Article

Television Viewing at Home: Distances and Visual Angles of Children and Adults

Authors:
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

Abstract

Television viewing distances, visual angles, and viewing angles were calculated for 217 children and 149 adults from 78 families. The data were obtained from time-lapse videotapes automatically recorded in the families' homes over 10-day periods. Viewing distance increases with age, and visual angle decreases with age. Viewers aged 17 years and younger viewed at an average distance of 225.3 em, at an average visual angle of 12.3 deg, and at an average viewing angle of 23.7 deg. Adult viewers watched TV at an average distance of 336.8 cm, an average visual angle of 6.6 deg, and at an average viewing angle of 23.3 deg. The best predictors of viewing location were (1) percentage of time the viewer watched TV from furniture, (2) room area, and (3) screen width.

No full-text available

Request Full-text Paper PDF

To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.

... e manufacturers have designed several smart TVs with different sizes, user interfaces, and display resolutions. However, the viewing distance, viewing angle, viewing environment (living room, dining hall, room color), and viewing height, brightness, and background color of each smart TV are different from one another [56][57][58][59]. ...
... ese factors can cause various UI issues for viewers [60]. e viewing distance of each viewer varies from one another [56]. ...
Article
Full-text available
The user interface (UI) is a primary source of interaction with a device. Since the introduction of graphical user interface (GUI), software engineers and designers have been trying to make user-friendly UIs for various computing devices, including smartphones, tablets, and computers. The modern smart TV also comes with built-in operating systems. However, little attention has been given to this prominent entertainment device, i.e., smart TV. The technological advancement and proliferation of smart TV enabled the manufacturer to provide rich functionalities and features; however, this richness resulted in more clutter and attention-demanding interfaces. Besides, smart TV is a lean-back supporting device having a diverse range of users. Therefore, smart TV’s usability and user experience (UX) are questionable due to diverse user interests and limited features of traditional remote controls. This study aimed to discuss and critically analyze the features and functionalities of the existing well-known smart TV UIs of various operating systems in the context of usability, cognition, and UX. Moreover, this study highlights the issues and challenges in the current smart TV UIs and recommends some research opportunities to cope with the smart TV UIs. This study further reports and validates some overlooked factors affecting smart TV UIs and UX. A subjective study and usability tests from diverse users are presented to validate these factors. The study concludes that a one-size-fits-all UI design is unsuitable for shared devices, i.e., smart TV. This study further recommends a personalized adaptive UI, which may enhance the learnability and UXs of the smart TV viewers.
... Although images viewed at an angle experience trapezoidal distortions [47], non-central viewing positions are sometimes inevitable, especially in multi-viewer conditions. Typical viewing angles in such conditions range between ±60˚ [48] with a mean viewing angle of 23.3˚ [49]. Indeed, 73% of South Korean households in 2015 [50] and 70% of US households in 2012 [51] had more than one member, indicating watching TV together is common in most households. ...
... To better examine the effect of an actual TV viewing context on TV watching experience, it seems necessary to allow for wider viewing angles. Although the largest viewing angle considered in this study (30.3˚at a viewing distance of 2.3 m) exceeded the mean viewing angle of 23.3˚obtained in a field survey [48], viewing angles observed in actual households have ranged between ± 30˚ [90], ± 45˚ [91], and ±60˚ [49]. Of note, however, the current study recommends P 1 or P 2 (or lateral viewing positions closer than P 3 ) for a better TV watching experience, and the viewing angle for 2.3m-P 3 was 17˚. ...
Article
Full-text available
Although watching TV often involves multiple viewing distances and viewers, less attention has been paid to the effects of display curvature radius, viewing distance, and lateral viewing position on TV watching experience. This study examined the effects of four display curvature radii (2300R, 4000R, 6000R, and flat), two viewing distances (2.3 m and 4 m), and five lateral viewing positions (P1-P5; 0, 35, 70, 105, and 140 cm off-center) on seven TV watching experience elements (spatial presence, engagement, ecological validity, negative effects, visual comfort, image quality, and user satisfaction). Fifty-six individuals (14 per display curvature radius) were seated in pairs to watch videos, each time at a different viewing position (2 viewing distances × 5 paired lateral viewing positions). The spatial presence and engagement increased when display curvature radius approached a viewing distance and lateral viewing position approached P1, with 4000R-4m-P1 (display curvature radius-viewing distance-lateral viewing position) providing the best results. Lateral viewing position alone significantly affected five TV watching experience elements; the spatial presence and engagement decreased at P3-P5, and ecological validity, image quality, and user satisfaction decreased at P4-P5. However, display curvature radius alone did not appreciably affect TV watching experience, and viewing distance alone significantly affected visual comfort only, with a 4-m viewing distance increasing visual comfort. This study demonstrated that effective display curvature radii for watching TV are viewing distance-dependent, and less off-center lateral viewing positions (P1-P2) are recommended for TV watching experience. Finally, among the TV watching experience elements, engagement explained user satisfaction to the greatest degree.
