hoc exploratory tests showed cohort effects by stage of adulthood for ACEs, PCEs, and outcomes. Findings indicate that many individuals have at least some of both types of experiences, and both types of experiences directly associate with each outcome. Findings highlight the importance of both ACEs and PCEs for psychosocial functioning and the mental health of Black American adults.
... Health anxiety behaviors were measured using the Health Anxiety Behavior Inventory (HABI), which generates four distinct sums indicative of (i) bodily preoccupation and checking (0-9), (ii) information-and reassurance-seeking (0-9), (iii) prevention and planning (0-9), and (iv) overt avoidance (0-9) [14]. Anxiety sensitivity was measured using the 16-item Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI-16), with a theoretical score range of 0-64 [15]. The intolerance of uncertainty was measured using the 12-item Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale (IUS-12), with a theoretical score range of 12-60 [16]. ...
... Regardless of the delivery format, we can now also be reasonably certain, based on the replication of previous findings, that patients improve more over the course of exposure-focused CBT if they report more severe pre-treatment levels of either health anxietyincluding cognitive and emotional aspects, as well as certain behaviors in terms of bodily preoccupation/ checking and prevention/planningor anxiety sensitivity. This highlights the potential benefits of measuring health anxiety behaviors [14] and anxiety sensitivity [15] alongside the cognitive and emotional aspects of health anxiety at admission. ...
... The Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI). The Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI; Reiss et al., 1986) was used as a measure of AS. The ASI is a 16-item self-report questionnaire in which each item is rated on a fivepoint Likert scale from 1 (very little) to 5 (very much) endorsement. ...
... The ASI yields a total score by adding the calculated responses for all 16 items. Using the total score for the instrument, the ASI has demonstrated sound psychometric properties, which include adequate test-retest reliability (Reiss et al., 1986), high internal consistency and good validity. The psychometric properties of the Persian language version showed promising results (Beirami et al., 2012). ...
The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between interoceptive awareness, mindfulness and anxiety sensitivity focusing on the potential mediating role of emotion dysregulation. This cross-sectional study was conducted with 268 healthy participants in Tehran, who were selected using convenient online sampling and completed four questionnaires: Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness Version-2 (MAIA-2), Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS), Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI), and Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS). Structural equation modeling was used for the data analysis. Goodness of fit indices indicated that the proposed model was a good fit to the data. Results showed that there were a significant correlation between interoceptive awareness and mindfulness. The direct paths between interoceptive awareness and both emotion dysregulation and anxiety sensitivity were statistically significant. The direct paths between mindfulness and both emotion dysregulation and anxiety sensitivity were also statistically significant. Results also indicated that emotion dysregulation can significantly mediate the relationship between anxiety sensitivity and both interoceptive awareness and mindfulness. This study offers valuable insight into the integrated processes that contribute to individuals' anxiety experiences and potentially offers avenues for targeted interventions and therapeutic approaches.
... Anxiety sensitivity is a fear of anxiety or a fear of fear, particularly that the somatic experiences of anxiety experiences have negative implications (Reiss et al., 1986). The relationship between anxiety and sexual functioning may be moderated by anxiety sensitivity among patients with anxiety disorders. ...
... The Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI) is a 16-item self-report measure that assesses a respondent's beliefs that anxiety experiences have negative implications or a fear of anxiety or a fear of fear. Items are rated on a 5-point scale (0 = very little, 4 = very much) and scores range from 0 to 64, with higher scores indicating higher levels of anxiety sensitivity (Reiss et al., 1986). The ASI demonstrated good internal reliability in this study (α = .89). ...
Although previous studies have established links between anxiety disorders, sexual dysfunctions, and sexual satisfaction, there is relatively little research on the specific factors associated with living with an anxiety disorder that might contribute to these sexual health disparities. This study assessed the associations between anxiety, cognitive distractions, biased expectancies, and 1) sexual dysfunction (DSM-5 diagnostic criteria) 2) associated distress, and 3) sexual satisfaction while considering the role of pharmacological treatment-related sexual side effects and comorbid depressive symptoms. A large clinical population (N = 207) of people with anxiety diagnoses seeking treatment at 11 outpatient anxiety clinics in Denmark participated. Higher cognitive distraction levels were linked with a greater risk of sexual dysfunction, more sexual dysfunction-associated distress, and lower sexual satisfaction. Higher sexuality and anxiety biased expectancies were associated with an increased risk of sexual dysfunctions and associated distress and decreased sexual satisfaction. Higher anxiety symptom severity was only associated with lower sexual satisfaction among female respondents. Higher anxiety sensitivity was linked to a higher risk of sexual dysfunction, associated distress, and lower sexual satisfaction among female participants only.
... The Measures column states the clinical symptom that was assessed, followed by the assessment measure in brackets. Assessment measures include the following: Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI) 68 ; Barratt Impulsiveness Scale -Brief (BIS) 69 ...
Background
Sleep problems are common among people with psychosis. Research suggests poor sleep is causally related to psychosis, anxiety and depression.
Aims
This review investigates the effectiveness and acceptability of cognitive–behavioural therapy (CBT) in targeting sleep problems in people with and at risk of psychosis.
Method
Four databases were searched in line with PRISMA guidelines. Eligible studies either evaluated (a) CBT targeting sleep problems in people with or at risk of psychosis, or (b) subjective experiences of this treatment. Articles not published in peer-review journals were excluded. Treatment effectiveness was investigated for sleep, psychosis and other clinical outcomes. Acceptability was evaluated using qualitative data, drop-out rates, adverse events and relevant questionnaires. Adaptations to standard treatment protocols were described. Research quality was appraised using Cochrane Risk of Bias tools for randomised and non-randomised trials, and a checklist was developed for qualitative papers.
Results
Of the 975 records identified, 14 were eligible. The most common CBT target was insomnia. Treatment protocols were typically adapted by omitting sleep restriction. Large effect sizes were reported for sleep outcomes; however, effects for other clinical outcomes were less clear. Qualitative data and acceptability outcomes suggest that treatment was received positively by participants.
Conclusions
CBT is an effective and acceptable treatment for sleep problems in people with and at risk of psychosis. However, our conclusions are limited by few good-quality studies and small samples. Further gold-standard research is required to inform evidence-based guidelines.
... The Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI-3; Reiss et al., 1986) is a 16-item measure on which respondents indicate the degree to which they fear the potential "negative" consequences of anxiety-related symptoms. The ASI-3 includes a "physical concerns" factor (PC; 8 items), a "social concerns" factor (SC; 4 items) and a "cognitive concerns" factor (CC; 4 items). ...
Purpose
People Who Stutter (PWS) are often characterized by the presence of cognitive-emotional issues, resulting in conditions such as social phobia and avoidance behaviors. Emotions have been demonstrated to have a role in modulating speech-motor systems. Thus, in PWS, emotion and cognition (i.e., higher levels of trait-stable-neuroticism-and contextual-anticipation-anxiety) could negatively influence speech-motor networks, resulting in an increased number of dysfluencies.
Methods
To test this hypothesis, we recruited 13 PWS who were matched to 13 Fluent Speakers (FS). Participants were all Italian speakers and completed the NEO-PI-3 scale to assess neuroticism, and the ASI-3 scale for anxiety sensitivity. Successively, participants considered 55 words (repeated two times) and 55 sentences, and completed a task in which they had to evaluate their anticipation of stuttering before reading them aloud. Anticipation scores, reading times, and frequency of stuttering were evaluated and used for analyses.
Results
Findings suggest that PWS mainly had higher social concern than the fluent speakers. Moreover, a tendency toward higher levels of neuroticism is evident. Linear regressions suggest that reading times in PWS (positively related to frequency of stuttering) may be mainly explained by stuttering anticipation scores and, secondarily, by neuroticism levels. Stuttering anticipation was also positively related to the recorded frequencies of dysfluencies.
Conclusion
Stuttering anticipation and neuroticism may be useful indexes for predicting dysfluencies and speech behavior, in PWS. Surely, this may be related to long-life stuttering and adaptive/maladaptive compensation attempts. In every case, in a clinical context, this also suggests the importance of fully evaluating behavioral/emotional aspects of stuttering, to obtain a more complete picture of patients’ needs and “tailored”/multidisciplinary interventions.
