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"Don't Forget to Take the Cupcakes out of the Oven": Prospective Memory, Strategic Time-Monitoring, and Context
Abstract
Strategies employed by children in tasks requiring prospective memory (i.e., remembering to do something in the future) were investigated to illuminate the nature of the processes involved, and their developmental and contextual determinants. Efficient strategy use was expected to increase with age but to decrease in an unfamiliar setting or on a task associated with higher sex-role expectations. Children were instructed to perform future activities after waiting 30 min. Children's clock-checking during the waiting period was assessed in their own homes or a university psychophysics laboratory. As predicted, strategic time-monitoring occurred less frequently in the laboratory than in the home. The anticipated differences associated with higher sex-role expectations and age were most salient for older boys in the laboratory setting. The findings indicate that, when observed in a familiar setting, children can be shown to employ sophisticated cognitive strategies. Emphasis is placed on the scientific power of the laboratory as a contrasting context for illuminating developmental processes.
... To date, only four studies have focused on the development of TBPM in school children [10][11][12][13], and the results are mixed. Ceci and Bronfenbrenner (1985) [10] first used the family scenario simulation method to investigate the development of TBPM in children aged 10-14 years old. ...
... To date, only four studies have focused on the development of TBPM in school children [10][11][12][13], and the results are mixed. Ceci and Bronfenbrenner (1985) [10] first used the family scenario simulation method to investigate the development of TBPM in children aged 10-14 years old. Their PM task entailed examining whether a child was able to remove a cake from the oven after 45 min or to stop charging a battery after 30 min. ...
... To date, only four studies have focused on the development of TBPM in school children [10][11][12][13], and the results are mixed. Ceci and Bronfenbrenner (1985) [10] first used the family scenario simulation method to investigate the development of TBPM in children aged 10-14 years old. Their PM task entailed examining whether a child was able to remove a cake from the oven after 45 min or to stop charging a battery after 30 min. ...
Time-based prospective memory (TBPM) refers to the ability of an individual to successfully execute an expected plan in the future at a certain time point or after a definite period of time. This study investigated the potential developmental mechanism of school-age children’s TBPM ability from the perspective of time monitoring. Experiment 1 used a between-subjects design of three ages (7, 9, 11) × two TBPM types (time point, time period) to investigate the trends and characteristics of two types of TBPM in children aged 7–11 years old. Experiment 2 used a between-subjects design of three ages (7, 9, 11) × two monitoring conditions (free monitoring, fixed monitoring) to investigate differences in two types of TBPM and monitoring behavior among school-age children under different monitoring conditions. These results showed that the age effect of TBPM was affected by the type of prospective memory (PM) and that time-point PM performance was significantly better than time-period PM performance among school-age children. These findings indicate that clear and definite external cues are helpful for school-age children in performing TBPM tasks. Moreover, there were significant differences found in the TBPM performance of school-age children under different time monitoring conditions. The performance of older children was significantly better than that of younger children. This indicates that older children can better allocate their attentional resources and use time monitoring strategies to improve their performance in PM tasks. Accordingly, this study showed that the TBPM ability of 7- to 11-year-old children is in continuous development and that the time monitoring behavior in the TBPM task is affected by task type and monitoring conditions.
... Actually, available evidence suggests that children as young as 2 years old are able to succeed in the task of EBPM (Somerville et al., 1983;Ślusarczyk et al., 2018), and their EBPM becomes more efficient as they age (see Mahy, 2022, for a review). There are only a few studies that have investigated the mechanisms and processes that lead to successful TBPM performance in preschool and school children (e.g., Ceci and Bronfenbrenner, 1985;Kerns, 2000;Mackinlay et al., 2009;Aberle and Kliegel, 2010). The findings of this research suggest that TBPM tasks can be performed by school-aged children. ...
... Similarly, in research with schoolchildren, more frequent time checking was found to be related to better TBPM performance (Voigt et al., 2011). Additionally, Ceci and Bronfenbrenner (1985) found that older children showed more strategic clock checks than younger children and were more successful in the TBPM task. Therefore, the poor TBPM task performance appears to result from either insufficient monitoring or ineffective monitoring strategies. ...
... This uniform distribution of results might indicate that within the analyzed cohort, these skills were still at an early developmental stage, and age-related differences might only manifest later in development (cf. Ceci and Bronfenbrenner, 1985;Aberle and Kliegel, 2010). ...
Background
Time-based prospective memory (TBPM) refers to the ability to remember to perform an intended activity at a specific time in the future or after a specific time interval. This article reviews TBPM memory in preschool children and explores the role of time monitoring behavior in TBPM performance.
Methods
A total of 242 preschool-aged children (aged 2–6) performed a prospective memory task, wherein prospective memory accuracy, ongoing task performance, and time monitoring activity were assessed. Additionally, the study examined the relationship of various cognitive abilities to TBPM performance through the use of appropriate cognitive tasks.
Results
The first signs of TBPM were observed in children as young as 2 years old. No significant age differences were identified; preschoolers can perform a delayed intention on their own initiative at a certain point in the future only to a minimal extent. The majority of variance in TBPM performance could be explained by time checking behavior.
Conclusion
The current study indicated that even 2-year-olds can perform TBPM at a basic level when the task is sufficiently understandable. While many cognitive abilities are correlated with TBPM performance, it appears that only time checking behavior plays a significant role in TBPM among preschoolers.
... Several studies (Ceci & Bronfenbrenner, 1985;Del Missier et al., 2021;Einstein et al., 1995;Gonneaud et al., 2011;Harris & Wilkins, 1982;Kliegel et al., 2001;Landsiedel & Williams, 2020;Mäntylä et al., 2007;McFarland & Glisky, 2009;Mioni & Stablum, 2014;Mioni et al., 2012Mioni et al., , 2020Park, Hertzog, Kidder, Morrell, & Mayhorn, 1997;Vanneste et al., 2016) investigated the frequency of external monitoring (clock checks) across different subintervals (usually 1-min long) of the TB PM period. This measure of time monitoring behavior is usually graphically reported as a plot representing the number of clock checks for each subinterval. ...
... This measure of time monitoring behavior is usually graphically reported as a plot representing the number of clock checks for each subinterval. The resulting curve usually resembles a J-shaped function that remains flat or slightly increases during the first part of the task, followed by accelerated clock checking especially in the subinterval immediately preceding the temporal deadline (with the notable exception of a U-shaped curve reported by Ceci & Bronfenbrenner, 1985). Kvavilashvili and Fisher (2007) also observed patterns similar to a J shape when studying intention rehearsals in two studies involving a naturalistic TB PM task (making a phone call after some days), as well as a positive relation between this rehearsal pattern (and rehearsal frequency) and PM performance. ...
... On a more theoretical side, Atkin and Cohen (1996) investigated external monitoring strategies (policies of gathering information about the environment) in a class of tasks they named "cupcake problems," referring to the seminal work of Ceci and Bronfenbrenner (1985), in which children were instructed to take cupcakes out of an oven after 30 min while playing a videogame (like in a typical TB PM task). In this class of tasks, an agent must monitor for a deadline and each external monitoring event is associated with a cost. ...
We propose a new integrative framework of external time monitoring in prospective memory (PM) tasks and its relation with performance. Starting from existing empirical regularities and our theoretical analysis, the framework predicts that external monitoring in PM tasks comprises a first stage of loose monitoring to keep track of the passage of time, and a subsequent stage of finer-grained monitoring , based on interval reduction, to meet the PM deadline. Following our framework, we predicted and observed in three different datasets (N = 375): (1) a marked increase in external monitoring frequency in the final part of the period of the PM task, well captured by a proportional rate exponential growth function; (2) a positive association between individual compliance with this monitoring pattern and PM performance; (3) a positive relation between monitoring frequency in the time window immediately preceding the PM deadline and PM performance at the individual level; and (4) good individual compliance with an interval reduction pattern in external monitoring, especially in the time window closer to the PM deadline. These results support the proposed integrative framework, which has the potential to foster future research on external monitoring in PM and in other fields of cognitive science.
... Performance on PM tasks has consistently been shown to improve with age, in fact older children tend to carry out their intended actions more often than younger children (Kerns & Price, 2001;Mackinlay, Kliegel, & Mäntylä, 2009;Mahy et al., 2015;Mahy, Moses, & Kliegel, 2014). Time-based PM has been shown to develop between 7 and 12 years of age, as children become more proficient in the application of time-checking strategies (Ceci & Bronfenbrenner, 1985;Kvavilashvili, Kyle, & Messer, 2008;Mahy et al., 2014Mahy et al., , 2015 and as their working memory abilities improve, which may support their time-based PM performance (Kerns, 2000;Mahy et al., 2015;Voigt et al., 2014). Mäntylä, Carelli, and Forman (2007) showed that children between 8 and 12 years of age monitored the time more often than adults, and they were equally accurate at meeting the target time. ...