... When people were free to choose their viewing distance for consuming TV content on fixed displays the resulting viewing ratio (VR) was not based on the best attainable subjective video quality as identified in [1], but depended on the picture size [2]. Due to living room layouts viewing distances in the home [3] could be considered fixed [4] (see Figure 1, left) and do not match the preferred viewing ratios obtained in lab settings. With mobile TV, the viewing at about arm's length distance might be fixed, too, but the provider has to choose which resolution to deliver and the size of the picture could adjustable on the device, changing the angular resolution along. ...
... whereas adults watched from 3.37m (VR=11.7) [3]. They did not explain this difference, but reported that children were more mobile than adults, and much less likely to sit or lie on furniture while watching TV. ...
Article
Full-text available
Mobile TV viewers can change the viewing distance and (on some devices) scale the picture to their preferred viewing ratio, trading off size for angular resolution. We investigated optimal trade-offs between size and resolution through a series of studies. Participants selected their preferred size and rated the acceptability of the visual experience on a 200ppi device at a 4:3 aspect ratio. They preferred viewing ratios similar to living room TV setups regardless of the much lower resolution: at a minimum 14 pixels per degree. While traveling on trains people required videos with a height larger than 35mm.
... But that the viewing ratio of distance to picture size needs to be considered. Furthermore, the observed viewing distances in the home [2] are even further away from preferences obtained in lab settings. ...
... Nathan et al. showed that the viewing distance of regular TV in the home varied with the age of the viewers. The average viewing distance for 17 year olds and younger was 2.25m (7.8H), whereas adults watched from 3.37m (11.7H) [2]. The study did not explain this difference, but it did report that children were more mobile than adults, and much less likely to sit or lie on furniture while watching TV. ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Mobile TV can deliver up-to-date content to users on the move. But it is currently unclear how to best adapt higher resolution TV content. In this paper, we describe a laboratory study with 35 participants who watched short clips of different content and shot types on a 200ppi PDA display at a resolution of either 120x90 or 168x128. Participants selected their preferred size and rated the acceptability of the visual experience. The preferred viewing ratio depended on the resolution and had to be at least 9.8H. The minimal angular resolution people required and which limited the up-scaling factor was 14 pixels per degree. Extreme long shots were best when depicted actors were at least 0.7° high. A second study researched the ecological validity of previous lab results by comparing them to results from the field. Image size yielded more value for users in the field than was apparent from lab results. In conclusion, current prediction models based on preferred viewing distances for TV and large displays do not predict viewing preferences on mobile devices. Our results will help to further the understanding of multimedia perception and service designers to deliver both economically viable and enjoyable experiences.
... Display size is also known to influence gaze angle, with larger displays (e.g. televisions and large monitors) typically viewed at, or slightly below, primary gaze [173], whilst smaller handheld devices (such as smartphones and tablets) typically induce a larger downward gaze angle [174]. Increased downward gaze angle reduces the exposed ocular surface area [174] and may mitigate ocular dryness [175,176]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Eye strain when performing tasks reliant on a digital environment can cause discomfort, affecting productivity and quality of life. Digital eye strain (the preferred terminology) was defined as "the development or exacerbation of recurrent ocular symptoms and/or signs related specifically to digital device screen viewing". Digital eye strain prevalence of up to 97% has, due to no previously agreed definition/diagnostic criteria and limitations of current questionnaires, failed to differentiate such symptoms from those arising from non-digital tasks. Objective signs such as blink rate or critical flicker frequency changes are not 'diagnostic' of digital eye strain nor validated as sensitive. The mechanisms attributed to ocular surface disease exacerbation are mainly reduced blink rate and completeness, partial/uncorrected refractive error and/or underlying binocular vision anomalies, together with the cognitive demand of the task and differences in position, size, brightness and glare compared to an equivalent non-digital task. In general, interventions are not well established; patients experiencing digital eye strain should be provided with a full refractive correction for the appropriate working distances. Improving blinking, optimizing the work environment and encouraging regular breaks may help. Based on current, best evidence, blue-light blocking interventions do not appear to be an effective management strategy. More and larger clinical trials are needed to assess artificial tear effectiveness for relieving digital eye strain, particularly comparing different constituents; a systematic review within the report identified use of secretagogues and warm compress/humidity goggles/ambient humidifiers as promising strategies, along with nutritional supplementation (such as omega-3 fatty acid supplementation and berry extracts).