... Anxiety sensitivity was assessed using the Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI-16) [37], which measures the belief that experiencing anxiety has negative consequences. It consists of 16 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale from 0 (very little) to 4 (very much). ...
Background
Neuroticism is considered the general antecedent of many specific psychopathological conditions. Even though previous studies addressed the issue of a mediated relationship by which it exerts its influence, they failed to encapsulate the changes that occur over time. Approaching the pathway between neuroticism and psychopathology from a longitudinal perspective might clarify its underlying mechanisms.
Methods
The present study aimed to address this by examining the associations between neuroticism, social-cognitive vulnerabilities (anxiety sensitivity, intolerance of uncertainty, experiential avoidance, looming cognitive style), and internalizing psychopathology (depression, anxiety, panic) in an N = 373 student sample. Cross-lagged Panel Model (CLPM) and Random-Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Model (RI-CLPM) were used to test the mediation analyses in a longitudinal three-wave design.
Results
At the between-person level, the effect of neuroticism and social-cognitive vulnerabilities, such as experiential avoidance and intolerance of uncertainty, on depression and anxiety was found to be significant. An indirect effect of neuroticism was observed specifically for anxiety sensitivity and panic. No significant effects emerged at the within-person level.
Conclusions
Neuroticism and social-cognitive factors together contribute to depression and anxiety symptoms, while neuroticism’s indirect influence better explains the onset of panic at a stable, between-person level. Theoretical considerations of the results and prospective research implications are discussed.
... The Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI; Reiss, Peterson, Gursky, McNally, 1986;Rodriguez, Bruce, Pagano, Spencer, & Keller, 2004) assesses AS. As an individual trait concept, AS determines a person's proneness to become frightened by anxiety-related sensations (Reiss, 1997). ...
... Elkins et al. (2014) found a significant positive association between anxiety sensitivity and PD symptom severity with a medium effect size. Anxiety sensitivity is the fear of bodily sensations associated with anxiety due to the concern that they are potentially dangerous (Reiss et al., 1986), and is thus relevant to Clark's cognitive model of PD. One further study investigated body sensation interpretation and panic symptoms in a broader clinical sample of anxious adolescents: Micco et al. (2013) established a positive relationship between negative interpretation of body sensations and higher levels of panic symptoms, with a medium effect size. ...
Background
Improved understanding of the cognitive and behavioural processes underpinning panic disorder (PD) in adolescents could improve identification and treatment.
Aims
We investigated whether the processes outlined in Clark’s (1986) cognitive model of PD are observed in adolescents with PD, are specific to PD, and predict symptom severity.
Method
We recruited three groups of adolescents (12–17 years): 34 with a PD diagnosis, 33 with another anxiety disorder excluding PD (‘clinical control’), and 34 scoring below the clinical cut-off on a measure of anxiety symptoms (‘community control’). Participants self-reported on measures of PD symptom severity, catastrophic cognitions, bodily sensation fear, and safety-seeking behaviours.
Results
The PD group reported significantly higher levels of catastrophic cognitions and safety-seeking behaviours than both control groups. They reported significantly higher levels of bodily sensation fear compared with the community but not the clinical control group. All process measures positively predicted PD symptom severity across all groups.
Conclusions
We found evidence of catastrophic cognitions and safety-seeking behaviours as PD-specific processes in adolescents which predict symptom severity. Bodily sensation fear also predicted symptom severity. Findings support Clark’s cognitive model of PD in adolescents and suggest that catastrophic cognitions and safety behaviours may be targets for adolescent PD treatment.
... Anxiety Sensitivity Index. The Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI; Reiss et al., 1986) is a 16-item self-report questionnaire designed to measure beliefs about negative consequences of experiencing anxiety. This process of change is related to the Confronting Physical Sensations module. ...
... Rights reserved. (Clark & Watson, 1991), one (Hazlett-Stevens & Oren, 2016) used the Anxiety Sensitivity Index (Reiss et al., 1986), one (Hunt et al., 2015) used the Beck Depression Inventory (Beck et al., 1996), and two ( (Meyer et al., 1990), three studies (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2021;Hunt et al., 2020;Seppälä et al., 2020) used the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (Watson et al., 1988), and one study (Long et al., 2021) used the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (Victor & Klonsky, 2016). Two studies (Long et al., 2021;Seppälä et al., 2020) used the Self-Compassion Scale Short Form (Raes et al., 2011), and two other studies (Bergen-Cico et al., 2013; Newsome et al., 2012) used The Self-Compassion Scale (Neff, 2003). ...
Objectives
A systematic review was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) to reduce stress and related outcomes in Latinx college students. Despite decades of research, less is known about the efficacy of MBIs in reducing stress among this population, given their negligible representation in previous studies.
Method
Following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, a systematic literature search was conducted across six databases through June 2023. Eligible studies measured stress and related outcomes, had baseline and follow-up assessments, and included Latinx college students. Excluded studies lacked an intervention, targeted medical or nursing students, did not report stress measures, were conducted outside of the U.S., and did not report including Latinx students.
Results
A total of 15 studies were identified. Findings indicate that most MBIs resulted in significant changes in stress reduction, mindfulness, anxiety, and improved GPAs. Among these studies, two “focal studies” reported samples of 50% or greater Latinx college students. These studies included 70 students, and reported significant decreases in BMI and an increase in self-compassion, mindfulness, and walking behavior.
Conclusions
This review highlights the effectiveness of MBIs for stress reduction among Latinx college students. Future studies should report recruitment efforts, incentives, attrition, and outcomes by demographic subgroup in order to understand the differing barriers and opportunities for reaching and serving historically underserved groups. As MBIs are adapted to diverse populations, assessment of population-specific needs and impact will benefit researchers’ understanding of program efficacy.
Preregistration
This study is not preregistered.
... The schema that arousal is dangerous is best represented by anxiety sensitivity (AS), which involves concerns about the consequences of anxious arousal (Reiss et al. 1986). AS plays a role in GAD vulnerability, predicting later symptom development (Allan et al. 2014). ...
Studies suggest that generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) symptoms are related to late positive potential (LPP) responses to negative images, suggesting greater attention. Anxiety sensitivity (AS) and intolerance of uncertainty (IU) are cognitive factors in GAD vulnerability that may be activated by negative stimuli, thereby explaining why the LPP and GAD symptoms are related. We examined whether AS and IU explain the association of the LPP with GAD symptoms. Eighty‐seven (77% women) young adults viewed 60 negative and 60 neutral images. The LPP was examined using both frequentist and Bayesian approaches. This revealed unique indirect effects of the LPP on GAD symptoms through AS and IU. Neither indirect effect was stronger, and the indirect effects were present regardless of using frequentist or Bayesian analyses or quantifying the LPP using residual‐based scores or difference scores. The indirect effects predicted not only GAD symptoms but social anxiety and depression as well, consistent with the role of AS and IU in transdiagnostic vulnerability. The findings support AS and IU as links that explain how attention to negative stimuli is related not only to GAD symptoms but to other internalizing symptoms as well.
... Sociodemographic (e.g., age, gender) and key clinical data (e.g., treatment preference) were collected during the eligibility interview. To characterise the sample and also to account for pre-treatment characteristics in the regression models (see below), this study was also based on data derived from the following measures administered at the pre-treatment assessment: the self-report version of the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS-S) as a measure of depression symptoms (Svanborg & Åsberg, 1994), the 16-item Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI) as a measure of anxiety sensitivity (Reiss et al., 1986) and the Sheehan Disability Scale (SDS) as a measure of disability (Leon et al., 1997). Specific items were also derived from the Illness Attitude Scales (Kellner, 1986). ...
Objectives
To evaluate how treatment credibility, the expectancy of improvement and the relationship with the therapist (the working alliance) change in relation to symptoms in cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) for pathological health anxiety.
Design
Secondary study of a randomised controlled trial of Internet‐delivered ( n = 102) and face‐to‐face CBT ( n = 102) for health anxiety.
Methods
The trial was conducted at a primary health care clinic in Stockholm, Sweden, between December 2014 and July 2018. Both treatments lasted 12 weeks. Health anxiety was measured using the 18‐item Health Anxiety Inventory. Credibility/expectancy (Borkovec credibility/expectancy scale) and the strength of the working alliance (Working Alliance Inventory) were self‐reported by the participant at weeks two and eight. Symptom slopes from a linear mixed model were related to these process scales.