... With the exception of the study by Zinke et al. (2010), no attention had been paid to the time-monitoring behavior of children with ADHD. 1 This is a crucial aspect of timebased PM tasks because it is essential to monitor the time elapsing often enough to ensure the successful initiation of the PM task (Ceci & Bronfenbrenner, 1985;Einstein et al., 1995;Harris & Wilkins, 1982;Mäntylä & Carelli, 2006). For a time-monitoring strategy to be efficient, the clock-checking actions must be scheduled appropriately and the right balance must be struck between the cost of monitoring and the cost of not having accurate information (Mäntylä & Carelli, 2006). ...
... In the present study, all the children increased their time-monitoring frequency closer to the target time, but the children with ADHD had a higher frequency of clock-checking than the TD children in the 1st interval, while the TD children had a higher frequency of clock-checking than the children with ADHD in the 4th interval. More frequent time monitoring in the 1st interval can be interpreted as a "calibration" phase to synchronize the individual's internal clock with the real passage of time (Ceci & Bronfenbrenner, 1985), but this is less crucial than checking the clock closer to the target time. Ceci and Bronfenbrenner (1985) identified three phases of time-monitoring behavior: a "calibration phase", an "intermediate phase" (when clock-checking occurs less often), and a "scalloping phase", when the frequency of clock-checking increases as the deadline approaches. ...
Time-based prospective memory (PM) is the ability to remember to perform an intended action at a given time in the future. It is a competence that is crucial for effective performance in everyday life and may be one of the main causes of problems for individuals who have difficulty in planning and organizing their life, such as children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This study systematically examines different aspects of time-based PM performance in a task that involves taking an action at a given future time in a group of 23 children with ADHD who were compared with a matched group of typically-developing (TD) children. The children were asked to watch a cartoon and then answer a questionnaire about its content (ongoing task). They were also asked to press a key every 2 minutes while watching the cartoon (PM task). The relationships of time perception and verbal working memory with PM performance were examined by administering appropriate tasks. The results showed that the children with ADHD were less accurate than the TD children in the PM task and exhibited less strategic time-monitoring behavior. Time perception was found to predict PM accuracy, whereas working memory was mainly involved in time-monitoring behavior, but this applied more to the TD group than to the ADHD group, suggesting that children with ADHD are less able to use their cognitive resources when meeting a PM request.
... Specifically, they are told that they have a secondary, equally important task (that must be performed concurrently with the ongoing task) which is to press a key every defined interval of time (i.e., 10 min). All wristwatches are removed, and participants can only monitor the elapsed time by pressing a key to reveal a clock (i.e., Maylor, Smith, Della Sala, & Logie, 2002;Mioni & Stablum, 2014) or by turning their head to view a clock positioned behind their back (i.e., Ceci & Bronfenbrenner, 1985;Einstein et al., 1995;Einstein & McDaniel, 1990). TB-PM is evaluated in terms of accuracy at the target time (i.e., press the designed key at the specific time requested); monitoring behaviour (number of clock checks); and performance of the ongoing task (Ceci & Bronfenbrenner, 1985;Harris & Wilkins, 1982;Mäntylä & Carelli, 2006). ...
... All wristwatches are removed, and participants can only monitor the elapsed time by pressing a key to reveal a clock (i.e., Maylor, Smith, Della Sala, & Logie, 2002;Mioni & Stablum, 2014) or by turning their head to view a clock positioned behind their back (i.e., Ceci & Bronfenbrenner, 1985;Einstein et al., 1995;Einstein & McDaniel, 1990). TB-PM is evaluated in terms of accuracy at the target time (i.e., press the designed key at the specific time requested); monitoring behaviour (number of clock checks); and performance of the ongoing task (Ceci & Bronfenbrenner, 1985;Harris & Wilkins, 1982;Mäntylä & Carelli, 2006). ...
Time-based prospective memory (TB-PM) is the ability to remember to perform an action at a specific moment in the future. Accurate TB-PM performance requires several cognitive processes that are known to decline in normal ageing. This study aimed to examine associations between TB-PM performance and executive functions and time perception in younger and older adults. TB-PM was assessed with the Virtual Week paradigm. Using a within-subjects experimental manipulation, participants performed TB-PM tasks both when a clock was in constant view and when it was hidden behind a button. Results showed that younger adults performed significantly better than older adults on all TB-PM task types, and checked the clock more often, and more strategically. Clock availability improved TB-PM performance in all participants. Correlational analyses showed that TB-PM accuracy was positively related to clock-checking frequency but unrelated to time perception. Relationships between executive functions and TB-PM differed across age groups as well as TB-PM task types. The findings suggest that different cognitive processes are required for different types of TB-PM tasks and in different ages. These results highlight the importance of considering TB-PM task parameters when investigating the role of cognitive processes in PM performance and their contribution to age-related PM decline.
... Although it draws on constructivist, cognitive, and sociocultural learning theories, "the key feature of this framework is the emphasis on context" (Falk & Storksdieck, 2005, p. 745). This emphasis is based on previous research where others have also used context as a framework for thinking about learning (e.g., Ceci, 1996;Ceci & Bronfenbrenner, 1985;Sternberg & Wagner, 1996). Although the planetarium venue does not fit neatly into definitions of informal science education, the CML can still be a helpful integrative framework to study the planetarium experience at the intersection of these three contexts and how the overlap of the contexts contributes to student learning and thinking. ...
The Georgia (USA) Department of Education initiated the Georgia Numeracy Project (GNP) to provide resources for schools and districts to help K-8 students build a solid foundation in numeracy. The Individual Knowledge Assessment of Number (IKAN), designed by the New Zealand Numeracy Project, is one of two instruments used in the GNP to diagnose K-8 students’ numeracy knowledge and inform teaching strategies. Because teachers’ knowledge, skills, and beliefs in mathematics can have an impact on their students’ learning of mathematics, and numeracy knowledge and skills play an essential role in K-8 mathematics education, we must learn K-8 preservice teachers’ (PSTs’) strengths and weaknesses in this area. To support PSTs’ development of numeracy at the college level, the IKAN written assessment was administered using a pre/posttest design during four consecutive semesters (spring 2021 – fall 2022) to examine our PSTs’ numeracy knowledge (number order and sequence, basic facts, fractions, and place value) in a Foundations of Numbers and Operations course that focuses on PSTs’ content and pedagogical knowledge in numeracy. In this paper, we present findings about the patterns and changes in our PSTs’ content knowledge from the past four semesters of IKAN data.
... Compared to prospective and everyday memory, retrospective memory has been the subject of much research (1)(2) . Because people tend to forget future planned actions more often than past or retrospective occurrences, PM is extremely important for daily functioning (3) . ...
Memory has a profound impact on every aspect of who we are. The present study explored the extent to which deficits in everyday memory (EM), prospective memory (PM), and retrospective memory (RM) serve as predictive indicators of cognitive failure (CF) in the context of the Bangladeshi population, as well as to identify differences for the variables across various age cohorts and genders. A total of 352 participants took part in the cross-sectional survey of PM, RM, EM, CF, and the demographic questionnaire package. The main goal of this study was accomplished by the findings, which showed a positive link between CF and EM, PM, and RM. Additionally, the results show that while deficiencies in RM have a somewhat smaller correlation with CF, lapses in EM and PM primarily serve as predictive indications of CF. The results of the current study reveal a recurrent pattern of memory recall and cognitive failure, where men are doing generally better than those of women. A noteworthy finding was the superior performance of middle-aged adults in comparison to their younger counterparts. Hence the majority of memory research is conducted on Western or European people, therefore the current study and its findings can serve as a strong starting point for determining the reasons, nature, and direction of the correlations between memory types and cognitive failures. Dhaka Univ. J. Biol. Sci. 33(1): 133-142, 2024 (January)
... This type of memory contrasts with retrospective memory, which is memory for past events, such as remembering the characters from a movie or remembering the words from a list learned in an experiment. One often noted deficiency in the memory literature is that, unlike retrospective memory, we know very little about prospective memory (Baddeley & Wilkins, 1983;Ceci & Bronfenbrenner, 1985;Harris, 1983). This lack of research on prospective memory is a serious gap in the literature because many memory situations are prospective (Dobbs & Rule, 1987;Meacham & Leiman, 1982). ...
We develop a laboratory paradigm for studying prospective memory and examine whether or not this type of memory is especially difficult for the elderly. In two experiments, young and old subjects were given a prospective memory test (they were asked to perform an action when a target event occurred) and three tests of retrospective memory (short-term memory, free recall, and recognition). From the perspective that aging disrupts mainly self-initiated retrieval processes, large age-related decrements in prospective memory were anticipated. However, despite showing reliable age differences on retrospective memory tests, both experiments showed no age deficits in prospective memory. Moreover, regression analyses produced no reliable relation between the prospective and retrospective memory tasks. Also, the experiments showed that external aids and unfamiliar target events benefit prospective memory performance. These results suggest some basic differences between prospective and retrospective memory.
