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Alterations in consciousness produced by combinations of LSD, hypnosis and psychotherapy
Abstract
This study was designed to measure the alterations in consciousness produced by combinations of LSD, hypnosis and psychotherapy. Five groups of 14 patients were given the modified Linton-Langs Questionnaire during baseline and treatment conditions. The results indicated that the hypnodelic condition (LSD + Hypnosis + Psychotherapy) caused the greatest alteration in consciousness and could be statistically differentiated from all other conditions on scale and total questionnaire score measures. The Psychedelic (LSD + Psychotherapy), Delic (LSD) and Hypnotherapy (Hypnosis + Psychotherapy) conditions could not be distinguished well from one another but differed significantly from the Psychotherapy condition and baseline measures.
... Particularly relevant is the finding that psychedelics seem to enhance suggestibility (Middlefell, 1967;Netz and Engstam, 1968;Sjoberg and Hollister, 1965;Solursh and Rae, 1966;Ulett et al., 1972;Van Nuys, 1972). Other research reported on the use of hypnosis to recreate psychedelic-like experiences (Aaronson, 1970;Baumann, 1970;Erickson, 1965;Tart, 1967;Fogel and Hoffer, 1962) or to control, guide and deepen LSD-induced psychedelic experiences (Fogel and Hoffer, 1962;Levine and Ludwig, 1965;Levine et al., 1963) and to influence the subjects' experiential response to psychedelics with explicit suggestions (Levis and Mehlman, 1964). Here we revisit this seminal work and relate it to recent advances in our knowledge of these phenomena. ...
... In the following section, we review recent advances in neurophenomenological and clinical research pointing to overlapping characteristics of psychedelics and hypnosis. Levine and Ludwig (1965) reported that LSD and hypnotic experiences share overlapping phenomenology and this observation is borne out in recent research. In the context of neutral hypnosis, with the only suggestion being to go as deeply into hypnosis as possible, participants frequently report experiential responses strikingly similar to the phenomenology of psychedelic experiences, such as alterations in perception, body image, imagery, self-awareness, affect, time perception and meaning (Cardeña, 2005;Cardeña et al., 2013). ...
Abstract
Background: Recent research on psychedelics and hypnosis demonstrates the value of both methods in the treatment of a range of psychopathologies with overlapping applications and neurophenomenological features. The potential of harnessing the power of suggestion to influence the phenomenological response to psychedelics toward more therapeutic action has remained unexplored in recent research and thereby warrants empirical attention.
Aims: Here we aim to elucidate the phenomenological and neurophysiological similarities and dissimilarities between psychedelic states and hypnosis in order to revisit how contemporary knowledge may inform their conjunct usage in psychotherapy.
Methods: We review recent advances in phenomenological and neurophysiological research on psychedelics and hypnosis, and we summarize early investigations on the coupling of psychedelics and hypnosis in scientific and therapeutic contexts.
Results/outcomes: We highlight commonalities and differences between psychedelics and hypnosis that point to the potential efficacy of combining the two in psychotherapy. We propose multiple research paths for coupling these two phenomena at different stages in the preparation, acute phase and follow-up of psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy in order to prepare, guide and integrate the psychedelic experience with the aim of enhancing therapeutic outcomes.
Conclusions/interpretation: Harnessing the power of suggestion to modulate response to psychedelics could enhance their therapeutic efficacy by helping to increase the likelihood of positive responses, including mystical-type experiences.
Keywords
Consciousness, hypnosis, psychedelics, psychotherapy, suggestion
... For instance, viewing the important role of hypnotic suggestibility in hypnosis outcomes, using psychedelics that can enhance suggestibility (e.g., LSD) may be promising to optimise hypnosis outcomes [179,180]. Further, harnessing the power of suggestions to optimise psychedelic experiences by modulating individual and contextual factors influencing phenomenological responses to psychedelics can optimise the effect of psychedelics and enhance the understanding of their influencing factors [181]. Hypnosis can be used to guide psychedelic experiences (hypnodelic therapy), induce drug-free psychedelic like-states, or enhance engagement in psychedelic therapy through hypnotic training while mild doses of psychedelics can be used in enhancing hypnotic experiences [178]. ...