Results
Correlations between the process variables (credibility/expectancy, working alliance) and the overall, 12‐week pre‐ to post‐treatment, reduction in health anxiety were small to moderate, and slightly higher based on data from week 8 ( r s = 0.33–0.41) than week 2 ( r s = 0.17–0.29). In the whole sample, week 2 credibility/expectancy and working alliance were significant predictors of subsequent symptom reduction. In secondary subgroup analyses, the process variables predicted improvement in Internet‐delivered CBT, but not in face‐to‐face CBT. Direct between‐format tests were not significant. Week 8 credibility/expectancy and working alliance were more closely related to previous than subsequent symptom reduction.
Conclusions
The patient's early ratings of credibility/expectancy and the strength of the working alliance appear to be predictive of subsequent symptom reduction. Later ratings appear to be of more limited predictive utility.
... The ASI-3 was designed to measure an individual's sensitivity to anxiety [54]. The index includes 18 items on a 5-point scale, ranging from 0 (Very little) to 4 (Very much). ...
Background
Empathy for pain refers to a simulation of pain experiences evoked when seeing others in pain. Empathy for pain (vicarious pain) responders make up 27% of the healthy population, and are divided into two subsets: Sensory/Localized responders who feel localized physical pain and Affective/General responders who experience diffuse emotional pain. Empathy for pain is linked to pro-social behavior but can increase mental health symptoms.
Methods
Multivariate analysis of variance and latent variable mediation model were used to investigate the relationship between empathy for pain, mental health, and emotion regulation based on a university student dataset (mainly Caucasian) from 2020 to 2021.
Results
(1) Responders express significantly higher anxiety and somatization than non-responders, with Sensory/Localized responders reporting the greatest somatic concerns; (2) Sensory/localized responders show significantly higher depression than non-responders; (3) Two responder groups don’t differ from non-responders on most positive emotional regulation strategies, but use more negative strategies (self-blame, rumination, and catastrophizing). (4) negative emotional regulation fully mediates the link between empathy and mental health.
Conclusions
These findings reveal a previously unrecognized link between empathy for pain and mental health, mediated by the increased use of negative emotion regulation strategies among responders. Our findings have particular implications for the mental health of empathic individuals or people who are often exposed to the pain of others (counselor or nurse, etc.).
... The Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI) [43] assesses apprehension towards anxiety symptoms and sensations. It consists of 16 items distributed among three domains: Physical Concerns (exemplary item: Unusual body sensations scare me.), ...
Background
Pregnancy and postpartum are considered vulnerable periods for new parents to develop obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). The aim of this study was threefold: (1) to establish the prevalence of OCD symptoms and its course in the peripartum period; (2) to examine comorbidity with depressive symptoms; and (3) to investigate which sociodemographic, obstetric, and individual characteristics are predictors of OCD symptoms.
Methods
A longitudinal study included 397 women during pregnancy (T1) and 6–12 weeks postpartum (T2). Participants filled out the obstetrical and demographic sheet, Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI), Emotional Stability subscale from the International Personality Item Pool-50 (IPIP-50), Brief Resilience Scale (BRS) all at T1, and Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS) and Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale (EPDS) at T1 and T2.
Results
In this sample, 15.1% of women reported OCD symptoms during pregnancy and 15.1% in the postpartum, with 9.8% of women who had symptoms at both time points. However, the majority of women experienced symptoms of mild severity, according to the Y-BOCS. Of the women experiencing OCD symptoms, 33% and 43% had comorbid depressive symptoms in pregnancy and the postpartum period, respectively. The level of OCD symptoms significantly decreased after childbirth. None of the sociodemographic or obstetric variables were a significant predictor of OCD symptoms during pregnancy or postpartum. After controlling for current depression symptoms, higher psychological concerns of anxiety sensitivity (but not physical and social concerns) and higher neuroticism were significant predictors of higher levels of OCD symptoms both at T1 and T2. At the same time, higher resilience was a significant predictor of lower levels of OCD symptoms only at T1.
Conclusion
One in six women has OCD symptoms in the peripartum period, with substantial comorbidity with depression symptoms. Women who are high on neuroticism and anxiety sensitivity are prone to OCD symptoms, while resilience is a significant protective factor.
Clinical trial number
Not applicable.
... The Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI; Reiss et al., 1986) The ASI is a 16-item scale evaluating the fear of anxiety related sensations. Respondents rate each item on a 5-point scale that ranges from 0 (very little) to 4 (very much). ...
Background:Specific phobia of vomiting (SPOV), also called emetophobia, is a debilitating condition that shares features with several other anxiety disorders and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Approximately half of sufferers from SPOV do not fully benefit from current treatment modalities.
Aims:Bergen 4-day treatment (B4DT) is a highly concentrated form of exposure and response prevention developed for OCD. This case series reports on the first participants undertaking the treatment for SPOV.
Method:Five female participants underwent the B4DT adapted to SPOV. The Specific Phobia of Vomiting Scale (SPOVI) and Emetophobia Questionnaire (EmetQ-13) were administered pre-treatment, post-treatment, and at 3- and 6-month follow-up. Participants were also shown a 27-minute video portraying vomit-related stimuli of increasing intensity at pre- and post-treatment. The time participants managed to watch the video and their subjective anxiety and nausea were assessed at regular intervals. Reliable and clinically significant change were calculated on SPOVI post-treatment and at 6-month follow-up.
Results:Four of the participants achieved clinically significant change and the fifth reliable improvement, and these results were maintained at 6-month follow-up. The participants watched the vomit-related stimuli video for an average of 10 minutes pre-treatment whereas all completed it post-treatment, experiencing considerably less anxiety. These results were maintained at 6-month follow-up.
Conclusion:The B4DT may be a robust and time-effective treatment format for SPOV with low attrition rates, but further research is needed to verify this.
... For the measurement of the variable "anxiety sensitivity", the Anxiety Sensitivity Index for Children (ASIC) of Laurent et al. (1998), which is a modification that Laurent initiated in 1989 of the Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI) for adults (Reiss et al., 1986), was used. The Spanish adaptation is provided in Fernández-Valdés (2015). ...
Objectives
Mindfulness involves the ability to pay full and conscious attention to what is happening in the present moment. Scientific evidence supports its benefits in the educational field, contributing to the development of strategies that help students cope academically, socially and emotionally. Meta-analyses on mindfulness in the Spanish educational context reported significant improvements along the same lines. The aim of this study was to determine whether a mindfulness-based intervention for primary school students improved their sensitivity to anxiety.
Method
A total of 352 students (170 boys, 182 girls) aged 6 to 12 years participated in Spain. A quasi-experimental pre-test-post-test design was used, with experimental group (266 students) and control group (86 students). Anxiety sensitivity was measured with the Anxiety Sensitivity Index for Children. The intervention followed a sequential learning order based on the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) programme.
Results
A significant decrease in anxiety sensitivity was observed in the post-intervention measure. Additionally, comparisons of pre-test and posttest scores in the control group revealed significant differences. In terms of effect size, the difference between pre- and post-intervention scores was close to medium (Cohen's d = 0.43).
Conclusions
The efficacy of the programme was confirmed, and it was shown that the mindfulness intervention was beneficial; in the experimental group, anxiety sensitivity decreased significantly compared to that in the control group after participation in the programme.
... Other instruments included in the study but not in the current paper are the Dutch adaptation (Van der Heiden et al., 2009) of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ; Borkovec et al., 1983) and the Dutch adaptation (Taylor et al., 2007) of the Anxiety Sensitivity Index 3 (ASI-3; Reiss et al., 1986). ...
Background
The theoretical models of Beck and Young predict that Early Maladaptive Schemas (EMSs) are linked to the development and maintenance of mental health problems including depression. The stability of EMSs in daily life are ill-understood despite being a fundamental aspect of cognitive theories. In the current study, we aimed to improve the understanding of EMSs by repeatedly assessing them in daily life under changing contextual triggers and examining the theoretically-grounded associations with mood and rumination.
Methods
Using factor analysis, we developed a 16-item Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) version of the Dutch Young Schema Questionnaire short form (Klynstra et al., 2008). EMSs were assessed six times a day for five days in 90 unselected participants (71% female, Mage = 25.52).