... The three studies varied in the particular tasks performed by participants, ranging from purely laboratory tasks (e.g., recall and recognition) to presumably more ecologically valid ones (i.e., text recall, face-name learning, and appointment keeping). Several memory issues were represented across these tasks, including retrospective memory (i.e., word recall, recognition, and face-name learning), prospective memory (Ceci & Bronfenbrenner, 1985; i.e., appointment keeping), long-term episodic memory (i.e., word recall and recognition), short-term episodic memory (i.e., digit span), semantic memory (i.e., vocabulary), and memory of materials with and without semantic constraints (i.e., prose and word recall, respectively). In addition, these tasks included ones on which older adults would be expected to remember less than younger adults, on the basis of previous research (e.g., recall, recognition, and face-name learning), as well as tasks on which older adults would be expected to remember more than younger adults (i.e., appointment keeping, e.g., Cavanaugh, Grady, & Perlmutter, 1983; vocabulary, e.g., Botwinick, 1978), because some researchers have suggested that predictions on a given task will be more accurate for groups who remember more compared with those remembering less (M. ...
Reports on the course of memory-monitoring skills across adulthood are discrepant in conclusions and limited in scope. The purpose of this study was to build a large data base (3 samples and 7 different tasks) to assess performance awareness. Younger (19–41 years) and older (59–93 years) Ss estimated performance either before (i.e., predictions) or after (i.e., postdictions) completing each task. Predictions were less accurate than postdictions at both age levels, suggesting Ss monitored performance during the study–test cycle. Overall, the data suggested no consistent age effects in performance awareness: Age differences in monitoring occurred only in predictions and only for some tasks. Between-tasks differences in age effects could not be attributed to a single mediating mechanism like those suggested in previous reports. Why previous research has produced conflicting conclusions about metacognitive development in adulthood is discussed in light of these data.
... Prospective memories are common in daily life (Dobbs & Rule, 1987), associated with remembering to execute planned actions (Meacham, 1982), and are a commonly triggered by external cues (Meacham & Colombo, 1980). Ceci & Bronfenbrenner (1985) identified strategic time monitoring as a key part of prospective remembering. This follows a U-shaped distribution, with frequent time monitoring in a calibration phase with a 'psychological clock', a period of reduced clock checking while occupied with other activities, and increased clock checking closer to the time of required action. ...
A fundamental problem in geospatial interface designs is how aspects of user cognition may be incorporated into their design structures for improved reasoning, decision making, and comprehension in geographic spaces. Narrative environments are one such example of geographic spaces, where stories are told and visually displayed. Recently, geospatial narrative environments have become a popular medium for visualising information about space and time in the Earth sciences. Consequently, effective ways of enhancing user cognition in these environments through visual narrative comprehension is becoming increasingly important, particularly for the development of interactive learning environments for geo-education. It was hoped that subtle visualisations of future tasks (environmental precues) could be incorporated into an ambient narrative interface that would improve user cognition and decision making in an immersive 3D virtual narrative environment, which acted as an experimental analogue for how the interface could operate in extended reality (XR) environments. To address this, a hybrid navigational interface called Future Vision was developed. In addition to controller-based locomotion, the interface provides subliminal environmental precues in the form of simulated future thoughts by teleporting the user to a future location, where the outcome of a two-alternative forced-choice (2AFC) decision making task could be briefly seen. The navigational effectiveness of the interface was analysed using the Steering Law: a geographic analysis technique for trajectory-based human-computer interactions. The results showed that Future Vision enhanced participants’ navigational abilities through statistically significant improvements in average task completion times and movement speed. When comparing the experimental interface (Future Vision) with the control interface (an HTC Vive controller), the results showed that the experimental interface was 2.9 times as effective for navigation. Improvements were also seen in the 2AFC decision making task when compared to participants in the control group (who were unguided in their decision making). These were close to significance, and provided weak evidence that Future Vision improved participants’ 2AFC decision making. Improvements in decision making occurred even when participants reported being unaware of the precues. In addition, Future Vision produced a similar information transfer rate to brain-computer interfaces in virtual reality, where participants move virtual objects via motor imagery and the imagined performance of actions through thought. This suggests that visualisations of future thoughts operate in a motor imagery paradigm that is associated with the generation and execution of a user’s goals and intentions. The results also suggest that Future Vision behaves as an optimally designed cognitive user interface for ambient narrative communication during navigation and decision making. Overall, these findings demonstrate how XR narrative-style GIS digital representations may be incorporated into cognitively inspired geospatial interfaces. When employed in real or virtual geographic narrative environments, these interfaces may allow for new types of quantitative GIS analysis techniques to be carried out in the cognitive sciences, leading to insights that may result in improved geospatial interface designs in the future.
... The termination-cue's effect is best explained when the accumulation rate depends on the distance to the cue, while the perceived time is integrated over time, suggesting that the gate width is adjusted as a function of position, while the accumulator integrates pulses over time. The dependency between the accumulation rate and travel distance can be attributed to clock-checking behavior observed in previous prospective memory studies (Ceci & Bronfenbrenner, 1985;Harris & Wilkins, 1982). As the clock-hand approaches the termination-cue, participants may allocate more attention to checking their proximity, resulting in increased dilation. ...
The perceived duration of time does not veridically reflect the physical duration but is distorted by various factors, such as the stimulus magnitude or the observer's emotional state. Here, we showed that knowledge about an event's termination time is another significant factor. We often experience time passage differently when we know that an event will terminate soon. To quantify this, we asked 33 university students to report a rotating clock hand's duration with or without a termination cue that indicated the position at which the clock hand disappeared. The results showed that the presence of the termination cue dilated perceived durations, and the dilating effect was larger when the stimulus duration was longer, or the speed of the rotating stimulus was slower. A control experiment with a start-cue excluded the possibility that the cue's mere existence caused the results. Further computational analyses based on the attention theory-of-time perception revealed that the size of dilation is best explained by neither an event's duration nor the distance traveled by the clock hand, but by how long the clock hand spends time near the termination cue. The results imply that an event-termination cue generates a field in which the perceived time dilates.
... To get a complete accurate picture of how adults of all ages use external memory, it would be valuable for future research to supplement self-report questionnaires and performance in laboratory tasks with naturalistic observation of people's use of external memory aids in their actual everyday settings (cf. Ceci & Bronfenbrenner, 1985;Diehl et al., 2005;Masumoto, Nishimura, Tabuchi, & Fujita, 2011). See for an excellent review of research on aging and prospective memory, including directions for further research. ...
Humans have access to both internal memory (information stored in the brain) and external memory (information stored in the environment). To what extent do we use each in everyday life? In two experiments, participants rated both internal and external memory for frequency of use, dependability, ease of use (Experiment 1), and likelihood of use (Experiment 2) across four purposes: episodic, semantic, procedural, and prospective. Experiment 1 showed that internal memory was favoured for episodic and procedural purposes, while external memory was favoured for semantic purposes. Experiment 2 further clarified that internal memory was favoured for episodic and common procedural purposes, while external memory was favoured for uncommon semantic, uncommon procedural, and far-term prospective purposes. This strategic division of labour plays to the strengths of both forms of memory. Participants also generally rated external memory as more dependable and easier to use. Results support the memory symbiosis framework.
... Importantly, the PM cue appears only few times during the OT (e.g., 3 PM cues among 100 OT trials), to resemble what happens in daily life when there are only few occasions to execute our intention (Brandimonte & Passolunghi, 1994). However, another line of research adopted more ecological PM tasks, in which children were asked to remember to ask for candies or stickers when they see the experimenter or to take cupcakes out of the oven after a specific delay time (Ceci & Bronfenbrenner, 1985;Kliegel et al., 2010;Ślusarczyk & Niedźwieńska, 2013;Somerville et al., 1983). Both laboratory-based and ecological experiments showed advantages and the itself but also by other personal skills. ...
Background:
According to Munsat (1965, The concept of memory. University of Michigan), a person who makes frequent prospective memory (PM) errors is considered as having a flawed character rather than a bad memory. Given that PM completes its development only in young adulthood, this bias might occur not only within social relationships but also in school. However, little is known about the impact of this bias on academic performance.
Aims:
This study aimed to evaluate the impact of children's PM on teacher's evaluations of their academic performance (i.e., grades) and social skills.
Sample:
A total of 158 eight- and twelve-year-old children (48% females) participated in this study.
Methods:
A working memory (WM) updating task was used as ongoing task (OT), in which the PM task was embedded and required participants to respond whenever certain pictures appeared. Children's social skills were measured through teacher ratings, whereas grades were collected as indicators of teachers' assessment of academic performance. Children's WM span and inhibitory control were also assessed.
