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arXiv:0801.1331v1 [astro-ph] 8 Jan 2008
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SENENMUT: AN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ASTRONOMER
Bojan Novakovi´c
Astronomical Observatory, Volgina 7, 11160 Belgrade 74, Serbia
Abstract. The celestial phenomenon have always been a source of
wonder and interest to people, even as long ago as the ancient Egyptians.
While the ancient Egyptians did not know all the things about astronomy
that we do now, they had a good understanding of the some celestial
phenomenon. The achievements in astronomy of ancient Egyptians are
relatively well known, but we know very little about the people who
made these achievements. The goal of this paper is to bring some light
on the life of Senenmut, the chief architect and astronomer during the
reign of Queen Hatshepsut.
Key words: History and philosophy of astronomy, Senenmut
1. INTRODUCTION
As early as several thousand years ago people were interested in as-
tronomy and they have had some knowledge about celestial phenomenon.
This kind of interest existed in almost all ancient civilization, although
it raised from different purposes and motivations. The ancient Egyptians
were interested in astronomy, mainly for practical and religious purposes.
This paper is devoted to achievements of ancient Egyptians astronomy
(section 2.) and to the life of an ancient Egyptians astronomer Senenmut
(section 3.).
2. ASTRONOMY IN ANCIENT EGYPT
Astronomy was very important to the ancient Egyptians and played
a different part for that people than it does in many cultures. Although
their achievements were far less advanced than those of some other ancient
civilization, many of them are very important and deserve our attention.
Here, we will mention some of them.
The invention of the 365-days calendar, based on astronomical obser-
vation. The development of this type of calendar probably took place at
least as far back as 2,000 B.C., but the first calendar developed in Egypt
was lunar calendar and it was developed about 3000 B.C - Mankind’s first
measurement of time. The beginning of the Egyptian year was declared
when there was a flood, as they noticed that the flood begins with the star
Sirius, the brightest star in the sky. This incident represented the beginning
of the agricultural year in Egypt. The year had 365 days divided into 12
months and each month had 30 days. They made the remaining five days
feast days, called the Epagomenal Days, or the days upon the year, and
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added them at the end of the year. Months of the year were divided into
three seasons, namely: the flood season, the planting season, and the har-
vest season. The year, the season, the month and the day in which the king
assumed power was usually recorded by the Egyptians in their documents.
The development of instruments of quantitative astronomical measure-
ment. These included the sundial, water clocks, and the merkhet. The
ancient Egyptians used instruments or indicators for observing the cir-
cumpolar stars. They would then draw a north-south axis line on the
ground marking its direction, which was required for the proper orienta-
tion of important building projects. One of the instruments used was called
”Merkhet,” (similar to an astrolabe), which could mean ”indicator.” It con-
sisted of a horizontal, narrow wooden bar with a hole near one end, through
which the astronomer would look to fix the position of the star. The other
instrument, called the ”bay en imy unut,” or palm rib, had a V-shaped slot
cut in the wider end through which the priest in charge of the hours looked
to fix the star.
Telling time by the stars. Astronomy in ancient Egypt was the best
way to tell the time during the night. They recognized a number of con-
stellations and other groups of stars. These groups of stars, called decans,
were used for telling time at night. Each group of stars rose forty minutes
later each night. Observing the position of a group of stars in relation to
the day of the year would tell a person what time it was. Theoretically,
there were 18 decans, however, due to dusk and twilight only twelve were
taken into account when reckoning time at night. Since winter is longer
than summer the first and last decans were assigned longer hours. Tables
to help make these computations have been found on the inside of coffin
lids. The columns in the tables cover a year at ten day intervals. The
decans are placed in the order in which they arise and in the next column,
the second decan becomes the first and so on.
The achievements in astronomy of ancient Egyptians also include:
•Knowledge of stellar constellations - at least 43 constellations were
familiar to the Egyptians in the 13th century B.C.
•Knowledge of planetary astronomy - five planets were known to the
Egyptians; the retrograde motion of Mars was known; the revolution
of Mercury and Venus around the Sun was known.
•Astronomy was also used in positioning the pyramids. They are
aligned very accurately, the eastern and western sides run almost
due north and the southern and northern sides run almost due west.
3. SENENMUT
The earliest known star maps in Egypt are found as a main part of a
decor in a tomb (TT 353) at Thebes on the West bank of the Nile (e.g.
Leser 2006). The tomb was build during of the Egyptian 18th dynasty, and
it belonged to Queen Hatshepsut’s vizer and calendar registrar Senenmut
(also known as Senmut or Senemut).
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But, who really was Senenmut? Senenmut was of low birth, born to
literate provincial class parents, Ramose and Hatnofer. Despite his non-
royal origin Senenmut was given more prestigious titles and became high
steward of the king. There is no doubt that much more is known about
Senenmut than any other non-royal Egyptian.