Results
The new EMA-based EMSs questionnaire captured EMSs fluctuations, with 51% of the variance attributed to within-person variations. We assessed the contemporaneous within-person associations between schema activation and negative affect and rumination as well as the impact of a triggering event on schema activation. Stronger EMSs activation was associated with more negative mood and rumination, as well as the occurrence of a recent triggering event.
Conclusions
The findings align with the cognitive models of Beck and Young extending them with daily life data. The results indicate that EMSs have both state and trait-like characteristics, and fluctuations in daily life can be assessed.
... Anxiety disorders often begin to develop in adolescence when there are many changes in cognition, perception, and autonomy. One factor developing in adolescence is anxiety sensitivity (AS), which is also known as "the fear of fear" (Reiss et al., 1986). Anxiety sensitivity is a vulnerability factor for anxiety referring to one perceiving anxiety-related symptoms to cause harmful consequences which in turn increases the experience of anxiety (Muris et al., 2008). ...
Anxiety disorders often onset in adolescence and continue into adulthood. Multiple factors contribute to anxiety disorder development, such as parent emotional availability (EA) and adolescent anxiety sensitivity (AS). Previous research determined attachment is a similar construct to EA, and attachment is related to anxiety disorders. Moreover, EA is a more specific construct than attachment that can be targeted in therapy. It has been determined that adolescent attachment to parental figures contributes to anxiety, with AS mediating this relationship. The present research sought to determine if AS is one mechanism underlying the relationship between parent EA and adolescent anxiety, while exploring the moderating roles of parent and adolescent gender. In a Midwestern sample (13–19 years old), this study examined adolescent AS as a mediator of the relationship between perceived parent EA and adolescent anxiety, and gender as a potential moderator. Self-report data were collected from adolescents via Qualtrics. The findings supported the mechanism of adolescent AS as a mediator between perceived parent EA and adolescent anxiety. As AS emerges during adolescence, it is a pertinent treatment target for youth anxiety. Furthermore, this study underscores the significance of parent and adolescent gender and parental EA as treatment targets for adolescent anxiety. While targeting adolescent AS and enhancing parental EA can be beneficial for both male and female adolescents, focusing on parental EA may offer greater benefits for male adolescents. In sum, these findings can increase the efficacy of current parenting programs and further increase treatment outcomes for youth and families.
... The scores range from 0 to 64, and the index has a high internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha (0.80-0.90). Its test-retest validity was 0.75 after 2 weeks and 0.71 for 3 years (Reiss et al., 1986). The Persian version of the ASI-R was used in the current study with internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and split-half reliability of scale being reported as 93%, 95%, and 97%, respectively (Mooradi Manesh, Mir Jafari, Goodarzi & Mohammadi, 2007). ...
Anxiety disorders are common psychiatric conditions, and the lack of timely interventions in married adults can adversely affect marital satisfaction. This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of emotional schema therapy on anxiety symptoms, emotion regulation strategies, and marital satisfaction in women with anxiety disorders. A single-case experimental A-B-A design was used, with a sample of ten women diagnosed with at least one anxiety disorder who also reported marital dissatisfaction. Emotional schema therapy was administered in 12 weekly 90-min individual sessions, with evaluations conducted in three phases: a multiple baseline, during therapy (sessions 1, 4, 8, and 12), and 2-month follow-up. Visual graph analysis was used to interpret the data, alongside the improvement rate, reliable change index (RCI), and Cohen’s d. The findings demonstrated that emotional schema therapy effectively mitigates anxiety symptoms, adjusts emotion regulation strategies, and enhances marital satisfaction in women with anxiety disorders. These results support the efficacy of emotional schema therapy and contribute to the growing body of literature suggesting this treatment is beneficial for managing anxiety symptoms, emotion regulation, and marital satisfaction in women with anxiety disorders.
... In their studies, Hames et al. (2012) and Teismann et al. (2020) found associations of the HPP with depression and anxiety sensitivity. Anxiety sensitivity is a tendency to be fearful of arousalrelated bodily sensations and anxiety-related symptoms (Reiss et al. 1986). Based on these findings, Hames et al. (2012) interpreted the HPP as the result of a misinterpreted safety signal in a potentially dangerous situation ('Back up, you might fall'). ...
Background
The Call of the Void phenomenon describes an inexplicable urge to consider dangerous or self‐destructive actions in certain situations. Previous studies have focused on the high place phenomenon (HPP), which is the sudden urge to jump from high places. One aim of this study is to replicate the previously found associations of HPP with suicidality and anxiety in a larger sample of patients suffering from flight phobia or agoraphobia. Furthermore, the influence of personality traits and protective factors, such as self‐efficacy and self‐esteem, will be examined to identify associations between the HPP and potential markers of both positive and negative mental health.
Methods
The study sample comprised 612 patients (76% female; Mage = 43.77, SDage = 12.82) suffering from clinically relevant fear of flying. Participants filled out questionnaires on experiences with the high place phenomenon, depression, personality traits, anxiety sensitivity, suicidal ideation, insecurity in social contact, flight phobia symptoms, positive mental health, self‐efficacy expectations, self‐esteem and satisfaction with life.
Results
Consistent with previous findings, the high place phenomenon was known to nearly 43% of the patient sample. Multiple regression analysis showed that openness to experiences, neuroticism, suicidal ideation and insecurity in social contacts were positively related to the high place phenomenon, whereas agreeableness, self‐efficacy and self‐esteem were negatively related.
Conclusion
The high place phenomenon is a common experience in individuals, whether or not they suffer from suicidal ideation. It is therefore cautioned not to interpret such experiences as an expression of a hidden death wish. Nevertheless, the occurrence of the HPP is influenced by the presence of negative and positive mental health markers. Future studies should examine the association between HPP and intrusions in the context of obsessive‐compulsive disorders.
... Anxiety sensitivity can be understood as the "fear of physiological sensations related to anxiety, based on the belief that these sensations are threatening on a physical, psychological, or social level" (Reiss, 1987;Reiss et al., 1986). As with intolerance of uncertainty, there are very few studies that directly examine the relationship between anxiety sensitivity and personality. ...
Background: Although personality trait models have become consolidated as the hegemonic taxonomical models for describing personality and provide excellent capacity for predicting variables of psychological interest (i.e., mental disorders), there are still important gaps in our knowledge about personality traits predict those variables. We hypothesised that intolerance of uncertainty, anxiety sensitivity and metacognition may partially give an answer to that . why why Method: We analysed: (1) the relationship between those three variables and the five dimensions of the Big Five model ( = 914; 51.7% women) in Study 1, and (2) the relationship between those variables and neuroticism facets ( = 656; 55.7% women) in Study 2. n n Results: Intolerance of uncertainty was statistically related to the dimensions of neuroticism, extraversion, and agreeableness, while anxiety sensitivity also proved to be related to neuroticism. Both variables were related to the six facets of the neuroticism dimension (with the exception of the impulsivity facet for intolerance of uncertainty). Metacognition showed no significant relationship with any of the personality dimensions. Conclusions: The current work sheds some light on the underlying the potential relationships between personality traits and relevant behaviours, with intolerance of uncertainty and anxiety sensitivity being particularly important, especially concerning the neuroticism dimension. why
... Spielberger et al., 1971), the Trait Anxiety Inventory (k = 1, α = 0.82, MacLeod & Rutherford, 1992), the Geriatric Anxiety Scale (k = 1, α = 0.8, Mueller et al., 2015) and the Beck Anxiety Inventory (k = 1, α = 0.9, Beck & Steer, 1993). Moreover, Gerolimatos and Edelstein (2012a, 2012b) investigated anxiety control using the Anxiety Control Questionnaire (α = 0.70, Rapee et al., 1996), anxiety sensitivity utilizing the Anxiety Sensitivity Index (α = 0.91, Reiss et al., 1986), and health anxiety using the Short Health Anxiety Inventory (SHAI, α = 0.90, Salkovskis et al., 2002). Furthermore, Crittendon and Hopko (2006) examined the relationship of IU with GAD using Generalized Anxiety Disorder Questionnaire-IV (α = 0.76, Roemer et al., 1995), and Chung et al. (2024) investigated viral anxiety utilizing Stress and Anxiety to Viral Epidemics-6 items (α = 0.89, Chung et al., 2021). ...