Results:
Results showed that 8- and 12-year-old children's academic performance was predicted by both PM performance and teachers' evaluations of social skills. However, social skills evaluations were not predicted by PM performance. WM span was related to grades in 8 year olds, while inhibitory control was related to PM performance in 12 year olds.
Conclusions:
These outcomes highlight that children's grades are not explained only by academic performance itself but also by other personal skills. Awareness of the biases which can occur when evaluating children's academic performance can help teachers to be more objective in their assessment.
... Perhaps more importantly, even to the extent that there is overlap in processes, the situations in which the processes need to be deployed are quite different (Sternberg 2004). Furthermore, there is evidence that the same deep-structural challenges presented in different contexts often elicit different solution strategies (Bronfenbrenner and Ceci 1994;Ceci and Bronfenbrenner 1985;Ceci and Roazzi 1994;Nuñes 1994). ...
This article discusses the issues of the basic processes underlying intelligence, considering both historical and contemporary perspectives. The attempt to elucidate basic processes has had, at best, mixed success. There are some problems with pinpointing the underlying basic processes of intelligence, both in theory and as tested, such as what constitutes a basic process, what constitutes intelligence, and whether the processes, basic or not, are the same across time and space (cultural contexts). Nevertheless, the search for basic processes has elucidated phenomena of intelligence that the field would have been hard-pressed to elucidate in any other way. Intelligence cannot be fully understood through any one conceptual or methodological approach. A comprehensive understanding of intelligence requires the converging operations of a variety of approaches to it.
... Moreover, we know that situations greatly affect task performance. Ceci and Bronfenbrenner (1985) found that context had a major effect on performance in prospective-memory and time-monitoring tasks. Nuñes (1994) (see also Ceci and Roazzi 1994) found that context affected street children's ability to perform mathematical tasks. ...
This article explores the advantages of viewing intelligence not as a fixed trait residing within an individual, but rather as a person × task × situation interaction. The emphasis in the article is on the role of persons solving tasks embedded in situations involving learning, intellectual abilities, and competencies. The article opens with a consideration of the role of situations in intelligent behavior. The article then discusses how intelligence is more similar to creativity and wisdom, in terms of the role of situations, than many psychologists have realized. Then the article reviews the role of situations in identity-based and irrational thinking and in conspiratorial thinking and cults. Next the article discusses the demonstrated importance of situations in assessment, but also notes the difficulties in sampling situations. Finally, the article draws conclusions, in particular, that, given our lack of situation-based tests, we need to be more modest in our interpretations results from conventional tests of intelligence.
... Meacham (1982) considera o recordar como uma operação essencial na execução de ações planejadas e postergadas. Baddeley e Wilkins (1983), Ceci e Bronfenbrenner, (1985) e Harris (1984) propuseram que o estudo da memória prospectiva tem sido muito pouco desenvolvido, se comparado à quantidade de trabalhos que se preocuparam com o estudo de memória retrospectiva. ...
Resumo: As mudanças cognitivas associadas à idade descrevem-se particularmente a partir dos 40 anos de idade e afetam especialmente a memória. As dificuldades na memória de intenções futuras (memória prospectiva) são as queixas mais importantes de pacientes com esquecimentos benignos. Instrumentos clássicos de avaliação neuropsicológica não conseguem reproduzir o impacto desses esquecimentos nas situações cotidianas, entretanto, um enfoque mais ecológico contempla a inclusão da funcionalidade e a relação da dificuldade de memória sobre o funcionamento cotidiano do indivíduo. O objetivo desse trabalho é apresentar um instrumento quase-naturalístico, denominado a Prova da Águia desenhado para a avaliação da memória prospectiva. Foram incorporadas tarefas específicas de evento, de tempo e repetitivas, todas em sua dimensão prospectiva. Foram verificadas sua consistência, validade e predição para a avaliação de indivíduos com ou sem esquecimentos benignos. A amostra total de 76 indivíduos foi dividida em dois grupos: um com queixas de esquecimentos (Esquecimentos Benignos) e outro sem queixas de memória. O instrumento mostrou apresentar consistência interna e a análise de regressão mostrou uma predição de 71,1% para os pacientes com esquecimentos benignos e de 78,9% para o grupo sem queixas. A análise de correlação confirmou essa consistência quanto à relação entre o componente retrospectivo e as demais categorias de lembrança prospectiva (evento, tempo e tarefas repetitivas). Observou-se o efeito de idade e de escolaridade no desempenho da prova. Além de diferenças significativas encontradas nas duas populações, foram observados comportamentos distintos entre os dois grupos. A partir desses dados pudemos concluir que o teste quase naturalístico criado mostrou ser um instrumento adequado para o diagnóstico de esquecimentos benignos. Palavras-chave: Envelhecimento. Memória Prospectiva. Avaliação Neuropsicológica. Abstract: Cognitive age changes occur mainly after the 4th decade and produce a decline especially in memory functions. The major complaint includes failures in memory for future intentions (prospective memory). Classical tools of neuropsychological evaluation do not reproduce the impact of these complaints in daily life. Nevertheless, a more ecological focus permits the inclusion of functionality and the impact of memory failure in daily performance. The objective of this study is to show a quasi-naturalistic instrument for memory testing, called the Test of the Eagle. It includes event, time and repetitive prospective memory tasks. Test consistence, validity and prediction were tested in a group of participants with and without benign forgetfulness. A total of 76 participants was divided in two group: one with memory complaints (benign forgetfulness) and the other without. The instrument showed internal consistence and regression analysis showed a predictability of 71,1% for the benign forgetfulness group and of 78,9% for the control without memory complaints. Correlation analyses confirmed the consistency regarding the relation among the retrospective component and the other categories of prospective reminding (event, time and repetitive tasks). Age and schooling effect were observed. Beside significant differences, different behaviors were observed in the two groups. These data led us to conclude that the quasi-naturalistic test created to evaluate prospective memory showed to be a useful instrument for the diagnosis of benign forgetfulness. Keywords: Aging. Prospective Memory. Neuropsychological Evaluation.
... Если в психологическом центре лишь один ребенок не справился с задачей достать кекс из духовки вовремя, то дома 14 детей опоздали более чем на 90 с, а еще 7 детей опоздали на 60-90 с. У этих детей количество взглядов на часы в период проведения эксперимента уменьшалось, они переставали следить за временем, хотя в условиях лаборатории справлялись с этой задачей (Ceci S.J., 1985). ...
... Если в психологическом центре лишь один ребенок не справился с задачей достать кекс из духовки вовремя, то дома 14 детей опоздали более чем на 90 с, а еще 7 детей опоздали на 60-90 с. У этих детей количество взглядов на часы в период проведения эксперимента уменьшалось, они переставали следить за временем, хотя в условиях лаборатории справлялись с этой задачей (Ceci S.J., 1985). ...
... Three ecological tasks of PM were developed for the study. Because PM performance is influenced by motivation 85 , by the ecological features of the task (meaningful task versus exercise type task, home versus laboratory context) 206 and by delay 66 between formation of an intention (PM instructions in this case) and the target situation, the tasks were designed to 74 vary on these three factors. Further, because standard tests administered to the cohort were numerous and time-consuming, the PM tasks had to be short and not disturb the other tests. ...
Part one of this PhD explored executive functions (EF) and related impairments after childhood severe TBI. Executive dysfunction was worse when the injury occurred during the period of rapid development of EF. Paper and pencil tasks underestimated EF impairment in daily life. Impairment in prospective memory persisted at seven years post injury, and into adulthood. A model of child anosognosia, and directions for cognitive rehabilitation interventions, are proposed based on a study of self-awareness after childhood TBI. Part two of this PhD investigated methods of remediating EF dysfunction. A systematic review found that Goal Management Training (GMT) is effective in adults when coupled with personal goal setting, external cueing, personalised homework to increase patients' commitment and training intensity and daily life training activities. Based on this literature review, a paediatric GMT intervention was adapted and tested. The intervention showed limited effectiveness, with inconsistency across outcome measures. Children did not apply the metacognitive strategies taught during the training. Furthermore, there was no evidence of generalisation of task-specific improvements to a novel, parallel version of the secondary outcome measure (the Children’s Cooking Task). The adapted GMT did not seem developmentally coherent for younger children. It is clear that deficits in EF arising from TBI continue to be an important target for rehabilitation interventions in children. Proposals on how the use of novel innovative outcome measures and methodologies may improve the field of EF rehabilitation in children with TBI are presented.
... To get a complete accurate picture of how adults of all ages use external memory, it would be valuable for future research to supplement self-report questionnaires and performance in laboratory tasks with naturalistic observation of people's use of external memory aids in their actual everyday settings (cf. Ceci & Bronfenbrenner, 1985;Diehl et al., 2005;Masumoto, Nishimura, Tabuchi, & Fujita, 2011). See for an excellent review of research on aging and prospective memory, including directions for further research. ...