Background and purpose: Hypnosis, a mind-body treatment dating back to early human history, has regained attention in the last decade, with research suggesting its effectiveness for varied physiological and psychological ailments such as distress, pain, and psychosomatic disorders. However, myths and misconceptions have prevailed among the general public and clinicians, hindering the adoption and acceptance of hypnosis. It is important to distinguish myths from facts and discern what is hypnosis and what is not to enhance the understanding, acceptance, and adoption of hypnotic interventions.
Methods: This narrative review traces the history of myths surrounding hypnosis in contrast to the evolution of
hypnosis as a treatment modality. In addition to comparing hypnosis to other interventions with similar procedures and features, the review unravels misconceptions that have impeded the adoption and acceptance of hypnosis in clinical and research settings and presents evidence to demystify this intervention.
Results: This review examines the roots of myths while presenting historical facts and evidence that support hypnosis as a treatment modality and alleviate misconceptions depicting it as mystical. Further, the review distinguishes hypnotic and non-hypnotic interventions with overlapping procedures and phenomenological
features to enhance our understanding of hypnotic techniques and phenomena.
Conclusion: This review enhances the understanding of hypnosis in historical, clinical, and research contexts by disproving related myths and misconceptions to promote the adoption of hypnosis in clinical and research contexts. Further, this review highlights knowledge gaps requiring further investigations to steer research toward an evidence-based practice of hypnosis and optimise multimodal therapies embedding hypnosis.
... Posteriormente, otros enfoques enfatizarán no tanto en el acceso al inconsciente por medio de dosis bajas, sino el uso de dosis altas con el fin de provocar experiencias «cumbre» o «transcendentales», de modo de provocar una «conversión» en la visión del paciente sobre sí mismo y el mundo («modelo psicodélico»). 27 Ya en el correr de los años 60 estas sustancias estaban siendo estudiadas bajo distintos enfoques: oneiroanálisis, 28 tratamiento hipnodélico, 29 terapia psicodélica, 27 terapia psicolítica, 30 entre otras denominaciones. ...
Es posible desarrollar investigaciones clínicas utilizando sustancias psicodélicas en Uruguay? Resumen Los psicodélicos son sustancias capaces de alterar la conciencia, a través de su efecto sobre la transmisión serotoninérgica en el sistema nervioso central. En sus formas de ingesta tradicional son utilizados en rituales, con fines espirituales y medicinales. En el campo cientí-fico, dichas sustancias fueron estudiadas para posibles aplicaciones psicoterapéuticas en el período 1950-1970, y luego fueron excluidas de la investigación clínica durante las posteriores décadas. Sin embargo, desde 1990 asistimos a un «renacimiento de los estudios sobre psicodélicos», donde estas sustancias están siendo estudiadas en su potencial clínico para el tratamiento de distintos trastornos menta-les. El presente artículo describe y reflexiona sobre la historia de estas investigaciones en Uruguay y en el mundo, tanto en su primera etapa (1950-1970) como en su renacimiento posterior (1990-actualidad), dejando planteado un escenario en el que sea posible avanzar en el campo de las investigaciones clínicas con psicodélicos en nuestro país. Palabras clave psicodélicos Uruguay investigación clínica Historia de la Medicina psiquiatría
Summary Psychedelics are substances capable of altering consciousness, through their effect on seroto-nergic transmission within the central nervous system. In their traditional uses, psychedelics are consumed during rituals, for spiritual and medicinal purposes. In the scientific field, these substances were studied because of their possible psychotherapeutic applications in the period 1950-1970. Afterwards, psychedelics were banned from clinical research for decades. Nevertheless, since 1990 we are witnessing a "renaissance of psychedelic studies", where these substances are being studied because of their clinical potential applications for the treatment of different mental disorders. The current article describes and analyzes the history of these research in Uruguay and in the world, both in its first stage (1950-1970) and in the present "renaissance" (1990-present). The article suggests a future scenario, where Uruguay could play a major role in the field of psychedelic research.
... Indeed, LSD (40-80 µg i.v.) was found to enhance suggestibility in human subjects as measured by the creative imagery scale (Carhart-Harris et al., 2015). The subjective effects of LSD (2 µg/kg p.o.) have also been equated to those produced by hypnotic therapy, the combination resulting in more pronounced alterations in consciousness (Levine et al., 1963;Levine and Ludwig, 1965). The significance of such factors as intention, expectancy, preparation, and social setting in treatment outcomes is well recognized (Klosterhalfen and Enck, 2008;Hartogsohn, 2016). ...