... Anxiety Sensitivity Index 16 (ASI-16; Reiss et al., 1986) consists of 16 items to measure participant's level of anxiety sensitivity (range 0-64; Cronbach's a = 0.92). ...
... The measures used to test the hypothesis of symptom reduction at the end of the treatment described above include the following tests: Anxiety Sensitivity Index (Reiss et al., 1986), that assesses the extent to which the subject judges anxious symptoms as threatening by allowing for individual differences in the perception and interpretation of neurovegetative activation in terms of physical, bodily or mental sensations; State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-Y) (Speilberger and Vagg, 1984), which is a scale based on the distinction between state anxiety, regarded as situational and emotional, transient, which can vary in intensity and according to circumstances, and trait anxiety, which refers to individual, relatively stable differences that constitute personality; Beck Depression Inventory (Beck et al., 1961), which is a selfassessment scale for measuring the severity of depression. Symptom Checklist-Revised (Derogatis & Cleary, 1977) is a scale created for the self-assessment of general symptomatology; Evaluation questionnaire, a simple questionnaire designed to assess the enjoyment of the entire course. ...
The term 'Common Emotional Disorders' refers to a range of clinical conditions such as anxiety disorders, panic atacs, mild and moderate depressive states, sleep disorders, somatoform disorders and post-traumatic stress disorder. The aim of the present article is to investigate the effectiveness of a specific group psychotherapy protocol for common emotional disorders. The outcome was evaluated in terms of reduction of anxiety-depressive symptoms. The aim is for this protocol to represent a first and valid intervention tool in the public context, in compliance with national indications in terms of cost-effectiveness. The protocol is structured in seven modules, each of which deals with the pivotal points of a psychotherapeutic pathway. It has a total duration of 6 months, and was applied to 61 adult patients afferent to a Mental Health Centre (45 F and 16 M). Results show a significant reduction in overall symptom severity and an extensive improvement in both depressive and anxious symptoms, as well as a self-perceived degree of improvement in subjective well-being. This protocol has the advantage of being able to group together patients with comorbid clinical conditions and symptom heterogeneity and offers them proven cognitive-behavioral treatment.
... Recent studies have also modified these tasks to study analogous exploratory behavior in humans. For example, in a human version of the open-field test, people with higher levels of anxiety sensitivity (measured by the Anxiety Sensitivity Index [ASI] total scores; Reiss et al. 1986) spent more time in the surrounding borders of the field, analogous to the findings in other animals (Walz et al. 2016). Similar results were found in a human version of the elevated plus-maze task, in which more anxious individuals (based on a study-specific state anxiety scale) spent less time exploring the open arm and tended to remain in the safe arms with borders (Biedermann et al. 2017). ...
The drive to seek information through exploratory behavior is widespread in both humans and other animals. This can be adaptive in reducing uncertainty about the best course of action within novel or changing environments. However, exploratory behaviors can also become maladaptive if subjective uncertainty levels remain too high or too low, as may happen in states of elevated anxiety. In this article, we review recent studies investigating the influence of anxiety on information-seeking behavior. We focus primarily on studies using cognitive computational models and associated behavioral tasks designed to test specific exploratory strategies, which could each be affected by anxiety in distinct ways. Results of current studies remain mixed and highlight the importance of distinguishing potential effects of task, state vs. trait anxiety, somatic vs. cognitive anxiety, and clinical vs. sub-clinical anxiety. There are also a range of different information-seeking strategies that are necessary to consider. At present, many findings could be taken to support a picture in which cognitive anxiety, and/or trait anxiety more broadly, may increase information-seeking, while somatic and/or state anxiety could have opposing effects. However, a number of previous results also appear inconsistent or task-dependent. Future studies are needed to resolve these apparent inconsistencies and more directly disentangle effects of different dimensions of anxiety on the adaptive and maladaptive use of information-seeking.
... The ASI's items are rated from 0 (very little) to 4 (very much). Reiss et al. (1986) reported good testretest reliability (r=.75). In this study, we used the Persian version of ASI (Ghaseminejad et al., 2013). ...
The Beliefs about Losing Control Inventory (BALCI) is a self-report measure of the negative beliefs about losing control including three-factor dimensions. In this study, we assessed the factor structure, reliability, and validity of the Persian version of the BALCI (P-BALCI) among the Iranian population. A total of 336 individuals completed the Persian version of Beliefs about Losing Control (P-BALCI), the Obsessive Beliefs Questionnaire-44 (OBQ-44), the Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised (OCI-R), the Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI), Anxiety Control Scale-Revised (ACS-R), and the Desirability of Control Scale (DCS). Similar to the original version of BALCI, the results showed that the P-BALCI had a three-factor structure. The P-BALCI showed good reliability through Cronbach’s alpha coefficients (α=.91) and test-retest coefficients. Also, the P-BALCI had good convergent and divergent validity. The P-BALCI was also associated with elevated OCD symptoms above and beyond identified obsessive beliefs by the OBQ-44. The findings indicated that the P-BALCI is a reliable measurement scale of beliefs about losing control to apply to an Iranian sample.
Background
Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is considered a disorder of brain-gut interaction. Central processes like selective attention to visceral stimuli are involved in the pathophysiology of IBS. The primary aim of this study was to replicate the Tkalčić and colleagues' experiment using the same modified Stroop task to assess the reliability of previously obtained results. A secondary objective was to explore the proposed associations between attentional indices and various aspects of anxiety and interoceptive accuracy.
Methods
Ninety IBS patients and 77 healthy controls (HC) completed a set of questionnaires [State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-T), Visceral Sensitivity Index (VSI), Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI) and Anxious Thoughts Inventory (ATI)] followed by a heartbeat counting task and an emotional Stroop task.
Results
Repeated measures 2-way ANOVA showed no significant effects. GLMM results showed that IBS patients had shorter RTs (~50 ms) than HCs. The IBS group scored higher than HC in all anxiety measures, while there were no differences in IAcc. Positive correlations were found among all anxiety measures in both groups. There was a negative correlation of average RT with ASI, ATI, and IAcc, only in the IBS group. IBS patients with higher ASI and ATI have faster RTs, while patients with higher IAcc have lower RTs.
Conclusions
Stroop facilitation was not replicated, but IBS patients were faster than HCs. This study provides preliminary evidence that IBS patients may show distinct attentional patterns, marked by a general tendency for faster engagement, independent of stimulus type. This effect may relate to higher interoceptive accuracy and anxiety, and was not observed in HCs.
An important aim in psychiatry is to establish valid and reliable associations linking profiles of brain functioning to clinically relevant symptoms and behaviors across patient populations. To advance progress in this area, we introduce an open dataset containing behavioral and neuroimaging data from 241 individuals aged 18 to 70, comprising 148 individuals meeting diagnostic criteria for a broad range of psychiatric illnesses and a healthy comparison group of 93 individuals. These data include high-resolution anatomical scans, multiple resting-state, and task-based functional MRI runs. Additionally, participants completed over 50 psychological and cognitive assessments. Here, we detail available behavioral data as well as raw and processed MRI derivatives. Associations between data processing and quality metrics, such as head motion, are reported. Processed data exhibit classic task activation effects and canonical functional network organization. Overall, we provide a comprehensive and analysis-ready transdiagnostic dataset to accelerate the identification of illness-relevant features of brain functioning, enabling future discoveries in basic and clinical neuroscience.
Background: Emotional schemas are pervasive mental structures associated with a wide array of psychological symptoms. Cognitive flexibility (CF) and attachment to God are considered adaptive psychological constructs. Objectives: The present study aimed to compare emotional schemas, anxiety sensitivity (AS), repetitive negative thoughts (RNTs), CF, COVID-19 anxiety, and attachment to God between individuals with mood and anxiety disorders. Methods: This cross-sectional study involved 170 participants, categorized into two groups: Eighty four diagnosed with mood disorders and 86 with anxiety disorders. The participants were residents of Tehran, Iran, from January to June 2024. Data collection and comparison across the two groups were conducted using six instruments: The Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI), Repetitive Negative Thinking (RNT) Questionnaire, Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI), Attachment to God Inventory (AGI), COVID-19 Anxiety Scale (CAS), and Leahy Emotional Schemas Scale (LESS). ANOVA was used for data analysis with SPSS-26. Results: The Wilk’s Lambda test indicated a significant overall effect of the group (P < 0.001, F = 2.657). Patients with anxiety scored significantly higher on the simplistic view of emotion, devaluation, and alternatives compared to patients with depression. Conversely, patients with depression scored significantly higher on incomprehensibility, guilt, loss of control, duration, low expression, and RNTs than those with anxiety. Conclusions: The study found that RNTs are prevalent in both depression and anxiety, contributing to the exacerbation and persistence of these disorders. Targeting RNTs could benefit selective preventive interventions. Addressing RNTs, emotional schemas, and CF in treatment, along with early selective preventive interventions, may help mitigate their impact. Shared risk factors underscore the importance of early clinical detection and intervention.