How is technology changing the way people remember?
This book explores the interplay of memory stored in the brain (internal memory) and outside of the brain (external memory), providing a thorough interdisciplinary review of the current literature, including relevant theoretical frameworks from across a variety of disciplines in the sciences, arts, and humanities. It also presents the findings of a rich and novel empirical data set, based on a comprehensive survey on the shifting interplay of internal and external memory in the 21st century. Results reveal a growing symbiosis between the two forms of memory in our everyday lives.
The book presents a new theoretical framework for understanding the interplay of internal and external memory, and their complementary strengths. It concludes with a guide to important dimensions, questions, and methods for future research.
Memory and Technology will be of interest to researchers, professors, and students across the disciplines of psychology, philosophy, library and information science, human factors, media and cultural studies, anthropology and archaeology, photography, and cognitive rehabilitation, as well as anyone interested in how technology is affecting human memory.
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"This is a novel book, with interesting and valuable data on an important, meaningful topic, as well as a gathering of multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary ideas...The research is accurately represented and inclusive. As a teaching tool, I can envision graduate seminars in different disciplines drawing on the material as the basis for teaching and discussions."
Dr. Linda A. Henkel, Fairfield University
"This book documents the achievements of a vibrant scientific project – you feel the enthusiasm of the authors for their research. The organization of the manuscript introduces the reader into a comparatively new field the same way as pioneering authors have approached it."
Prof. Dr. Wolfgang Schönpflug, Freie Universität Berlin
... In addition, post-experimental questionnaires in PM research are ubiquitous, so that researchers can check that the retrospective component of performance is not in doubt. Moreover, naturalistic event-and time-based PM research paradigms (e.g., Ceci & Bronfenbrenner, 1985; predated the seminal, now dominant, laboratory paradigm devised by . The realization that measurement of the prospective versus retrospective aspects of performance, including monitoring (e.g., clock checking), was needed to be addressed was also appreciated early . ...
An intriguing topic in the field of prospective memory is our ability to monitor our own behavior. In particular, successful execution of intentions requires that we make accurate judgments about our past responses. We begin this chapter by focusing on commission errors (repeating an intention because we think it has not yet been completed) and omission errors (believing an intention was fulfilled when it was not). We focus on the finding that output monitoring errors are especially prevalent for older adult age groups and errors are especially likely in the context of well-established habits. Finally, this chapter concludes with an examination of output monitoring in real-life scenarios such as the aviation industry and medication adherence.
... In addition, post-experimental questionnaires in PM research are ubiquitous, so that researchers can check that the retrospective component of performance is not in doubt. Moreover, naturalistic event-and time-based PM research paradigms (e.g., Ceci & Bronfenbrenner, 1985; predated the seminal, now dominant, laboratory paradigm devised by . The realization that measurement of the prospective versus retrospective aspects of performance, including monitoring (e.g., clock checking), was needed to be addressed was also appreciated early . ...
An implementation intention is a self-regulatory strategy often used in prospective memory research to boost performance by creating a strong association between a to-be-encountered environmental stimulus (e.g., the door to exit one’s home) and an intended action (e.g., checking to be sure one has the keys). In this chapter, we examine the evidence for the purported automaticity of implementation intentions as well we discuss the extent to which encoding an implementation intention varies (e.g., they can be encoded verbally, through writing, and explicit use of imagery). This chapter concludes with an examination of the underlying mechanism of implementation intentions, and we describe a recent theory that employs a simulation-based account to explain the effectiveness of implementation intentions.
... In addition, post-experimental questionnaires in PM research are ubiquitous, so that researchers can check that the retrospective component of performance is not in doubt. Moreover, naturalistic event-and time-based PM research paradigms (e.g., Ceci & Bronfenbrenner, 1985; predated the seminal, now dominant, laboratory paradigm devised by . The realization that measurement of the prospective versus retrospective aspects of performance, including monitoring (e.g., clock checking), was needed to be addressed was also appreciated early . ...
This Brief offers a comprehensive and up-to-date overview of the current developments in the field of prospective memory, or memory for delayed intentions. It explores several key areas in prospective memory research, including computational modeling, neuroscience and prospective memory, output monitoring, and implementation intentions. It seeks to increase understanding of prospective memory as well as offer the latest and most compelling findings in the field.
Prospective memory, or the act of remembering to carry out a previously formed intention, requires the processes of encoding, storage, and delayed retrieval of intended actions. Chapters in this Brief discuss the implementation and execution of intended actions, as well as the conditions in which they can fail. In addition, chapters also include reviews of the current state of the neuroscience of prospective memory as well as developments in statistical modeling. Laboratory research in the field of prospective memory began in the late 1980s and since then, the number of studies has increased exponentially. This Brief provides timely and relevant information in a field that is ever expanding and growing.
This Brief is an informative resource for researchers and undergraduate and graduate students in the field of psychology, cognitive psychology, and neuroscience.
... In addition, post-experimental questionnaires in PM research are ubiquitous, so that researchers can check that the retrospective component of performance is not in doubt. Moreover, naturalistic event-and time-based PM research paradigms (e.g., Ceci & Bronfenbrenner, 1985; predated the seminal, now dominant, laboratory paradigm devised by . The realization that measurement of the prospective versus retrospective aspects of performance, including monitoring (e.g., clock checking), was needed to be addressed was also appreciated early . ...
Attention in prospective memory research has focused simultaneously on processes that affect prospective memory retrieval and associated scheduling within ongoing tasks. In concert, newer, and often, more sophisticated approaches are being developed. The first part of this chapter focuses on measurement of response times in ongoing tasks and how these response time distributions are affected by holding an intention. The ex-Gaussian distribution is one example that characterizes response time distributions well. Parameters within this model have been used recently to indicate evidence of costs to holding intentions. We also review evidence accumulation models, such as drift diffusion models and linear ballistic accumulator models that have been applied to model choice and response time information. The application of multinomial processing tree (MPT) models to prospective and ongoing task responses is also covered. Finally, we review a very recent computational process model of prospective memory—an effort that is relatively new in the prospective memory field.
... In addition, post-experimental questionnaires in PM research are ubiquitous, so that researchers can check that the retrospective component of performance is not in doubt. Moreover, naturalistic event-and time-based PM research paradigms (e.g., Ceci & Bronfenbrenner, 1985; predated the seminal, now dominant, laboratory paradigm devised by . The realization that measurement of the prospective versus retrospective aspects of performance, including monitoring (e.g., clock checking), was needed to be addressed was also appreciated early . ...
In this chapter, we review selected topics in the field of prospective memory (PM) that are thought to be of current significance. Beginning with the challenges inherent in providing a satisfactory definition of prospective memory, we go on to discuss PM retrieval processes (top-down attentional processes that rely on monitoring vs. spontaneous noticing processes). We consider the recent emergence of the field of episodic future thinking and suggest ways that it can be incorporated into our understanding of prospective memory. Lastly, we review how carrying out intentions in a social context influences behavior.
... In addition, post-experimental questionnaires in PM research are ubiquitous, so that researchers can check that the retrospective component of performance is not in doubt. Moreover, naturalistic event-and time-based PM research paradigms (e.g., Ceci & Bronfenbrenner, 1985; predated the seminal, now dominant, laboratory paradigm devised by . The realization that measurement of the prospective versus retrospective aspects of performance, including monitoring (e.g., clock checking), was needed to be addressed was also appreciated early . ...
Neuroscience methodologies used to understand prospective memory are being applied widely. In this chapter, we review various methods that address how people store intentions and how they share and schedule task prospective memory goals alongside other ongoing cognitive activities. A major focus is on relatively contemporary research using fMRI, PET, and ERP methodologies. Such research has focused primarily on event-based prospective memory and on the distinction between transient and sustained attentional processing associated with holding or retrieving an intention. We also address recent neuroscientific frameworks that have been developed to account for the role that various brain areas have in supporting prospective memory, including the distinction between processes involved with focal versus nonfocal prospective memory retrieval.
... Various researchers found evidence that young children are able to perform metacognitive activity more effectively when the task is significant for them (Deloache et al. 1985) and when the task and the context are known to them (Ceci and Bronfenbrenner 1985). Exposing children to a guidance activation before starting the e-book activity, in order to reduce the cognitive load, should therefore be considered. ...