... On the contrary, the increase in TV use by 92.19% during isolation has a low contribution (r = −0.01) on ∆-CISS score. This is related to the typical TV viewing distance, which is usually above 1.83 metres [36]. For this reason, crystalline accommodation is low when we are watching TV and CI problems should not be related with an increment of TV consumption; on that point, it should be considered that the TV increment in our study was the highest screen increase for all electronic devices studied. ...
Article
Full-text available
The purpose of this work is to evaluate the effects of confinement due to COVID-19 isolation on visual function, considering insufficient convergence as one of the possible effects of living the whole day in a reduced space. We pass a Convergence Insufficiency Symptom Survey (CISS) among 235 people to detect their habits before and after 25 confinement days. The data collection protocol consisted on a Google forms questionnaire included two parts: the first with current data (isolation period) and a second with pre-isolation period data. Differences between the pre-isolation and isolation period were calculated using the related paired T-tests. When statistically significant differences were found, the effect size was estimated using the Cohen’s d index (d). The reduction in physical activity levels during confinement were related to the increase in total number of minutes of screen consumption from 433.49 min to 623.97 min per day (d = 0.67; 44.01%). The CISS scores were increased by more than 43% during confinement. The increase in convergence insufficiency was 100% after the studied isolation period of 25 days. The 92.19% increase in television use during 25 days of confinement is not responsible for the increase in convergence insufficiency. However, due to the increase in the use of PCs in this period, there is a notable increase in convergence insufficiency. Therefore, we can conclude that not all increases in tasks with electronic devices are responsible for the increase in convergence insufficiency.
... In this investigation, we assumed 50 cm for notebooks, and 60 cm for desktop PC use. Investigations on TV use found the average viewing distance to be above 200 cm [62,67]. ...
Thesis
Full-text available
Our internal clock, the circadian clock, determines at which time we have our best cognitive abilities, are physically strongest, and when we are tired. Circadian clock phase is influenced primarily through exposure to light. A direct pathway from the eyes to the suprachiasmatic nucleus, where the circadian clock resides, is used to synchronise the circadian clock to external light-dark cycles. In modern society, with the ability to work anywhere at anytime and a full social agenda, many struggle to keep internal and external clocks synchronised. Living against our circadian clock makes us less efficient and poses serious health impact, especially when exercised over a long period of time, e.g. in shift workers. Assessing circadian clock phase is a cumbersome and uncomfortable task. A common method, dim light melatonin onset testing, requires a series of eight saliva samples taken in hourly intervals while the subject stays in dim light condition from 5 hours before until 2 hours past their habitual bedtime. At the same time, sensor-rich smartphones have become widely available and wearable computing is on the rise. The hypothesis of this thesis is that smartphones and wearables can be used to record sensor data to monitor human circadian rhythms in free-living. To test this hypothesis, we conducted research on specialised wearable hardware and smartphones to record relevant data, and developed algorithms to monitor circadian clock phase in free-living. We first introduce our smart eyeglasses concept, which can be personalised to the wearers head and 3D-printed. Furthermore, hardware was integrated into the eyewear to recognise typical activities of daily living (ADLs). A light sensor integrated into the eyeglasses bridge was used to detect screen use. In addition to wearables, we also investigate if sleep-wake patterns can be revealed from smartphone context information. We introduce novel methods to detect sleep opportunity, which incorporate expert knowledge to filter and fuse classifier outputs. Furthermore, we estimate light exposure from smartphone sensor and weather in- formation. We applied the Kronauer model to compare the phase shift resulting from head light measurements, wrist measurements, and smartphone estimations. We found it was possible to monitor circadian phase shift from light estimation based on smartphone sensor and weather information with a weekly error of 32±17min, which outperformed wrist measurements in 11 out of 12 participants. Sleep could be detected from smartphone use with an onset error of 40±48 min and wake error of 42±57 min. Screen use could be detected smart eyeglasses with 0.9 ROC AUC for ambient light intensities below 200lux. Nine clusters of ADLs were distinguished using Gaussian mixture models with an average accuracy of 77%. In conclusion, a combination of the proposed smartphones and smart eyeglasses applications could support users in synchronising their circadian clock to the external clocks, thus living a healthier lifestyle.
... In this investigation, we assumed 50 cm for notebooks and 60 cm for desktop PC use. Investigations on TV use found the average viewing distance to be above 200 cm (Nathan et al., 1985;Lee, 2012). ...
Article
Screen use can influence the circadian phase and cause eye strain. Smart eyeglasses with an integrated color light sensor can detect screen use. We present a screen use detection approach based on a light sensor embedded into the bridge of smart eyeglasses. By calculating the light intensity at the user's eyes for different screens and content types, we found only computer screens to have a significant impact on the circadian phase. Our screen use detection is based on ratios between color channels and used a linear support vector machine to detect screen use. We validated our detection approach in three studies. A test bench was built to detect screen use under different ambient light sources and intensities in a controlled environment. In a lab study, we evaluated recognition performance for different ambient light intensities. By using participant-independent models, we achieved an ROC AUC above 0.9 for ambient light intensities below 200 lx. In a study of typical ADLs, screen use was detected with an average ROC AUC of 0.83 assuming screen use for 30% of the time.