Background
Internalizing disorders are the most common psychiatric disorders in youth and are associated with a host of deleterious outcomes (e.g., self-harm, substance use, interpersonal difficulties), highlighting the critical need for identifying risk factors that confer risk for these disorders. The present study investigated the unique and shared roles of two prominent cognitive biases—anxiety sensitivity and interpretation biases—as predictors of internalizing symptom severity in clinically anxious youth, above and beyond the effects of negative emotionality and after accounting for sociodemographic covariates.
Method
A diverse sample of clinically anxious youth (N = 105; Mage = 10.09 years, SD = 1.22; 56.7% female; 49% ethnic minority) completed a diagnostic interview and self-report measures of interpretation biases, anxiety sensitivity, and internalizing symptom severity.
Results
Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that both anxiety sensitivity (b = 0.77, 95% CI [0.53, 1.00], sr² = 0.11) and interpretation biases (b = 0.21, 95% CI [0.11, 0.30], sr² = 0.05) accounted for an additional 22% of unique variance in internalizing symptom severity (p <.001), above and beyond the effects of negative emotionality. Post hoc exploratory analyses identified the disease and social concerns facets of anxiety sensitivity, and the overgeneralization facet of interpretation biases, as predictors of internalizing symptoms.
Conclusion
Future research should examine whether targeting cognitive biases would be beneficial among temperamentally labile youth.
Dry eye disease (DED) is often comorbid with psychiatric conditions and psychological disturbances like anxiety and depression. The psychological symptoms are mostly considered to be a consequence of DED or a side-effect of medication. However, the possible psychological etiology of DED is seldom explored. This study explores the relationship between anxiety sensitivity (AS), unpleasant emotional states, and the severity of DED symptoms in a healthy general population sample in Croatia. A total of 766 adults (62.27% females) aged between 18 and 88 years completed an online survey consisting of the Ocular Surface Disease Index (OSDI), Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI), and Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS21) together with socio-demographic data. The results revealed significant positive correlations between ASI, emotional states, and OSDI (r = 0.25–0.29, p < 0.01). Mediation analysis showed that DASS21 significantly mediates the relationship between ASI and OSDI (B = 0.1, CI = [0.004, 0.2]). Highly anxiety sensitive people are more sensitive to DED symptoms, which additionally increases in a state of emotional stress. Thus, DED symptoms are perceived more intensely and frequently than in less sensitive people. Understanding these associations is crucial for comprehensive DED management, indicating potential benefits from addressing psychological health in DED patients and eye health in psychiatric patients.
Article type: Research Article The purpose of this research is to investigate the mediating role of emotional awareness and intolerance of ambiguity in the relationship between childhood fears and brain-behavioral systems with signs and symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder in high school girls and boys in Kouhdasht city. The purpose of this research is fundamental, and it is a descriptive-correlation form of structural equations in terms of its research method. The statistical population of this research is comprised of all pupils enrolled in the second secondary level of Kouhdasht city in Lorestan province during the academic year 2022-2023. According to the number of subscales (29 subscales), the sample size should be a minimum of 435. The analysis of 441 samples (273 girls and 168 boys) was conducted in this study. To collect data from the Fear Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents (FSSC-R), Behavioral Inhibition/Activation Systems Scale, Emotional Awareness Questionnaire (EAQ-30), Intolerance of Uncertainty Questionnaire (IUS), and Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised (OCI-R) were employed to gather data from the Fear Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents (FSSC-R). The data classification, processing, and analysis were conducted using SPSS 22 and Lisrel 8.85 statistical software. The structural equation modeling method was employed to evaluate the fit of the hypothetical model. The data analysis results indicated that the proposed model for the etiology of OCD was a reasonable fit. The findings indicated that obsessive-compulsive disorder is directly influenced by childhood fears, behavioral brain systems, emotional awareness, and intolerance of ambiguity. Additionally, this disorder is indirectly influenced by childhood anxieties and behavioral brain systems, which are characterized by an intolerance of ambiguity and an excitement of awareness. Therefore, it is recommended that these variables be incorporated into future research and the development of preventive and treatment protocols for OCD.
Gençlik, bireyin çocukluktan erişkinliğe geçiş sürecini ifade eden; kişinin fiziksel, zihinsel ve duygusal gelişimi içeren; ruhsal olgunlaşma ve yaşama hazırlık sürecidir. Gençlik üzerine ortaya atılan çeşitli tanımlamalarda farklı yaş gruplandırılmaları yapıldığı bilinmekle birlikte genellikle 12-24 yaş aralığındaki bireylerin genç olarak kabul edildiği görülmektedir. Bu yaşam evresi içerisinde ergenlik, kritik bir dönem olarak ön plana çıkmaktadır. Ergenlik, bireyin biyopsikososyal gelişiminde belirgin değişimlerin yaşandığı bir döneme karşılık gelmektedir. Bu dönemde genç bireyler, aile ve akran ilişkilerinde, fiziksel görünümleri konusunda, eğitim hayatlarında, mali konularda, meslek seçimlerinde ve daha pek çok konuda stres yaşamaktadır. Gençlerin yaşadıkları psikososyal sorunlara karşı baş etme mekanizmalarının yetersiz kaldığı durumlarda ise intihar düşünceleri ve davranışları ortaya çıkabilmektedir. Gençleri intihara sürükleyen psikososyal sorunların başında; düşük sosyoekonomik statü, sınırlı eğitim başarısı, parçalanmış aile yapısı, akran zorbalığı, psikiyatrik bozukluklar, depresyon, stres, anksiyete, umutsuzluk, içe dönüklük, dışlanma, duygudurum bozuklukları, madde kullanım bozuklukları, evlilik sorunları, psikopatolojik bozukluğa sahip ebeveynler, çocukluk çağı travmaları ve suçlu davranışlar gelmektedir. Öte yandan intihar riski yüksek gençler arasında suç davranışı gösterenler, ayrıca dikkat çekmektedir. Yapılan çalışmalar çocuk adalet sisteminde yer alan ergenlerin, genel ergen nüfusuyla karşılaştırıldığında daha yüksek intihar davranışı riskine sahip olduğunu göstermektedir. Yaşadıkları psikososyal sorunlar nedeniyle intihar açısından risk altında olan bu gençlerin korunması, desteklenmesi, sorunlarının dikkate alınması ve bu sorunlara çözüm üretilmesi son derece elzemdir. Bu noktada hem bireysel hem de çevresel ölçekte uygulamalar yürüten sosyal hizmet önemli bir meslek ve disiplin olarak ön plana çıkmaktadır.
The psychological clinical science paradigm holds that mental health problems should be treated with therapies having the strongest evidence for their efficacy. For the past several decades, clinical scientists have conducted randomized controlled trials identifying specific treatments that best alleviate symptoms of many psychological disorders, as confirmed by objective, reliable assessments. However, a growing number of psychologists, exemplified by Rodriguez-Seijas et al. (2024), argue that the paradigm fosters a racist, White supremacist subdiscipline. They urge clinical scientists to embrace an antiracist agenda by promoting equity (i.e., equal outcomes) for minority and majority groups in access to doctoral programs, publications in high-impact journals, faculty positions, and grants. The purpose of this article is to evaluate the arguments and evidence bearing on the claim that the paradigm is infected with racist, White supremacist ideology, and to defend the meritocratic standards that have underwritten the success of clinical science.