The main purpose of the present study was to examine the effect of an activity with an educational electronic book (e-book) on language retention among children at risk for learning disabilities (LD) (seven weeks after the intervention). Two modes of the educational e-book were investigated: with and without metacognitive guidance. Seventy seven kindergarteners aged 4.5–7 were randomly divided into three groups: (1) reading an e-book which included metacognitive guidance (EBM); (2) reading an e-book which did not include metacognitive guidance (EB); (3) receiving the regular kindergarten program (control). The children’s vocabulary was assessed before the intervention, immediately after the intervention (post 1) and seven weeks later (post 2). Story comprehension was assessed only following the intervention (post 1 and 2). The findings showed a long-term effect of the activity with the e-book on vocabulary. However, for story comprehension, a decrease in recall of words and quotes and an increase in the recall of main ideas from the story were found seven weeks after the activity with the e-book. No significant difference in retention was found between the two intervention groups (with and without metacognitive guidance). The implications of these results for kindergarteners at risk for LD are discussed.
... PM refers to the ability to remember to do something in the future (Einstein and Mcdaniel, 1990), which is more complex and important for daily activities than RM. As PM is essential to maintain a structured daily routine (Ceci and Bronfenbrenner, 1985;Woods et al., 2011), its impairment could result in compromised personal and social functions (Altgassen et al., 2008), therefore PM has a major impact on the management of bipolar disorder. Impaired PM, such as forgetting to take medication or meet appointments as scheduled, could lead to poor outcome. ...
There are conflicting findings about prospective memory (PM) performance in bipolar disorder. This meta-analysis systematically examined PM in patients with bipolar disorders. Articles were systematically searched in both English and Chinese databases, from their inception to Nov 15, 2016. Only case-control studies on PM in bipolar patients were included for analyses. The random effect model was used in all meta-analytic outcomes. Four studies (n = 390) comparing PM performance between patients with bipolar disorder (n = 208) and healthy controls (n = 182) were included. Three studies were rated as "high quality", while the quality of evidence in 3 meta-analyzable outcomes ranged from "moderate" (67%) to "high" (33%). Compared to healthy controls, bipolar disorder patients showed impairments in overall PM [2 studies, n = 196; SMD: - 1.08 (95%CI: - 1.61, - 0.55), P < 0.0001; I(2) = 65%], event-based PM [4 studies, n = 367; SMD: - 0.51 (95%CI: - 0.78, - 0.23), P = 0.0003; I(2) = 37%] and time-based PM performance [4 studies, n = 367; SMD: - 0.82 (95%CI: - 1.11, - 0.52), P < 0.0001; I(2) = 41%]. In this meta-analysis, both time-based PM and event-based PM deficits appeared to be evident in bipolar disorder.
... Consumer physical activity monitors have already transformed physiology research by enabling investigators to continuously measure physical activity for months if not years in an economical manner, and-importantly-using vehicles that are popular and widely available wearable devices. The wealth of information offered by these platforms may enable researchers to assess physical activity in new ways, approximating free-living conditions like never before, on a new level of ecological validity that may lead to new, unanticipated discoveries (14). This is true of both naturalistic studies and randomized control trials. ...
Sedentary lifestyle and lack of physical activity are well-established risk factors for chronic disease and adverse health outcomes. Thus there is enormous interest in measuring physical activity in biomedical research. Many consumer physical activity monitors, including Basis® Health Tracker, BodyMedia® Fit, DirectLife®, Fitbit® Flex, Fitbit One, Fitbit Zip, Garmin® Vivofit, Jawbone® UP, MisFit® Shine, Nike® FuelBand, Polar® Loop, Withings® Pulse O2, and others have accuracies similar to that of research-grade physical activity monitors for measuring steps. This review focuses on the unprecedented opportunities consumer physical activity monitors offer for human physiology and pathophysiology research because of their ability to measure activity continuously under real life conditions and because they are already widely used by consumers. We examine current and potential uses of consumer physical activity monitors as a measuring or monitoring device, or as an intervention in strategies to change behavior and predict health outcomes. The accuracy, reliability, reproducibility, and validity of consumer physical activity monitors is reviewed, as are limitations and challenges associated with using these devices in research. Other topics covered include how smartphone apps and platforms such as the Apple ResearchKit can be used in conjunction with consumer physical activity monitors for research. Lastly, the future of consumer physical activity monitors and related technology is considered: pattern recognition, integration of sleep monitors, and other biosensors in combination with new forms of information processing.
... Dans un contexte expérimental, lorsqu'une horloge est disponible pour les tâches de type time-based, celle-ci doit être localisée en dehors du champ visuel du sujet, afin de permettre à l'expérimentateur d'observer la stratégie utilisée en prenant en compte le nombre et la fréquence des consultations. Cette stratégie suivrait une courbe en U et comprendrait trois phases (elle est également parfois décrite comme suivant une courbe en forme de J, dans ce cas, la première phase est supprimée) : une première phase de calibrage avec vérifications fréquentes de l'horloge permettant de synchroniser l'horloge interne et l'horloge réelle, une phase intermédiaire pour laquelle les consultations de Article de synthèse l'horloge sont rares afin de poursuivre la réalisation d'autres activités et enfin une phase pour laquelle la fréquence des consultations de l'horloge s'intensifie au fur et à mesure de l'approche du moment prévu pour réaliser l'action [6]. Une critique que l'on peut émettre à l'encontre du modèle TWTE est qu'il ne propose pas d'explication pour le déclenchement des différents tests, même si trois hypothèses ont été envisagées : 1) la mise en oeuvre de processus exécutifs de supervision d'une horloge interne biologique qui alerte l'individu au moment opportun [7] ; 2) la survenue fortuite d'indices dans l'environnement [8] ; ou encore 3) la « marche aléatoire du train de la pensée » [9]. ...
La mémoire prospective est la mémoire des intentions programmées, c’est-à-dire qu’elle nous permet de réaliser une action à un moment prédéfini du futur, soit en réponse à l’apparition d’un indice dans l’environnement (i.e. event-based), soit à un horaire déterminé ou à l’issue d’un certain laps de temps (i.e. time-based). Elle est indispensable à la réalisation de diverses activités de notre quotidien, les plus simples comme les plus complexes. Cette diversité est reflétée par l’engagement de processus cognitifs variés lors du rappel d’intentions. Plus précisément, si dans certaines situations la récupération d’une intention peut s’exercer sur un mode automatique, dans d’autres circonstances, l’engagement de processus contrôlés est requis. L’objectif de cette revue est de présenter les grandes théories du fonctionnement de la mémoire prospective élaborées pour rendre compte de ces mécanismes. Nous présenterons d’abord les théories explicitant la mise en place d’une surveillance attentionnelle, que ce soit pour le rappel d’intentions event-based ou time-based. Par la suite, les théories explicatives de la récupération automatique et spontanée d’intentions seront présentées. Enfin, nous développerons deux théories intégrant les deux visions précédentes. La théorie des processus multiples propose l’engagement de processus automatiques ou contrôlés en fonction notamment de certaines caractéristiques de la tâche proposée. La théorie dynamique des processus multiples intègre une adaptation à la variabilité contextuelle plus propice à retranscrire le fonctionnement de la mémoire prospective au quotidien.
... En effet, il est très probable que la plupart des gens notent sur un papier les achats à fa ire, surtout lorsqu'il y a 16 articles différents ou plus. Bronfenbrenner (1985) a montré, du moins chez les enfants , que les stratégies utilisées spontanément à la maison pour se souvenir d' exécuter une action dans le futur ne sont pas du tout les mêmes que celles qui sont déployées lors des observations effectuées en laboratoire. ...
... Event-based PM develops during the preschool years, with 3-year-olds and sometimes even 2year-olds (Kliegel & Jäger, 2007) able to succeed at certain tasks (for a review, see Kvavilashvili et al., 2008). Time-based PM research, on the other hand, has typically focused on older schoolaged samples (e.g., Ceci & Bronfenbrenner, 1985;Kerns, 2000;Mackinlay, Kliegel, & Mäntylä, 2009). The earliest reported success on a time-based PM task is by 5-year-olds, who could sometimes remember to turn a sand timer over whenever it had completed a cycle while also playing an unrelated card game (Aberle & Kliegel, 2010). ...
... Ceci and Bronfennbrenner (1985) applied a video game to mimic naturalistic study with a real-life scenario. The children were allowed to play the video game, but they needed to remember to take the cupcakes out of the oven in a delayed time of 30 minutes [34]. The ongoing task of playing the game is very likely to happen in our life. ...