Recent reports on the effects of psychedelic-assisted therapies for mood disorders and addiction, as well as the effects of psychedelics in the treatment of cluster headache, have demonstrated promising therapeutic results. In addition, the beneficial effects appear to persist well after limited exposure to the drugs, making them particularly appealing as treatments for chronic neuropsychiatric and headache disorders. Understanding the basis of the long-lasting effects, however, will be critical for the continued use and development of this drug class. Several mechanisms, including biological and psychological ones, have been suggested to explain the long-lasting effects of psychedelics. Actions on the neuroendocrine system are some such mechanisms that warrant further investigation in the study of persisting psychedelic effects. In this report, we review certain structural and functional neuroendocrinological pathologies associated with neuropsychiatric disorders and cluster headache. We then review the effects that psychedelic drugs have on those systems and provide preliminary support for potential long-term effects. The circadian biology of cluster headache is of particular relevance in this area. We also discuss methodologic considerations for future investigations of neuroendocrine system involvement in the therapeutic benefits of psychedelic drugs.
... In the early 1960s, various psychotomimetic substances were being studied by scientists for their potential therapeutic applications for depression, anxiety, end-life distress, chronic pain, addictions, and other psychological disorders. As pointed out by Grof (2008), the variety of psychotherapeutic uses of these substances was reflected by the many different names used in the professional literature: psycholysis (Leuner, 1962), psychedelic therapy (Hoffer & Osmond, 1967), oneiranalysis (Delay, Pichot, & Lemperiere, 1963), and hypnodelic treatment (Levine & Ludwig, 1965). At some risk of oversimplification, these therapies are usually divided in two main categories: the psycholytic therapies (which used smaller doses of the psychoactive agent, combined with drug-free analysis sessions), and the psychedelic therapies, involving higher doses, and the central role of 'peak experiences' to generate a psychic change. ...
... In fact, early clinical studies between 1950 and 1970 used LSD in a similar way (Strassman, 1995). Levine and Ludwig (1965), for example, showed that the combination of hypnosis and LSD produced more profound alterations in consciousness than either hypnosis or LSD alone. Future clinical studies could test this hypothesis by using a study design with several treatment arms comparing either psychedelics without psychotherapy versus psychedelics in conjunction with psychotherapy versus psychotherapy alone. ...
Rationale: Stimulation of serotonin 2A (5-HT2A) receptors by lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and related compounds such as psilocybin has previously been shown to increase primary process thinking – an ontologically and evolutionary early, implicit, associative, and automatic mode of thinking which is typically occurring during altered states of consciousness such as dreaming. However, it is still largely unknown whether LSD induces primary process thinking under placebo-controlled, standardized experimental conditions and whether these effects are related to subjective experience and 5-HT2A receptor activation. Therefore, this study aimed to test the hypotheses that LSD increases primary process thinking and that primary process thinking depends on 5-HT2A receptor activation and is related to subjective drug effects.
Methods: Twenty-five healthy subjects performed an audio-recorded mental imagery task 7 h after drug administration during three drug conditions: placebo, LSD (100 mcg orally) and LSD together with the 5-HT2A receptor antagonist ketanserin (40 mg orally). The main outcome variable in this study was primary index (PI), a formal measure of primary process thinking in the imagery reports. State of consciousness was evaluated using the Altered State of Consciousness (5D-ASC) rating scale.
Results: LSD, compared with placebo, significantly increased primary index (p < 0.001, Bonferroni-corrected). The LSD-induced increase in primary index was positively correlated with LSD-induced disembodiment (p < 0.05, Bonferroni-corrected), and blissful state (p < 0.05, Bonferroni-corrected) on the 5D-ASC. Both LSD-induced increases in primary index and changes in state of consciousness were fully blocked by ketanserin.
Conclusion: LSD induces primary process thinking via activation of 5-HT2A receptors and in relation to disembodiment and blissful state. Primary process thinking appears to crucially organize inner experiences during both dreams and psychedelic states of consciousness.