... Przez ok. 13-19% czasu pracy odbiornika w obszarze oglądania nie znajduje się żadna osoba(Allen 1965;Anderson 1985). ...
Chapter
Full-text available
The aim of the artide is a critical analysis of the results of public opinion reviews based on social-demographic indexes and the results obtained by means of psychological methods of studying reception of television. A review of psychological studies was reduced to discussing the results of projects of analyses of television viewers' behaviours in the viewers' natural home conditions. Special attention was paid to presenting the data concerning eoncentrabon of visu al attention on the television screen.
... Participants were seated in a couch 11 feet away from the television (Nathen, Anderson, Field & Collins, 1985). The room was illuminated at approximately 3 ft-candles to insure minimum reflections and glare off of the television screen. ...
Article
This paper describes a study which examined the effect of video content on viewers' perception of the picture and sound quality of that content. 40 participants viewed 20 different clips of major studio release movies that were 2 minutes in duration. Each clip was encoded at five different rates (490 kbps, 771 kbps & 1100 kbps, VHS and DVD). Each participant saw each clip only once and the level at which that clip was encoded was selected from a counter balanced list. Results indicated that desirability of the content played a significant role in a viewer's subjective ratings of the sound and video quality for a particular clip. It was found that the sound and picture quality of highly desirable content (as determined by each viewer) was rated significantly higher than content that was deemed neutral or undesirable. The study has implications for selecting content for subjective video quality studies
... Obviously, given the setting there is no way of controlling this variable. Also, it has been shown that it is virtually impossible to meaningfully describe average viewing distances of people in their homes for any group of people, as it is influenced enormously by many other factors and, thus, has a great deal of (mostly unexplained) variation 64 . ...
... 12. Although viewers do generally watch larger images from greater distances (Nathan, Anderson, Field, & Collins, 1985), other research (Hatada, Sakata, & Kusaka, 1980;Yuyama, 1982) has shown that manipulations of image size and viewing distance that result in the same proportion of visual field occupied by the image have independent effects on presence responses, with large image size and large viewing distance (e.g., in an IMAX theater) producing a stronger "sensation of reality" than a small image and small viewing distance (e.g., in a virtual-reality head-mounted display), but more research is needed on the question. ...
Article
Full-text available
Film and a number of emerging entertainment technologies offer media consumers an illusion of nonmediation known as presence. To investigate the possibility that television can evoke presence, 65 undergraduate students were shown brief examples of rapid point-of-view movement from commercially available videotapes on a television with either a small screen (12 inches [30.5 cm], measured diagonally) or a large screen (46 inches [116.8 cm]). Participants' responses were measured via a questionnaire and a computer-based recording of arousal (electrodermal activity). Viewers of both televisions reported an enjoyable sense of physical movement, excitement, involvement, and a sense of participation. Furthermore, as predicted, participants who watched the large screen television thought the movement in the scenes was faster, experienced a greater sense of physical movement, enjoyed the movement to a greater extent, found the viewing experience more exciting, and were more physiologically aroused. Practical and theoretical implications are discussed.
... The video image is framed by the boundaries of the screen which occupies a relatively small portion of the viewer's visual field. Although a person with normal vision has nearly 180°of visual field, from where most viewers sit, television screens are limited to small portions of the visual field (often as small as 6°or 7°, cf, Nathan, Anderson, Field, & Collins, 1985). As characters or objects move on television, they disappear when they reach the edge of the screen, unless the camera moves to follow them or unless they reappear following an edit that conveys continuing action (in which case they typically reappear on the opposite side of the screen). ...
Article
Television comprehension is a surprisingly demanding task for very young children. Based on a task analysis of television viewing and review of research, we suggest that by 6 months of age, infants can identify objects and people on screen. By 24 months they can comprehend and imitate simple actions contained in single shots and begin to integrate information across shots. Toddlers nevertheless suffer from the video deficit whereby their comprehension is less than from equivalent real life displays. During the preschool years they learn much of the grammar of filmic montage and can comprehend straightforward narrative productions. Essentially adult comprehension appears to be in place by 13 years of age.
... They were seated directly in front of the television at a distance of 3.4 m (Nathan, Anderson, Field, & Collins, 1985). Content was viewed on a standard 32-in. ...