Forgetting is in common in daily life, and 50-80% everyday's forgetting is due to prospective memory failures, which have significant impacts on our life. More seriously, some of these memory lapses can bring fatal consequences such as forgetting a sleeping infant in the back seat of a car. People tend to use various techniques to improve their prospective memory performance. Setting up a reminder is one of the most important techniques. The existing studies provide evidences in support of using reminders to cope with prospective memory failures. However, people are not satisfied with existing reminders because of their limitations in different aspects including reliability, optimization, and adaption. Through analysing the functions and features of existing reminder systems, this book draft summarizes their advantages and limitations. We are motivated to improve the performance of reminder systems. For the improvements, the relevant theories and mechanisms of prospective memory from psychology must be complied with, incorporated, and applied in this new study. Based on the literature review, a new reminder model is proposed, which includes a novel reminder planer, a prospective memory based agent, and a personalized user model. The reminder planer is responsible for determining the optimal reminder plan (including the optimal number of reminders, the optimal reminding schedule and the optimal reminding way). The prospective memory agent is responsible for executing the reminding processes. The personalized user model is proposed to learn from users' behaviors and preferences based on human-system interactions and is responsible for adapting the reminder plan to meet users' preferences as much as possible.
... laboratory-type) situation (e.g. Justice & Bray, 1979;Wippich, 1980; see also Ceci & Bronfenbrenner, 1985). ...
... Prospective memory Infants 11 to 12 months old are able to carry out an intention on the basis of stored information. 93,94 Performance on PM tasks continues to improve during childhood 95 and adolescence, with significant differences between late childhood and adolescence [96][97][98] and between adolescence and adulthood. 99 Children become increasingly skilled at using external cues 95,100 and time-checking strategies. ...
Information on the development and functions of rostral prefrontal cortex (PFC), or Brodmann area 10, has been gathered from different fields, from anatomical development to functional neuroimaging in adults, and put forward in relation to three particular cognitive and behavioural disorders. Rostral PFC is larger and has a lower cell density in humans than in other primates. It also has a large number of dendritic spines per cell and numerous connections to the supramodal cortex. These characteristics suggest that rostral PFC is likely to support processes of integration or coordination of inputs that are particularly developed in humans. The development of rostral PFC is prolonged, with decreases in grey matter and synaptic density continuing into adolescence. Functions attributed to rostral PFC, such as prospective memory, seem similarly to follow a prolonged development until adulthood. Neuroimaging studies have generally found a reduced recruitment of rostral PFC, for example in tasks requiring response inhibition, in adults compared with children or adolescents, which is consistent with maturation of grey matter. The examples of autism, attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder, and schizophrenia show that rostral PFC could be affected in several disorders as a result of the susceptibility of its prolonged maturation to developmental abnormalities.
... Time-based prospective memory (TBPM) requires, as the name implies, an intended action to be completed at a specific time (pulse) or within a specific window of time (step) (Ellis, 1988). Past research on TBPM has included tasks requiring the pressing of a specific key on a keyboard every two minutes (Kliegel, Martin, McDaniel, & Einstein, 2001), reminding an experimenter that it is now time to call a plumber at a specific time during the Virtual Week prospective memory paradigm (see Rendell & Craik, 2000 for this very interesting board game simulation of real life), or taking cupcakes out of an oven after 30 minutes of baking (Ceci & Bronfenbrenner, 1985). ...
Prospective memory describes the cognitive process that allows an individual to
delay the completion of an intention without keeping the task at the forefront of attention.
This process has been referred to as everyday memory by past researchers to emphasize
how common this type of memory is, varying from the mundane (e.g., buying milk) to
the atypical but critical (e.g., apprehending a suspect). The authors examine the
classification and components of prospective memory, as well as describing the typical
paradigm used to study this cognitive process. Additionally, the current theoretical
frameworks of the prospective memory process are discussed. Specifically theories of a
resource consuming monitoring process and theories of spontaneous retrieval of the
delayed intention are discussed. The current mathematical model of prospective memory
is examined, and advantages and disadvantages are discussed. Finally, a new
mathematical model of the prospective memory processes is proposed and evaluated,
drawing component from both diffusion process models and race models.
This study investigated the extent to which the type of task influences children's prospective memory performance. 80 subjects, aged 7 to 11 yr. participated in an experiment in which the type of task (time-based vs event-based) and the retention interval (5 min. vs 10 min.) varied. The prospective memory task was embedded in a principal task lasting about 15 min. and required subjects perform an action at a given time or in response to a specific cue. Analysis indicated that the delay was associated with prospective memory performance only on a time-based task in which the intention has to be performed after 10 min. but not age. Analysis indicated also that time monitoring was associated with shorter latency between the target time and the execution of the intention on the time-based task. Implications were discussed.
Several studies have suggested that time monitoring is important for appropriate time-based prospective memory (TBPM). However, it is still unknown if people actively use internal timing processes to monitor the approaching target time, and whether they do so by tracking the duration between clock digits, or by counting and matching the numerical progression of clock ticks' digits with the target time. Therefore, in the present study, we investigated whether a manipulation of the external time affected time monitoring and TBPM performance. In two experiments, participants performed two identical TBPM tasks: a first TBPM block with no clock-speed manipulation followed by a second TBPM block, where the clock-speed was manipulated as faster or slower (experimental conditions) or normal (control condition). The results showed that only participants in the slower clock condition increased time monitoring in the second compared to the first TBPM block (d = 0.42 and 1.70); moreover, particularly in Experiment 2, participants in the faster clock condition checked the clock significantly less frequently than participants in the slower clock (d = -1.70) and in the control condition (d = -0.98), but only during the 4th minute. No effect was found for TBPM performance. Overall, results suggested that people tracked the target time by counting and matching the numerical progression of clock ticks' digits with the target time. The findings are discussed considering the most recent theoretical advancements about the relationship between time perception and TBPM.
Past research has frequently failed to find age differences in prospective memory. This article tested the possibility that age differences would be more likely to emerge on a prospective memory task that was high in self-initiated retrieval. In the 1st experiment, participants were asked to perform an action every 10 min (a time-based task presumed to be high in self-initiated retrieval); in the 2nd experiment, participants were asked to perform an action whenever a particular word was presented (an event-based task presumed to be relatively low in self-initiated retrieval). Age differences were found with the time-based task but not with the event-based task. This pattern of age differences was again found in a 3rd experiment in which a new experimental procedure was used and the nature of the prospective memory task was directly varied. Generally, the results suggest that self-initiated retrieval processes are an important component of age-related differences across both retrospective and prospective memory tasks.
L’un des objectifs de la première partie de la thèse était de mieux appréhender les substrats neuronaux associés au déclin de la mémoire prospective time-based dans le vieillissement sain. Le second objectif a été d’explorer le déclin de la mémoire prospective dans la maladie d’Alzheimer à l’aide d’une tâche de mémoire prospective en réalité virtuelle. Dans une seconde partie, ce travail a porté sur les effets négatifs des stéréotypes du vieillissement, en situation clinique, lors des bilans neuropsychologiques. Les deux premières études mettent en évidence une altération des faisceaux de substance blanche et des réseaux de connectivité au repos associés au déclin de la mémoire prospective time-based. Le déclin observé dans le vieillissement sain est associé à des altérations au niveau du réseau fronto-pariétal impliqué dans les processus automatiques et contrôlés. Les résultats de la troisième étude suggèrent l’atteinte généralisée de la mémoire prospective chez les patients Alzheimer liée à des troubles authentiques dans les processus mnésiques. Enfin, cette thèse a mis en évidence pour la première fois, un effet de la menace du stéréotype en milieu clinique chez des patients venant pour une première consultation neuropsychologique. Il sera important dans la clinique future de porter attention à l’effet implicite des facteurs psychosociaux au sein des bilans. A l’inverse, la recherche doit également prendre en compte ce biais dans les protocoles expérimentaux. Il semble important que chacun à son échelle modifie son comportement afin d’endiguer la propagation des stéréotypes négatifs liés à l’âge.
In diesem Lehrbuch wird Entwicklung als wissenschaftliches Denkmodell zur Beschreibung des menschlichen Lebenslaufes wissenschaftshistorisch und konzeptionell eingeordnet. Zentrale Theorien menschlicher Entwicklung werden ebenso vorgestellt wie Konzeptionen zu Störungen von Entwicklungsprozessen. Zusammen mit Betrachtungen zum Stand der Forschung und der Forschungsmethoden liefert diese Einführung klar und verständlich zentrale Grundlagen, die Studierende in erziehungswissenschaftlichen, pädagogischen und sozialen Handlungsfeldern benötigen.
Die Autorin
Dr. Andrea Kleeberg-Niepage ist Professorin für Entwicklungs- und Pädagogische Psychologie an der Abteilung Psychologie der Europa-Universität Flensburg.
Objective:
To investigate the long-term outcome in prospective memory (PM), seven years after childhood severe traumatic brain injury (TBI), in a prospective longitudinal cohort.
Participants:
76 young individuals (aged 7-22 years): 39 patients with a severe accidental TBI included prospectively seven years earlier, aged 0-15 years at injury, and 37 controls individually matched on age, gender and parental education.
Main outcome measures:
Three novel short PM tasks varying in the delay, motivation and context (ecological versus paper and pencil task).