... Pahnke (1968) further recommended an 8-to 12-hour pre-dose preparation period when working with terminal cancer patients, although Ludwig (in Tart, 1968) questioned the necessity of this in a parapsychological context. Stabilization of the experience may even be expedited by inducing hypnosis prior to drug administration (Parker, 1975;Tart, 1968) in what has been called the "hypnodelic" state (e.g., see Levine & Ludwig, 1965;Ludwig 1968;Tart, 1967). Alternatively, Ryzl (1968) reported re-inducing LSD states through hypnosis, as is also reported elsewhere, although it was uncertain how successful this was (Ludwig, 1968), though success inducing other drug states (e.g., MDMA, heroin) has also been reported (Hastings, 2006;Hastings et al., 2000;Ludwig & Lyle, 1964). ...
This paper investigates the relationship between psychoactive substances and so-called paranormal
phenomena falling within the study of parapsychology. It is primarily concerned with extrasensory
perception (ESP)—telepathy, precognition, and clairvoyance—as well as out-of-body experiences
(OBEs) and near-death experiences (NDEs). Psychokinesis (PK), aura vision, encounter experiences,
and sleep paralysis only make a very limited contribution to this review as they are seldom related
to psychoactive drugs within the parapsychological literature. The paper borrows widely, but by no
means exhaustively, from parapsychology as well as transpersonal studies, anthropology, ethnobotany,
phytochemistry, psychiatry, psychotherapy, psychopharmacology, and neurobiology, particularly
neurochemistry. It is organized into neurochemical models of paranormal experience (section 1),
field reports of intentional and spontaneous phenomena incorporating anthropological, historical
and clinical cases, and personal accounts (section 2), surveys of paranormal belief and experience
(section 3), experimental research (section 4), and a methodological critique of the experimental
research with recommendations for further work (section 5).
... Recent research has also evidenced the power of psychedelic drugs to enhance hypnotic susceptibility. Fogel and Hoffer (1962), Levine and Ludwig (1965), Levine, Ludwig, and Lyle (1963), Solurish and Rae (19,66), and Ulett, Akpinar, and Itil (1972) all indicated that hypnotic experiences were more intense when LSD-25 was administered. Sjoberg and Hollister (1965) found that mescaline, LSD-25 and/or a combination of the two plus psilocybin enhanced primary suggestibility, whereas Middlefell (1967) found LSDinduced facilitating effects among neurotic patients but not for schizophrenic or depressed patients. ...
Discusses the domain of hypnotic behavior and presents the controversy between clinical and experimental hypnotists concerning the modification of the ability to be hypnotized. 4 sections deal with the evidence demonstrating that responsiveness to hypnosis can be meaningfully altered. Modification studies are discussed in relation to sensory alterations, hypnotic set and environmental setting situational variations, training experiences in nonhypnotic behavior, and training in hypnotic behavior. Persistent hypnotic performance alterations are differentiated from transitory changes. An attempt is made to synthesize the findings, and possible approaches in future investigation are discussed. (51/2 p ref)
... Combining this approach with hypnosis gave rise to the hypnodelic strategy for the same purpose. The therapeutic results, however, only lasted for a few months at best, and longterm followup indicated relapse of drinking behavior to essentially pretreatment levels (Faillace 1966; Faillace et al. 1970; Levine and Ludwig 1965). ...
The author argues in this chapter for a reconsideration of the perception of hallucinogens as being only toxic, damaging, and therefore strictly condemnable for being abused. The author advocates that hallucinogens be viewed as powerful psychoheuristic tools that, in combination with other necessary conceptual (such as holarchic theory) and laboratory tools (such as PET scan or MRI), may help solve a major mystery of nature: the workings of human brains and minds.
The authors determined interrelationships among 61 items in a scale designed to assess the severity of substance-related disorder (SRD) and develop subscales that measure distinct substance-related areas of dysfunction. They evaluated 642 outpatients with items previously developed among patients with SRDs. Trained interviewers administered the Minnesota Substance Abuse Problem Scales (M-SAPS), which uses responses to yes/no (lifetime) questions. A factor analysis of items was compared with data from patients and addiction psychiatrists to measure the concurrent validity of the M-SAPS factors, yielding 37 items in three factors: Psychiatric-Behavioral Problems (14 items), Social-Interpersonal Problems (11 items), and Addiction-Dependence Symptoms (12 items). These three scales correlate with 10 scales/assessments concurrently collected independently of the M-SAPS, yielding a brief, valid, interviewer-administered, substance-related problem scale that assesses SRD severity in three distinct areas.