Article
The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of the desirability of content on viewers' ratings of subjective video quality. Most subjective video quality studies use short-duration clips that are specially designed to exercise the encoding algorithms and do not consider the desirability of the content as a variable. In four studies, we employed a total of 100 participants and 180 movie clips encoded at nine levels from 550 kbps up to DVD quality. Participants viewed clips that were 2 min in length and then were asked about video quality of the clips and desirability of the movie content. The results of these studies show that there is a strong correlation between the desirability of movie content and subjective ratings of video quality. This strong relationship holds across a wide range of encoding levels and movie content when that content is viewed under longer, more naturalistic viewing conditions. The effects of content should be considered when evaluating the subjective quality of encoded video content, as these effects can be as large as those seen between low- and high-quality encodings. Researchers and practitioners trying to determine acceptable levels of video quality for actual consumption by consumers may find that the results and methods described here allow for a more accurate assessment of levels of video quality that are acceptable in a fielded service.
... Detailed descriptions of the home observation apparatus may be found in Anderson et al. (1985) and in Nathan, Anderson, Field, and Collins (1985). Briefly, the equipment consisted of two video cameras, a time-lapse video recorder, and control circuitr>'. ...
Article
The TV-viewing behavior of 99 families with young children was videotaped by automated time-lapse recording equipment placed in homes for 10-day periods. The 99 families comprised 460 individuals from infants to 62 years of age. Time-sample analyses of 4,672 hours of recordings indicated that the TV-viewing room contained no viewers 14.7% of the time that the TV was on. There were no age trends in time spent with television. Percent visual attention to television increased greatly across the preschool years, leveled off at about 70% during the school-age years, and declined in adulthood. Men looked at the TV more than women. There were no significant correlations between time spent with TV and percent of visual attention to TV. The increase in visual attention to television during the preschool years is consistent with the theory that TV program comprehensibility is a major determination of attention in young children.
Chapter
In diesem Kapitel wird versucht, das über dreieinhalb Jahrzehnte erfolgreiche Forschungsprogramm von Daniel Anderson in seinen wichtigsten Eckpunkten zu charakterisieren. Im Mittelpunkt stehen (1) seine Forschung zur visuellen Aufmerksamkeit und die Entwicklung der „Comprehension-Driven-Attention Hypothesis “, (2) sein Wissenschaftsverständnis und die Ziele seiner Forschung und schlieβlich (3) die Forschung zur Entwicklung von „Blue ’s Clues“, einem auf der Basis seines Forschungsprogramms curricular aufgebauten, professionell produzierten Fernsehprogramms für Vorschulkinder.
Article
Ultra High Definition (UHD) is a new technology, which main idea is to improve user's perception of details and sensation of immersion in comparison with High Definition systems (HD). However, it is important to understand the influence of the new UHD technical parameters on user's perception. Hence, to investigate the influence of the viewing distance, screen size and scene content on perceived video quality and feelings of users, a series of subjective experiments with four different contents (3 documentaries and 1 sport content) shooted by UHD camera were performed. These contents were displayed using three different image resolutions (SD, HD, UHD) and two UHD displays (55-inch and 84-inch). Each subject had to assess content for three different viewing distances (1.5, 3, 4.5 times of the screen height corresponding to optimal viewing distances of respectively UHD, HD, and close to SD optimal distance). Finally, 72 test conditions were evaluated. For each scene, observers reported their opinion on the perceived video quality using a 5-grade subjective scale. Results have shown that viewing distance has a significant influence on perceived quality. Moreover the highest MOS was obtained at optimal viewing for UHD, with a small difference between HD an UHD. At 3H and 4.5H, there is no difference from a statistical point of view. Screen size influences the perception of quality but not in the same way for the three image resolution and three viewing distances.
Article
This paper provides a subjective and objective evaluation of the viewability of hyper-realistic images. First, we examined the preferable viewing distance for images of different sizes, including monoscopic and stereoscopic images. Second, we measured the eye movements of participants in a previous experiment comparing preferable with non-preferable viewing distance. The results indicate: 1) For larger image sizes (greater than 70 in.), including either stereoscopic or monoscopic images, the preferable viewing distance is 2.0 to 2.5 times the absolute display height, and 2) eye movement may contribute to determining a person's preferable viewing distances. These results could provide a guide to visual environmental design, including larger, stereoscopic display systems with high definition.
Conference Paper
Full-text available
We describe the use of perceptual pre-processing to reduce the bitrate needed for delivery of VOD content. The proposed system exploits the viewing conditions of a specific individual to remove image oscillations which are not visible by the user under the specific viewing conditions. The pre-processing uses parameters such as: viewing distance, pixel density, ambient illumination etc. A model of human visual system contrast sensitivity is used to remove oscillations in the image data which cannot be seen and need not be encoded. Experiments demonstrate significant bitrate savings compare to conventional encoding methods which do not exploit individual specifics.