Social evaluative feedback informs us about how others perceive us, constantly updates our expectations of what to receive, and simultaneously changes our view of the sender. However, little is known about the neuronal and behavioral responses when receiving incongruent positive or negative social evaluative feedback. This study (N = 40) investigated how receiving feedback from peers after a real-life interaction modulates behavioral responses and Event-Related Potentials (ERPs). Specifically, ERP modulations by feedback being incongruent with the self-view and incongruent with the feedback expectation were examined along the whole processing stream. Feedback was manipulated such that one peer provided overly positive feedback and the other overly negative feedback, with random computer feedback as a control condition. Behaviorally, participants updated their feedback expectations according to the feedback received from the ‘negative’ and ‘positive’ peers and rapidly changed ratings of the sender towards their positive or negative behavior. Concerning ERPs, separate effects of feedback incongruence based on the feedback expectation or self-view were found during the mid-latency processing stages. Subsequently, both types of incongruence increased late ERP amplitudes, which were also increased when participants substantially changed the ratings of the peer senders. This is the first study that combined neuronal and behavioral measures of evaluative feedback processing, emphasizing that incongruent feedback elicits mid-latency modulations and subsequent updating processes associated with increased late amplitudes. In addition, we find rapid behavioral changes in the ratings for the senders based on their feedback behavior.
Interoceptive exposure (IE) involves the use of exercises, activities, or tasks to intentionally induce (or exacerbate) physical symptoms in the body, to challenge misconceptions about the harmful nature of the physical symptoms that maintain fear and problematic avoidance. IE was originally developed for the cognitive behavioral treatment and prevention of panic disorder. Bodily sensations and concern about physical symptoms are common features in many conditions, not limited to panic disorder. For this reason, IE could be theoretically relevant to cognitive behavioral intervention for many psychological, behavioral, and medical conditions. Yet, IE remains relatively underrecognized and underused as an intervention. Exposure involves feeling discomfort before experiencing relief; thus, it is often perceived as an aversive, unsafe, and illogical intervention because of the seemingly paradoxical approach. We conducted a systematic literature search for a scoping review with the aim of locating published studies on IE to understand how it has been studied beyond panic disorder. Studies focused solely on panic disorder were excluded. We were able to identify and extract data from 132 studies (published between 1992 and 2022), though this published literature is difficult to find. The use of IE has been widely investigated in conditions beyond panic disorder, although evidence for its efficacy is difficult to isolate from other forms of exposure and cognitive behavioral features. There is the strongest evidence for the efficacy of IE as a part of multicomponent cognitive behavioral treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder, health anxiety, irritable bowel syndrome, and to aid in benzodiazepine discontinuation. Interventions that were primarily or exclusively IE-based did not consistently or directly influence claustrophobia fear, separation anxiety, suicidality, insomnia symptoms, cigarette or drug abstinence, or pain-related fear. No serious adverse events were reported in any study. Studies of IE require larger sample sizes, detailed descriptions and rationale of IE exercises, higher IE dosing, extended follow-up assessment, and documentation of safety.
Study Objectives
Cognitive behavioral insomnia therapy (CBT-I) combined with supervised open-label tapering is effective for helping hypnotic-dependent patients discontinue their hypnotics. This study tested whether slowing the tapering pace and blinding the tapering process enhance outcomes.
Methods
Seventy-eight benzodiazepines (BZD) or benzodiazepine receptor agonists (BZRA) users completed 4 CBT-I sessions, followed by a randomly assigned blinded tapering protocol wherein hypnotic dosage was: held constant, reduced by 10% every two weeks, or reduced by 25% every two weeks. After 20 weeks those who did not have their medications reduced were offered an open-label tapering protocol. Participants completed assessments 3 months after completing their respective tapering protocols. Outcomes included discontinuation rates, hypnotic withdrawal effects, and responder and remission rates determined by Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) scores.
Results
No differences were observed between the two tapering paces (10% vs. 25%). Blinded tapering had a consistent association with better outcomes that did not reach statistical significance. At 3-month follow-up the number of patients needed to be treated with blinded taper instead of open-label tapering in order for one additional individual to achieve desired endpoints was 7.7 for BZD/BZRA discontinuation, 3.4 for hypnotic withdrawal effects, 4.4 for ISI responder status, and 5.0 for insomnia remission. One-third (32.3%) of the sample was using benzo-related hypnotics at 3-month follow-up. Twice as many individuals (64.6%) were using some type of medication or substance for sleep at this time point.
Conclusions
Blinding tapering may enhance hypnotic discontinuation rates and insomnia treatment response and remission rates.
Trial Registration: Clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT02831894, “The Role of Tapering Pace and Selected Traits on Hypnotic Discontinuation;” URL:https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/ NCT02831894?term=hypnotics&cond=Insomnia&cntry=US&state=US%3ACO&city=Denver&draw=2&rank=2
Studies have shown that those high in anxiety were at increased risk for alcohol use during the COVID-19 pandemic. Tension reduction theory points to anxiety sensitivity (AS) as a potential risk factor. Drinking to cope may further increase this risk. During the pandemic, those high in AS may have experienced increased stress and drank to cope, which may have put them at risk for misusing alcohol. Objective: The current study tested the association between AS and alcohol outcomes, mediated by perceived stress and drinking motives, among young adults during the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants and Methods: Young adults (N = 143) self-reported on AS, perceived stress, drinking motives, and alcohol outcomes (i.e., use and problems). Results: A mediation analysis revealed that AS positively predicted alcohol problems, via coping motives, and positively predicted alcohol use, via perceived stress and enhancement/sociability motives. Conclusion: These results confirm AS-risk for young adult alcohol use during the pandemic and highlight perceived stress and drinking motives as mechanisms of risk.
The relevance of this research is due to the need to study the phenomenon of social anxiety among modern students in connection with various challenges, an increasing number of adverse, stressful and traumatic life circumstances. The interest in the subject of research on the sexual characteristics of social anxiety among students is associated with insufficient empirical study of this issue, the need to develop practical recommendations aimed at developing students' personality, forming effective coping strategies, increasing the level of adaptability and mental stability of the individual. The results of the study can be used to develop programs for the prevention of social anxiety among students aimed at reducing anxiety levels, improving the quality of life, contributing to the psychological well-being of students and their successful adaptation in the social space.The purpose of the study: to identify the sexual characteristics of social anxiety of students. Methods of research: survey, methods of mathematical data processing (Mann-Whitney criterion, Spearman coefficient); "Scale of social avoidance and distress" (D. Watson, R. Friend), "Short scale of fear of negative assessment" (D. Watson, R. Friend adapted by I. V. Grigorieva, S. N. Enikolopova); "Questionnaire of social anxiety and social phobia" (O. A. Sagalakova, D. V. Truevtsev). The novelty of the study lies in the fact that the features of social anxiety of students are considered as different components of the phenomenon under study, and the understanding of sexual characteristics of manifestation is expanded. The gender differences in the peculiarities of the manifestation of social anxiety among students were revealed. Young men show more pronounced manifestations of social anxiety and social phobia. The fear of being judged or criticized increases anxiety in various life situations. Girls are prone to social avoidance and distress, and are also more prone to fear of negative evaluation from others. Young men demonstrate greater self-confidence, less sensitivity to the opinions of others. These characteristics can be associated with both the individual and personal characteristics of students, as well as with social norms and expectations regarding them. A common feature for the student audience is that experiencing the fear of negative evaluation from the social environment leads to avoiding uncomfortable situations, experiencing social distress, and avoiding social contacts in real life.