The authors determined interrelationships among 61 items in a scale designed to assess the severity of substance-related disorder (SRD) and develop subscales that measure distinct substance-related areas of dysfunction. They evaluated 642 outpatients with items previously developed among patients with SRDs. Trained interviewers administered the Minnesota Substance Abuse Problem Scales (M-SAPS), which uses responses to yes/no (lifetime) questions. A factor analysis of items was compared with data from patients and addiction psychiatrists to measure the concurrent validity of the M-SAPS factors, yielding 37 items in three factors: Psychiatric-Behavioral Problems (14 items), Social-Interpersonal Problems (11 items), and Addiction-Dependence Symptoms (12 items). These three scales correlate with 10 scales/assessments concurrently collected independently of the M-SAPS, yielding a brief, valid, interviewer-administered, substance-related problem scale that assesses SRD severity in three distinct areas.
En este trabajo se presenta la revisión bibliográfica relativa al campo ‘alucinógenos y sugestionabilidad’. Aunque la información recuperada ha sido escasa se han podido identificar dos etapas en su evolución: en los años 1960 una etapa relativa a la Terapia Hipnodélica; y a partir de los años 1970 otra etapa en la que se establecen diversos paralelismos entre la hipnosis y el chamanismo. Finalmente se hacen una serie de consideraciones acerca de lo que podría aportar la hipnosis y la sugestionabilidad a la Antropología, y viceversa.
This study assessed the roles of expectancy and autonomic arousal in inducing psychedelic flashbacks under conditions of mild sensory deprivation. Subjects with and without previous flashbacks participated. During the first experimental session, subjects were given a drug which they were told would induce flashbacks, and during the second, a drug which was alleged to induce only autonomic arousal. Ephedrine sulfate (causing autonomic changes) or placebo actually was given in counterbalanced order. Subjects of both groups experienced many more psychedelic sensations when they expected flashbacks. Drug effect was nonsignificant. These findings support the view that flashbacks are not "caused" by psychedelic drugs, but by the tendency of some drug users to mislabel and selectively attend to relevant aspects of naturally occurring altered states of consciousness.
Of 167 patients referred to a unit treating severe behaviour disorders after brain injury, 54 showed clinical features closely resembling those of gross hysteria as described by Charcot. Close correlation was found with very diffuse insults (hypoxia and hypoglycaemia), but not with severity of injury or with family or personal history of hysterical or other psychiatric disorder. The findings may have implications for the understanding of the nature of hysteria.
Introduction There have been many theories put forward to explain the not uncommon symptoms of depersonalization. They were aptly summarized by Ackner (1954) in the following way. There are theories which regard depersonalization as a symptom with an organic basis; there are theories which consider it a disturbance of a particular psychological function; there are analytic theories; and finally there is a theory which would suggest that depersonalization is a form of schizophrenia. This paper is concerned with a re-appraisal of all these theories in the light of recent and current research on the subject.
THEORIES of conversion hysteria, though divergent in many respects, postulate a link between the hysterical manifestation and some physically or emotionally traumatic event. While the symptom has been regarded as the symbolic representation of the event, its appearance and persistence have been variously attributed to the intensity of the trauma, the circumstances surrounding its occurrence, to the need for the symptoms to substitute for a repressed drive, wish, or fear and to the factor of secondary gain.
Our interest in the subject of conversion hysteria originated during a study of the behavioral effects of acute brain injuries, when it was noted that subjects who developed hysterical anesthesias and paralyses recalled their accidents and described their injuries in language of violence. In contrast, patients without hysterical symptoms were either amnestic for or confabulatory about accident and injury, or used language which did not emphasize the physically traumatic aspects of the
Hypnodelic therapy would seem to promise much in the field of psychotherapeutics. It is not, however, considered the only way in which therapy with LSD should or can be conducted. It appears to be a useful technique, but many controlled and long-term follow-up studies will be necessary to determine its efficacy and usefulness compared with other forms of psychedelic and psychiatric therapy.