Article
We provide a subjective and objective evaluation of the viewability of high-definition images. First, we examined the preferred viewing distance for images of different sizes, including monoscopic and stereoscopic ones. Second, we measured the eye movements of participants on comparing the preferred with the non-preferred viewing distance. The results indicate two points. First, for larger images (greater than 70 in.), including either stereoscopic or monoscopic images, the preferred viewing distance is 2.0 to 2.5 times the absolute display height. Second, eye movement may determine a person's preferred viewing distances. These results could provide a guideline for the design of the visual environment, including larger, stereoscopic display systems with high-definition.
Article
We have many chances to watch stereoscopic images, i.e., 3D movies and 3D TV programs. However, there has been little focus on the relationship between screen size and viewing distance with regards to stereoscopic images. We explain a subjective evaluation of the preferable viewing distance (PVD) and minimum viewing distance (MVD) for both still and moving images of different sizes, including monoscopic and stereoscopic images with different displarity maps. The results indicate that (1) for both the PVD and the MVD, the people stood closer to the images relatively as the image sizes became larger in terms of absloute display height, (2) for smaller image sizes, people stood farer to the stereoscopic images than monoscopic images, either the PVD and the MVD, and (3) differences in the disparity map in stereoscopic images do not affect the viewing distance in either still or moving images. These results may provide a guide to visual environmental design of larger stereoscopic display systems.
Article
The preferred viewing distances for high definition television LCDs were measured as a function of the screen size, screen luminance and content of the displayed pictures. Although the screen size is the most dominant parameter, both it and the screen luminance significantly influence the preferred viewing distance, while the content of the displayed pictures does not. The ratio of the viewing distance preferences to the screen height (H) decreases with the size of the screen. The preferred viewing distance for a 24-inch display is a 5.9 H for a screen luminance (peak white luminance) of 200cd/m 2. Similarly, that for a 65-inch display is a 3.9 H. The preferred viewing distance for a screen luminance of 200cd/m 2 can be described Using the following empirical equation: D = (2.73 S + 75)/S. This is where D is the preferred viewing distance in screen height and S is the diagonal screen size in inches, where S is larger than or equal to 24 and smaller than or equal to 65. In this paper, these results are compared with the field survey data of the practical viewing distances in home environments. We also discuss the optimum screen size and viewing conditions of high definition television LCDs in actual home environments.
Article
The effect of background television on 6- and 12-month-olds’ attention during 20 min of toy play was examined. During the first or second half of the session, a clip from a variety of commonly available television programs was presented. The duration and frequency of infants’ looks to the toys and to the television indicated that regardless of age or program content, background television frequently got, but did not hold the infants’ attention. An order effect indicated that infants looked longer at the television when it was available in the second half of the session. Examination of infants’ focused attention to the toys showed a reduction in the mean length of focused episodes when the television was on. A follow-up of the infants at 24 months indicated greater resistance to distraction by the television during play. Data from the three ages showed that individual differences in the amount of viewing were moderately stable across age and across home and lab contexts.
Article
Article
This study explored the effect of TV size, light source, and ambient illumination on the preferred viewing distance of portable liquid-crystal-display televisions. Results showed that the mean preferred viewing distance was 1389 mm. TV size had significant effects on preferred viewing distance. The larger the screen size, the greater the preferred viewing distance, at around 6.7–14.7 times the width of the screen (W). Light sources revealed no significant effect on preferred viewing distance. The effect of ambient illumination on preferred viewing distance was significant. The higher the ambient illumination was, the longer the preferred viewing distance.
Article
The goal of our study is to clarify the realistic viewing conditions surrounding flat panel display television (FPD TV) and the relationship between preferred luminance and TV screen size, as flat panel display TV is becoming increasingly popular. We have conducted an investigation of TV viewing conditions at homes. Our study of viewing conditions indicates that the viewing distance at home is 3 times of absolute display height at minimum with an average of 2.5m and mean screen illuminance is 100-300 lx. We also have conducted an investigation of the relationship between preferred luminance and TV screen size using LCD TV. Our study indicates that the most preferred luminance depends on visual angle (screen size and viewing distance). At fixed viewing distance, the most preferred luminance depends on TV screen size. As TV screen size gets larger, the most preferred luminance becomes darker. And in home, most preferred luminance of distance 3 times of absolute display height (3H) and screen illuminance at 180 lx is approximately 240cd/m2. And as the screen illuminance becomes darker, the most preferred luminance becomes darker while the most preferred luminance depends on visual angle.
Article
An experiment was conducted to extend the research evidence concerning direct responses to the realm of social interaction by replicating, in the context of television viewing, key findings and predictions concerning the use of interpersonal distance. In the study, 32 subjects watched excerpts of television news broadcasts that featured individual anchors speaking to the camera. Apparent interpersonal distance was manipulated via viewing distance (close = 10, 24, and 38 inches; normal = 30, 72, and 115 inches) and screen size (small = 10 inches measured diagonally; medium = 26 inches; large = 42 inches). Although results for the viewing distance manipulation failed to support predictions, as expected, subjects watching larger television screens reported more positive emotional responses to the people on the screen and the viewing environment and selected a viewing position that represented a smaller withdrawal from the encounter. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.