Results:
Individuals with severe TBI showed significantly poorer PM than matched controls in the two low-motivation PM tasks: (1) the ecological long-delay task consisting of sending a letter on a rainy day (p=0.047, odds ratio = 2.6); (2) the non-ecological short-delay task consisting of taking off post-its while identifying facial emotions (p=0.004, r=0.34). Differences in PM on the high motivation were not significant. PM is impaired several years post severe TBI.
In recent years, the smartwatch has returned as a form factor for mobile computing with some success. Yet it is not clear how smartwatches are used and integrated into everyday life differently from mobile phones. For this paper, we used wearable cameras to record twelve participants' daily use of smartwatches, collecting and analysing incidents where watches were used from over 34 days of user recording. This allows us to analyse in detail 1009 watch uses. Using the watch as a timepiece was the most common use, making up 50% of interactions, but only 14% of total watch usage time. The videos also let us examine why and how smartwatches are used for activity tracking, notifications, and in combination with smartphones. In discussion, we return to a key question in the study of mobile devices: how are smartwatches integrated into everyday life, in both the actions that we take and the social interactions we are part of?
Dias, M. G. B. B., & Roazzi (1993). Raciocínio Lógico e Escolarização. Revista Brasileira de Estudos Pedagógicos, 74(176), 73-102. https://goo.gl/i2BQwc
O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar o efeito do modo de faz-de-conta, formas de silogismos e tipos de fatos, no desempenho de crianças inglesas de 5 anos de idade, escolarizadas, de nivel socioeconômico (NSE) médio e de crianças brasileiras de 5 anos de idade, não escolarizadas de NSE baixo. Os resultados mostraram que as crianças, independentemente se escolarizadas ou não, produziram maior número de respostas corretas e maior número de justificativas teóricas na condição de brincadeira de faz-de-conta do que na condição verbal comum. Este efeito foi especialmente marcante para os fatos desconhecidos e para os fatos contrários às experiências das crianças. Este padrão foi mantido para ambas formas de silogismos, embora em geral o desempenho das crianças nos problemas envolvendo Modus Ponens tenha sido mais acurada do que nos problemas envolvendo Modus Tollens. As crianças não-escolarizadas obtiveram menores escores do que as escolarizadas. No entanto, esta diferença não foi tão forte como aquela relatada por Scribner (1977) onde as crianças não-escolarizadas obtiveram baixos escores adotando um viés empírico. Em nosso estudo, apesar das crianças não-escolarizadas terem frequentemente recorrido a justificativas arbitrárias, puderam recorrer a uma atitude teórica quando a condição de faz-de-conta foi adotada.
Logical Reasoning and Schooling
Abstract: The main aim of this study was to investigate the effect of make-believe mode, form of syllogisms and type of fact in 5-year-old schooled children from medium SES families in England and in non-literate 5-year-old unschooled children from low SES families in Brazil. This study was a test of the claim that schooling is a pre requisite for deductive reasoning. The results showed that children, English or Brazilian, produced more correct responses and theoretical justifications in the make-believe play condition than in the standard verbal mode. This was especially true for unknown facts and contrary facts. This pattern held for both form forms of syllogism, although in general children's performance on Modus Ponens inferences was more accurate than on Modus Tollens inferences. Unschooled children s performance was poorer than schooled children s performance. However, this difference was not so strong as that found in the studies reported by Scribner (1977) where unschooled children performed at chance level, adopting the empirical bias. In this study, the unschooled children, although they very often appealed to arbitrary justifications, could adopt a theoretical attitude when the make-believe mode was used.
Although most research on mnemonics has been done with adults, there are replicable developmental shifts in mnemonic skills. The analysis of age-related changes mnemonic skills has increased understanding of theoretical issues, such as the nature of production deficiencies (Flavell, 1970) and imaginal representations (e.g., Bruner, Olver, & Greenfield, 1966; Kosslyn, 1980; Paivio, 1971, 1986), and holds promise for enhancing children’s associative learning and memory processes in classroom contexts.
In the late seventeenth century the village of Salem, Massachusetts was gripped with what, in retrospect, seems like a series of strange and inexplicable events. During a three-month period in 1691, twenty-one citizens of Salem were accused, tried, and found guilty of practicing witchcraft and sorcery. The accused spanned all ages, social classes, and sexes. All but one were sentenced to death.
In the American legal system today, few issues are as timely as the debate over the credibility of the child witness. As the number of child and spousal abuse cases in America continues to rise, courts are increasingly forced to turn to the testimony of children (Beach, 1983; Finkelhor, 1984). The courts do so with some trepidation, for both lawyers and judges recognize some potentially serious issues centering on the child witness: Are children able to render accurate testimony about the crimes they witness? Are they dangerously open to suggestibility on the part of attorneys and the police? Can they adequately distinguish between reality and fantasy?
Twenty children at each of grades K, 1, 3, and 5 were interviewed in order to sample their knowledge concerning various memory or memory-related phenomena (metamemory). In the present study, metamemory referred primarily to the child's verbalizable knowledge of how certain classes of variables act and interact with one another to affect the quality of an individual's performance on a retrieval problem. Examples of such variables include the relations among the items to be learned, how much study time is allotted, and how exactly they must be reproduced on the recall test. The results of this exploratory study tentatively suggest that children of grades K and 1 can often articulate the intuition that decay from shortterm memory (STM) can be very rapid; there are apt to be savings in the relearning of previously learned but subsequently forgotten information; retrieval performance is affected by amount of prior study time, by properties of individual items (e. g., familiarity), and especially by the number of items to be retrieved. Younger as well as older subjects also showed a striking tendency to think of external mnemonic resources, such as written records and other people, when proposing solutions to various preparation-for-retrieval and retrieval problems. Children of grades 3 and (especially) 5 appear considerably more planful and self-aware in their approach to both kinds of problems and also command a wider variety of solution procedures. Specific acquisitions include a more differentiated concept of self and others as mnemonic organisms and a better understanding of how relations among items (as contrasted with their individual properties) can variously facilitate or interfere with retrieval.
Prospective remembering involves the remembering of information which has implications for actions to be performed in the future. In this study, the effects of level of incentive and structure of remembering task—habitual vs. episodic—upon prospective remembering were investigated. Forty-eight male and female university students were asked to mail post cards to the E on specified dates. S s in the high incentive condition mailed cards fewer days late and remembered more often than S s in the low incentive condition. S s in the high incentive condition also were more likely to use an external cue strategy than a cognitive strategy to facilitate remembering. It is concluded that motivation ought to be regarded as a critical variable in the theoretical analysis of prospective remembering.
No problem in psychology has occasioned as many experimental and theoretical studies as memory. However, none has as yet dealt adequately with the question of when and under what conditions voluntary recall and voluntary retention* first emerge.
The conditions for and incidence of empathic behaviors in a natural setting were investigated for 14 preschool children who were observed over an 8-week period. Interrelations among these behaviors, affective states, and performance in perspective-taking tasks and in a donating experiment were examined. Results indicate that 39% of naturally occurring affect displays were met with either affect-matching or instrumental responses indicating empathy. Happy displays occurred most frequently and were responded to significantly more than other affect displays. Children with more frequent happy displays were more likely to give empathic responses to others (r = .59), whereas children with more frequent sad displays were less likely to respond empathically (r = -.68). Modest correlations were obtained for performance on 2 perspective-taking tasks and empathic behaviors. Findings are discussed in terms of clarifying the cognitive, affective, and motivational components of empathy.
Psychological inquiry into social phenomena has become virtually indistinguishable from controlled experimentation. Although the assets and liabilities of psychological experiments have been subject to periodic debate, a continued increase in the reliance placed experiments is evidenced. The present paper re-examines the adequacy of experimentation in light of major features of social interaction. Significant failures of the experiment emerge when the following characteristics of social events are considered: their imbeddedness in broader cultural patterns, their position within extended sequences, their open competition within real-life settings, their reliance on psychological confluences, and their complex determination. The additional consideration of social phenomena within historical context indicates that all reasonable hypotheses are valid and that critical testing between hypotheses about social behaviour is fruitless. Criteria for the productive usage of experiments are detailed.
Seven-, ten-, and thirteen-year-old learning-disabled (LD) and non-learning-disabled (NORM) children were presented specially structured lists of 38 words each and tested for free recall. Each list contained only four semantically related words. Two of the four related words were presented contiguously (serial positions 9 and 10) and the other two words were spaced (serial positions 20 and 30). All children recalled disproportionately more adjacent words (item 9 or 10) than any other words. Spaced words (items 20 and 30) were less likely to be recalled by the younger children than by the older children and by the LDs than by the NORMs. These findings provided support for the distinction between automatic and purposive semantic processing. NORMs' recall was governed by purposive semantic processing to a greater extent than was LDs' recall. However, no group or age differences were observed in automatic semantic processing.
- Bronfenbrenner U.