It is the thesis of this paper that the proper understanding of trance and its associated phenomena has been hampered by the lack of proper definitions, by fuzzy conceptual notions, and by concern with the “artifacts” of trance phenomena. Perhaps the major difficulty in conceptualizing or describing the nature of trance is that most of its outward characteristics are little more than artifacts produced by the hypnotist himself. Thus, the trance, as produced by traditional induction methods, seems to have become an experimental strawman which some investigators use to support their theories, others use to destroy the theories of others, and still others use to attack the validity of the very state they produce.
There is the further problem that in the hypnotic situation the very induction methods encourage manipulation, subtle forms of lying, and self-deception which might, to some extent, account for the modern investigator's preoccupation in differentiating legitimate from simulated hypnotic behavior.
In order to better understand the trance, it is important that we revise some of our notions and stop studying artifacts. First, it should be recognized that the hypnotic trance represents only one variety of trance. Second, trance phenomena are more widespread than generally supposed and represent a normal mental faculty. Third, trance may be produced by a variety of means and in many different contexts.
With these considerations in mind, it seems more productive to raise the question concerning function of trance for man rather than dwell on its nature. As we view the trance in broad perspective, it appears that it may serve important individual and social survival purposes in man. The various survival functions of trance are briefly described in the paper.
Autoradiography provides a powerful tool whereby an investigator can study different aspects of hallucinogens in the laboratory and the clinic. Receptor autoradiography can be performed in vitro to map binding sites of hallucinogens or to assess potential neurotoxic sequelae of hallucinogen treatments. Similarly, such studies can be performed in vivo to the same end. Receptor autoradiography can be performed in a clinical setting using PET to study acute dynamic binding properties of hallucinogens in humans or for long-term followup studies. In vivo autoradiography of metabolic markers appears useful in the laboratory and potentially in the clinic to help researchers understand not only where, but also the manner in which, the brain responds functionally to hallucinogens.
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There has been a recent upsurge of interest in the reactions of placebo subjects under a wide range of conditions.3,9,10,16-19, 22,24 Indications that, after administration of an inert substance, certain persons report relief of pain or other therapeutic responses, as well as a wide range of subjective and "psychosomatic" effects, form the main basis for this interest.3,6,9,16,24 These observations are important both for studies of drug action and for more general studies of human functioning.
In a recent review of the pharmacology of placebos, Wolf24 discussed the mechanism of placebo reactions and stated that "the fundamental stimulus is the meaningful situation." In keeping with this view, responses to placebo administration will be viewed by us as responses to the stimulus conditions in their totality, which we will refer to as "the placebo situation." There are many relevant factors which determine a person's response to
The striking mental changes induced by the diethylamide of lysergic acid (hereafter referred to as LSD) have been studied extensively in Europe,* Great Britain,† and the United States.‡ In minute doses (20γ to 120γ) LSD induces a peculiar mental state characterized by anxiety, signs of autonomic dysfunction, perceptual distortion (chiefly visual), alterations in mood and affect, synesthesias, feelings of depersonalization, and hallucinations. The drug is apparently the most effective and safest agent for inducing an experimental, but reversible, psychosis in nonpsychotic subjects.
Various interpretations have been placed on the mental state produced by LSD. Some European authors refer to it as a "toxic psychosis of the exogenous reaction type" or a "diencephalosis,"§ presumably because the autonomic signs suggest effects on the hypothalamus. The resemblance of some of the psychic manifestations which follow LSD to symptoms of the major psychoses has been stressed by others.∥ The LSD reaction has been referred
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the role of suggestion in the production of certain narcotic drug effects and in the narcotic abstinence syndrome. In addition, we were interested in determining the extent to which actual narcotic drug effects could be reversed through posthypnotic suggestion.The results of our study indicated that formerly addicted Ss, who had experienced at least one “cold turkey” withdrawal from narcotics, were able to attain a highly realistic suggested narcotic drug and withdrawal experience through hypnosis with appropriate physiological and behavioral changes, which they were unable to achieve in other control conditions. Moreover, when actual narcotic drags were administered, certain Ss were able to return to normal behavior following appropriate posthypnotic suggestions. Hypnosis was deemed to be essential in the production of all these effects.