The list of Senenmut’s titles are very long, but the first of all he was an
architect, government official and tutor of Neferure - Queen Hatshepsut’s
daughter. Senenmut originally entered the royal court during the reign of
Tuthmosis II, under Hatshepsut he would eventually hold over 80 titles
(Dorman 1988) during his period as an official and administrator working
in the royal court. Other dimensions of his career are suggested by the
presence of an astronomical ceiling in his tomb at Deir el Bahari and about
150 ostraca in his tomb at Qurna, including several drawings, as well as lists,
calculations, various reports and literary works. No doubt the workmen
were instructed to decorate his tomb with items of interest in the life of
Senenmut.
The social classification of the family has also been a central point of the
discussion. Probably at that time about 5% of the population was able of
reading and writing. Therefore, Tyldesley (1996) placed the family in the
”upper” social class, which mastered these stages of civilization, because in
her opinion Senenmut would not have been able to start successfully into
his career without these abilities. In this connection is also unclear, how
or where Senenmut has started his career. Able to read and write he could
have started his career as a low civil servant. However, it is also possible
that he had started with a military career and then changed into the ad-
ministration. As far as we know it was quite usual that retiring officers
were awarded with an administrative position. The destroyed inscriptions
in his monument, TT71, which contain text fragments possibly give some
information about the beginning of his career.
Beside the offices mentioned above, which he surely executed, he also got
numerous ”courtly titles” - like the one called ”Only friend of the Pharao”.
These titles most likely testify the extraordinary confidence of Hatshepsut.
Concerning the end of Senenmut there are more speculations than facts.
At least until regnal year 16 of Hatshepsut/Thutmosis III. he held his of-
fices. Apparently thereafter, his tracks are lost. His unfinished monument,
TT353, was closed, some his figures therein, and also in TT71, were de-
stroyed. There is no information that he had been buried in one of his
tombs.
The astronomical ceiling in Senenmut’s tomb (TT 353) is divided into
two sections representing the northern and the southern skies. The south-
ern (Figure 1.) is decorated with a list of decanal stars, as well as con-
stellations of the southern sky belonging to it like Orion and Canis Major.
Furthermore, the planets Jupiter, Saturn, Mercury and Venus are shown
and associated deities who are travelling in small boats over the sky. Thus,
the southern ceiling marks the hours of the night. The northern shows
constellations of the northern sky with the large bear (Ursa major) in the
center. The other constellations could not be identified. On the right and
left of it there are 8 or 4 circles shown and below them several deities each
carrying a sun disk towards the center of the picture. The inscriptions asso-
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Figure 1: The southern part of the astronomical ceiling in Senenmut’s tomb
(TT 353)
ciated with the circles mark the original monthly celebrations in the lunar
calendar, whereas the deities mark the original days of the lunar month
(Meyer 1982).
The map on the southern panel proves to reflect a specific conjunction
of planets around the longitude of Sirius. The four planets Jupiter, Saturn,
Mercury and Venus are relatively easily recognizable. The planet Mars is
not included in the actual grouping and at first sight seems to be missing
in the map. However, Mars is also pictured in the Senenmut map, but it
is represented by an empty boat in the west. This seems to refer to the
fact that Mars was retrograde so that in this backward movement (well
known phenomenon to the Egyptians) the Mars position was perhaps not
consider to be ”concrete”. Using these facts, Egyptologist were able to date
that this particular configuration of planets occurred in the sky in 1534 BC
(van Spaeth 2000).
Modern chronologists tend to agree that Hatshepsut reigned as pharaoh
from 1479 to 1458 BC, but there is no definitive proof of the beginning
date. Some other sources proposed that Hatshepsut could have assumed
power as early as 1512 BC. Consequently, it is not clear whether or not the
celestial phenomenon, mentioned above, was happened within the lifetime
of Senenmut.
4. CONCLUSIONS
A short review of the achievements in astronomy of ancient Egyptians,
REFERENCES 5
presented here, indicates that Egyptian astronomy deserves more attention.
Probably, there are a lot of things waiting to be discovered about their
astronomy.
The available evidence about the life of Senenmut suggests that he was
an astronomer. Although, it may conflict with some other results (e.g.
Shaw 2003), the obvious probability exists that when the rare conjunction
occurred in 1534 BC it was within the lifetime of Senenmut. However in
order to answer this question a further investigation is necessary.
References
[Dorman 1988] Dorman, P. F., 1988, Monuments of Senenmut, Problems
in Historical Methodology, London
[Leser 2006] Leser, K. H., 2006, Senenmut, Electronic version is available
online at http://www.maat-ka-ra.de/
[Lockyer1964] Lockyer, J. N., 1964, The Dawn of Astronomy, M.I.T. Press
[Meyer 1982] Meyer, C., 1982, Senenmut. Eine Prosopographische Unter-
suchung, Verlag Borg GmbH, Hamburg
[Shaw 2003] Shaw, I., 2003, The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford
University Press
[Tyldesley 1996] Tyldesley, J., 1996, Hatchepsut: The Female Pharaoh,
Viking
[van Spaeth 2000] van Spaeth, O., 2000, Centaurus, 42, pp. 159-179