Describes the development of the Agoraphobic Cognitions Questionnaire and the Body Sensations Questionnaire, companion measures for assessing aspects of fear of fear (panic attacks) in agoraphobics. The instruments were administered to 175 agoraphobics (mean age 37.64 yrs) and 43 controls (mean age 36.13 yrs) who were similar in sex and marital status to experimental Ss. Results show that the instruments were reliable and fared well on tests of discriminant and construct validity. It is concluded that these questionnaires are useful, inexpensive, and easily scored measures for clinical and research applications and fill a need for valid assessment of this dimension of agoraphobia. (22 ref)
Presents an integrative theoretical framework to explain and to predict psychological changes achieved by different modes of treatment. This theory states that psychological procedures, whatever their form, alter the level and strength of self-efficacy. It is hypothesized that expectations of personal efficacy determine whether coping behavior will be initiated, how much effort will be expended, and how long it will be sustained in the face of obstacles and aversive experiences. Persistence in activities that are subjectively threatening but in fact relatively safe produces, through experiences of mastery, further enhancement of self-efficacy and corresponding reductions in defensive behavior. In the proposed model, expectations of personal efficacy are derived from 4 principal sources of information: performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. Factors influencing the cognitive processing of efficacy information arise from enactive, vicarious, exhortative, and emotive sources. The differential power of diverse therapeutic procedures is analyzed in terms of the postulated cognitive mechanism of operation. Findings are reported from microanalyses of enactive, vicarious, and emotive modes of treatment that support the hypothesized relationship between perceived self-efficacy and behavioral changes. (21/2 p ref)
Develops a descriptive model suggesting key loci for therapeutic intervention. Anxiety patterns having 2 features in common are analyzed: overt manifestation of a response regulated by the autonomic nervous system, and aversity of this response to the patient. The CS is a social situation; the UCS in the 1st part of the model is an extraneous event causing a high level of anxiety. Treatment occurs at the UCR1<UCS2<UCR2 section of the model, which shows how very rapid behavior change occurs with simple conditioning.
There is sufficient evidence now available to warrant redefining conditioning and problem-solving in rather special ways so that learning will be seen to consist of two basic processes, associationism and hedonism. A completely monistic explanation seems to be impossible. We should probably refer not to "
the learning process," but to
two such processes. This is not, however, a renewal of the "vicious convenience" of using both the laws of effect and exercise, since these latter two principles were ordinarily applied to the same learning process. In the current formulation, which was made fairly explicit by Skinner a decade ago, conditioning—the acquisition of secondary drives—is related to the autonomic nervous system, problem-solving—the reduction of primary or secondary drives—to the central nervous system. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
If the theory advanced by Watson and Morgan (in 'Emotional Reactions and Psychological Experimentation,' American Journal of Psychology, April, 1917, Vol. 28, pp. 163-174) to the effect that in infancy the original emotional reaction patterns are few, consisting so far as observed of fear, rage and love, then there must be some simple method by means of which the range of stimuli which can call out these emotions and their compounds is greatly increased. Otherwise, complexity in adult response could not be accounted for. These authors without adequate experimental evidence advanced the view that this range was increased by means of conditioned reflex factors. It was suggested there that the early home life of the child furnishes a laboratory situation for establishing conditioned emotional responses. The present authors present their experimental findings of conditioned fear responses in a male infant beginning at 11 months of age. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Behavior therapists have explained phobias in terms of the contiguity principle of Pavlovian conditoning, which holds that conditioning results from CS-US temporal pairings. This principle provides a problematic account of phobias because CS-US pairings are neither necessary nor sufficient for fear acquisition in humans and because it cannot explain the Kamin blocking effect, conditioned inhibition, cessation conditioning, and overexpectedness in infrahuman conditioning. An expectancy model is proposed as an alternative to the contiguity model. The expectancy model holds that what is learned in Pavlovian conditioning is an expectation regarding the occurrence or nonoccurrence of the US. The mediating expectacy process can become an elicitor of CRs, verbal reports of CS-US relations (awareness), and instrumental behavior. The Wagner-Rescorla formulas for describing the learning of CRs in Pavlovian conditioning are assumed to have important implications for stimulus expectancy learning. A four-process model of phobias is proposed: (1) danger expectancy, (2) anxiety expectancy, (3) negative reinforcement of avoidance, and (4) positive (self-) reinforcement of avoidance. Implications are discussed for CS exposure therapies, placebos, self-efficacy, and aversion-relief therapy.
The observation of a clinical paradox led to an enquiry into the nature of courage and its relation to fear. In the course of carrying out some of the behavioral treatment programs, patients who are adversely affected by excessive fear are required to perform courageously, and they generally do so. These performances of courageous acts by fearful people suggest that we might more properly refer to courageous acts rather than to courageous actors.On the other hand, a series of investigations carried out on military bombdisposal operators uncovered two pieces of information that independently point to the existence of a small group of people who may be especially well suited to carrying out dangerous/difficult tasks. These investigations and related enquiries form the basis on which distinctions are drawn between fear, fearlessness, and courage.
The authors review the existing models for understanding agoraphobia and suggest a more complex behavioral model which includes a combination of necessary and sufficient factors for its formation. This model is presented as a framework allowing classification of agoraphobic-like symptoms with implications for treatment planning and research efforts.
Typescript (photocopy). Thesis (Ph. D. in psychology)--University of Illinois at Chicago Circle, 1982. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 47-50).
Thesis (M.A.)--California State College, Bakersfield, 1977. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 46-48).
The present article presents an integrative theoretical framework to explain and to predict psychological changes achieved by different modes of treatment. This theory states that psychological procedures, whatever their form, alter the level and strength of self-efficacy. It is hypothesized that expectations of per- sonal efficacy determine whether coping behavior will be initiated, how much effort will be expended, and how long it will be sustained in the face of ob- stacles and aversive experiences. Persistence in activities that are subjectively threatening but in fact relatively safe produces, through experiences of mastery, further enhancement of self-efficacy and corresponding reductions in defensive behavior. In the proposed model, expectations of personal efficacy are derived from four principal sources of information: performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. The more de- pendable the experiential sources, the greater are the changes in perceived self- efficacy. A number of factors are identified as influencing the cognitive processing of efficacy information arising from enactive, vicarious, exhortative, and emotive sources. The differential power of diverse therapeutic procedures is analyzed in terms of the postulated cognitive mechanism of operation. Findings are reported from microanalyses of enactive, vicarious, and emotive modes of treatment that support the hypothesized relationship between perceived self-efficacy and be- havioral changes. Possible directions for further research are discussed.
Twenty-two outpatients who sought behavioral treatment for a severe animal phobia were questioned via structured interview to obtain information on the mode of onset and course of development of their fear. Information was also obtained regarding feared consequences and distressing stimulus characteristics of their feared animal. In each case, the phobia began in early childhood and remained stable or worsened with age. Mode of onset was unclassifiable in 15 cases (68%) because of patient inability to remember precipitants. Of the remaining 7 patients, 5 ascribed their fear to a frightening encounter with the animal (‘conditioning’); indirect (‘instructional’ and ‘vicarious’) causes were cited in the remaining cases. Virtually all patients feared panic and its consequences following an unavoidable encounter with the phobic animal, whereas less than half reported fear that the animal would attack. Stimulus features, especially movement, were found to be salient fear-eliciting cues.
Literature evidence documenting the occurrence of relaxation-induced anxiety is reviewed, and several hypothesized mechanisms to explain the phenomenon are discussed. Possible avenues for circumventing the problem in therapy are offered. Finally, a theoretical model is presented wherein the phenomenon is viewed with a broader framework designed to explain the development and maintenance of the more generalized anxiety disorders. That framework emphasizes the emergence of fear of somatic anxiety cues and fear of loss of control from more fundamental interpersonal anxieties.
Describes the development of the Agoraphobic Cognitions Questionnaire and the Body Sensations Questionnaire, companion measures for assessing aspects of fear of fear (panic attacks) in agoraphobics. The instruments were administered to 175 agoraphobics (mean age 37.64 yrs) and 43 controls (mean age 36.13 yrs) who were similar in sex and marital status to experimental Ss. Results show that the instruments were reliable and fared well on tests of discriminant and construct validity. It is concluded that these questionnaires are useful, inexpensive, and easily scored measures for clinical and research applications and fill a need for valid assessment of this dimension of agoraphobia. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Since the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale has proven to be such a useful device in the selection of subjects for experimental purposes, a description of the construction of the test and the normative data that have been accumulated in connection with it are presented as of possible interest to other investigators in the field of human motivation.
The development of a scale to measure fear is presented. An empirical item selection procedure was used, and an item analysis was performed. Internal consistency reliability was computed and found to be high. There were significant sex differences for the total score and for several specific items. The Fear Survey Schedule-II (FSS-II) correlated positively with the TMAS, Welsh's A-Scale, and Bendig's Emotionality Scale. A low negative correlation with social desirability was found. Ss who differed in the amount of fearfulness they reported to specific items on the FSS-II were selected for validation studies. Significant differences on measures of fear were found among these Ss when they were presented with stimuli related to their fear. Implications for research were briefly discussed.
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