The present listing of items of the Addiction Research Center Inventory (ARCI) is presented as an appendix to papers that
describe the development and initial use of this instrument which was devised for assessing subjective effects of drugs. All
items are classified according to their effectiveness in discriminating various drug effects from the placebo condition. The
drugs used were morphine, amphetamine, pentobarbital, alcohol, LSD-25, pyrahexyl and chlorpromazine. Two types of scales,
developed for each of these conditions separately are presented for each drug under the following headings: 1. Significant
scales, composed of items that maintained discrimination at the 0.05 level in two groups of 50 subjects each; 2. Marginally
significant scales, composed of additional items for whichP=0.05 or less in the total sample of 100 Ss; 3. Nondifferentiating items that did not discriminate between placebo and any
of the drugs reported upon here. Inspection of these items, answers to which were not changed by drugs, shows a rather striking
difference from the “scale-items.” When the former are classified for content (Table 2, p. 164,Haertzen et al. 1963) it is seen that questions concerning attitudes toward individuals and institutions, and questions on philosophy
of life including hostilities of various sorts are not generally in the significantly altered category. In contrast, items
that are sensitive to drug effects are very frequently questions on sensations, perception, bodily symptoms, moods, drives,
attitudes toward taking the test and motivations. With regard to future work, some anticipated analyses were mentioned in
the previous paper which will involve the study of “pattern effects” and other procedures for isolating specificity as well
as generality of drug actions.
A “custom-built” inventory for assessing subjective effects of drugs, the Addiction Research Center Inventory (ARCI), was
developed from the use of “sentence completion” and other association techniques on male subjects under drug and no-drug conditions.
In addition to demonstrated “drug-sentitive” questions, the final form of the inventory (550 “true-false” items) also contains
items which may delineate to some extent schizoid and “psychopathic” characteristics. The format is similar to that of the
MMPI and the content has a fairly wide range. Initial use indicates that the inventory is effective in differentiating various
subjective effects of drugs and in discriminating some similarities and differences of naturally occurring and experimentally
induced behavioral abnormalities. Results also indicate that the effectiveness of specially designed tests, whether in the
form of complete sentences or adjective check lists, chiefly depends upon assessment of the “activitysedation” continuum and
allied changes in motivation, alterations in mood such as in a “euphoria-dysphoric” continuum, alterations in sensation and
perception, and in reportable physiological processes.
The ARCI, a 550-item inventory for assessing subjective drug effects and personality characteristics, was standardized using
former addict subjects on a number of drug conditions. The inventory was administered under “no-drug” and placebo, and various
doses of morphine, pentobarbital, chlorpromazine, LSD-25, amphetamine, pyrahexyl, and alcohol. By means of item analysis,
cross-validity and other initial comparisons, items were chosen to comprise each drug scale that discriminated the particular
drug from placebo; the (no-drug)-placebo comparison also produced a tentative placebo scale. Since non-significant differences
were found when scoring each of the drug scales separately on the nodrug and placebo conditions, these data were combined
for standardizing all scales. Validity generalization, dose-effect, and retest studies showed that the drug scales possessed
a high degree of validity and reliability. In contrast, the placebo scale lost discrimination entirely in the validity generalization
group. Because of the very considerable number of item comprising the scales, only examples were presented. Subjective effects
of the various drugs were discussed in terms of specific and general, non-specific actions and patterns of these alterations.
"Five Ss were tested on nine occasions under two placebos of tap water and under an average effective dose of 7 drugs—ergometerine (Ergonovine), ethyl alcohol, scopolamine (hyroscine), d-1-brom lysergic acid diethylamide (BOL-148), methamphetamine hydrochloride (Methedrine or Pervitin), lysergic acid monoethylamide (LAE-32), and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25) during 9 different experimental sessions… . The Ss completed a questionnaire inquiring about their perceptual, physiological and cognitive state before they received the drug or placebo and .5, 2.5 and 4.5 hours after receiving it… . Although differentiation between 3 lysergic acid derivatives, Ergonovine, LAE-32, and BOL-148, and between alcohol, methamphetamine, and scopolamine was not clear cut, the number of responses to the questionnaire under these drugs was clearly greater than those given under water… . LSD-25 clearly produced the most frequent and the largest positive responses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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