Article
— Simulation of a CRT with a flat outer surface and a spherical inner surface was performed to determine the virtual screen image made by refraction in the glass panel. The simulation calculated the radius of the panel inner surface for the flat-faced CRT to make a perfectly flat virtual screen image at each eye position. With H as the screen height, display-monitor CRTs used with eye positions closer than 1H show that the radius of the panel inner surface R = 18H is the most appropriate. On the other hand, for TV CRTs with a normal eye distance of 3H or greater, a radius of R = 40H or more is required to obtain a flat virtual image. The paper also clarifies the influence of panel glass thickness T on the distortion of the screen image.
Article
The preferred luminance level of LCD televisions under real viewing conditions to obtain both good picture quality and low power consumption is a rather controversial issue. The relationship between the preferable luminance and major parameters that affect it were investigated in a field test and laboratory experiments. In the field test of 83 households, the illuminance and luminance of television screens and television viewing distances were measured on site. The results indicated that the mean display luminance was 269 cd/m 2 for LCD televisions. The median screen illuminance was 92 Ix and the median viewing distance was 252 cm. In laboratory experiments, younger and older subjects adjusted the luminance of an LCD television screen to their preferred levels under different screen illuminance levels, angular screen sizes and average luminance levels (ALL) of images. Based on the results, the preferred luminance of LCD television screens for younger and older subjects is represented as two formulas. When the ALL of images was 25% and the screen illuminance and angular screen size were set at 100 Ix and 20°, respectively, the preferred luminance was 160 cd/m 2 for younger subjects and 248 cd/m 2 for older subjects. By setting the preferred luminance of an LCD television under real viewing conditions, it is possible to not only reduce visual fatigue but also to conserve energy consumption.
Article
Videotapes of in-home television viewing of 50 individuals in five age groups (2-, 5-, 8-, and 12-year-olds, and adults), recorded over a 10-day period, revealed that 46% of time with television was spent in some activity instead of or in addition to looking at the TV. Social interaction was the most common nonviewing activity for all viewers, followed by playing and eating for children and reading for adults. Women were more likely than all other groups to do chores. Nonviewing behaviors occurred most often during programming that attracted less visual attention, particularly ads. Except for 2-year-olds, children's attention dropped during ads to a greater extent than did that of adults. The findings have implications for theories of television use and impact including uses and gratifications, displacement, and formal feature theory.
Chapter
This chapter looks at the current changing habits on audiovisual content consumption at home, with special focus on potential uses of mobile devices. Standard television plus a remote control impose a use that is too coarse to support the various personal needs of people, while mobile devices open new possibilities from engagement and immersion into content and deliberately controlled disengagement with others to providing a screen that can be offered to include others in sharing experiences in a huddled setting. KeywordsInteraction paradigms–mobile devices–multimedia content–primary screen–secondary screen–share experience–television
Article
A number of emerging technologies including virtual reality, simulation rides, video conferencing, home theater, and high definition television are designed to provide media users with an illusion that a mediated experience is not mediated, a perception defined here as presence. Traditional media such as the telephone, radio, television, film, and many others offer a lesser degree of presence as well. This article examines the key concept of presence. It begins by noting practical and theoretical reasons for studying this concept. Six conceptualizations of presence found in a diverse set of literatures are identified and a detailed explication of the concept that incorporates these conceptualizations is presented. Existing research and speculation about the factors that encourage or discourage a sense of presence in media users as well as the physiological and psychological effects of presence are then outlined. Finally, suggestions concerning future systematic research about presence are presented.
Article
This study explored the effect of TV size, illumination, and viewing angle on preferred viewing distance in high-definition liquid crystal display televisions (HDTV). Results showed that the mean preferred viewing distance was 2856 mm. TV size and illumination significantly affected preferred viewing distance. The larger the screen size, the greater the preferred viewing distance, at around 3-4 times the width of the screen (W). The greater the illumination, the greater the preferred viewing distance. Viewing angle also correlated significantly with preferred viewing distance. The more deflected from direct frontal view, the shorter the preferred viewing distance seemed to be.
Article
Full-text available
The useful visual field size at each fixation in a pattern was investigated by artificially supplying various visual field sizes on a TV display. The degree of pattern perception was measured in terms of recognition memory for pictures, and the speed of processing pictures was determined as a function of field size. A serious deterioration in the perception of pictures occurred as the visual field was limited to a small area around the fovea (about 3.3° × 3.3°), processing speed becoming extremely slow. Speed increased gradually as visual field size became larger, to reach a certain level beyond which no further increase was observed. The visual field size at this asymptotic speed was called the useful visual field and was found to be about 50% of the entire pattern size. Analysis of eye-movement records demonstrated that in terms of the useful visual field, the scanning characteristics of the eye over the pattern occurred in a heavily overlapping manner to assure good perception of the pattern.
Article
The legibility of displayed letters depends upon their size, or more accurately, their subtended visual angle at any viewing distance. Current design standards recommend letter heights in the range from 0.003 to 0.007 rad (10 to 24 mill of arc) for good viewing conditions, with 0.0015 rad (5 min) considered a lower limit based on normal visual acuity. A field study involving some 2000 measures for over 300 printed displays found a mean letter height of 0.0019 rad (7 min) at the limit of legibility, with over 90% legibility at 0.003 rad and virtually 100% at 0.007 radians.
Article
Accurate information on behavior of young children at home is crucial to the study of child development. The present study compared parent diaries of 5-year-old children's time spent with television to concurrent automated time-lapse video observations. In addition, a number of control groups were employed to assess the effects of observational equipment in the homes. The sample consisted of 334 mostly white middle-class families, of whom 106 had observational equipment installed. Results indicated no systematic subject selection of families who were willing to have observational equipment as compared to the controls. In addition, there were no differences in reported viewing behavior between the observed families and controls. Of 3 types of parent estimates of 5-year-old TV viewing, concurrent diaries correlated best with video observation (r = .84) and produced a very small absolute mean time error. Direct parent estimates of typical time spent viewing produced smaller correlations and large overestimates as compared with diaries.
Article
Vergence angle and accommodative state were assessed photographically in 3-, 6-, and 12-month old infants. In the dark, fluctuations of vergence and accommodation were generally uncorrelated among all groups. The vergence-accommodation functions obtained in the dark had a mean slope of 0.04. These findings provide evidence in infants for an uncoupling of vergence and accommodation in the absence of patterned retinal input.
Article
The effects of age and ametropia (nearsightedness or farsightedness) on the dark focus of visual accommodation have not been extensively investigated. Participant pools of students are generally screened and their vision "standardized" by testing them while they wear their corrective lenses. In this study, nearsighted and farsighted subjects were measured for their near points, far points, and dark focuses. It was found that the more nearsighted the eye the larger the dark focus shift. Age was also found to have a relationship to the dark focus. Older individuals tended to have a smaller dark focus shift, and the dark focus was found to recede with age at roughly the same rate as the far point.
Article
This article has no abstract; the first 100 words appear below. To the Editor: Microcomputers are being used increasingly in the home for recreational and educational activities. To avoid the high cost of a video display terminal, many consumers purchase a less expensive microcomputer, which is then attached to a television set for display of data. Usually, a family's older color television receiver is chosen for this purpose. Although it is generally agreed that the video display terminal is not a major source of radiation for the user,¹ field surveys of older color television sets²³⁴ have indicated that 1.33 to 16.2 per cent of receivers at some surface point exceed 0.5 . . .
Article
This investigation is one of a series of studies designed to determine natural search tendencies during visual search tasks. In this study twelve subjects were presented an ordered series of experimental aerial maps of different size. Their eye traces were recorded on a modified ophthalmograph while they searched for a specific critical detail. As was noted in other experiments of this series, coverage of the display was not uniform. In particular, greatest attention was paid to the center of the display. Search behavior in displays subtending 9° and larger at the eye remained essentially the same. For smaller displays, marked differences were noted. As the size of the display decreased, durations of fixation increased, interfixation distances decreased, concentration of attention in the central area increased, and efficiency decreased. Efficiency is defined as percent of eye fixations falling within the display area. The implications of these findings are discussed.
A summary of the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area survey of color television receivers
Nashel, D. J., Korman, L. Y., and Bowman, J. O. (1982). Radiation hazard of video screens. New England Journal of Medicine, 307, 891. National Center for Radiological Health. (1968). A summary of the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area survey of color television receivers. Radiological Health Data and Reports, 9, 531-538.
Home television viewing by preschool children and their families. Paper presented at biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development
  • D R Anderson
Anderson, D. R. (1983). Home television viewing by preschool children and their families. Paper presented at biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Detroit, MI.
Psychological processes and advertising effects: Theory, research, and advertising effects
  • D R Anderson
Anderson, D. R. (in press). On-line cognitive processing of television. In A. Mitchell and L. Alwitt (Eds.), Psychological processes and advertising effects: Theory, research, and advertising effects. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
On-line cognitive processing of television
  • D R Anderson
The perception of motion pictures
  • J Hochberg
  • V Brooks
Paper presented at biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development
  • D R Anderson