Article

Copper, Iron, and Zinc contents of human milk at early stages of lactation

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The Cu, Fe, and Zn contents of early milk from 102 American mothers were examined in relation to stage of lactation, intake of prenatal mineral supplements, maternal age, parity, and previous history of lactation. A total of 412 samples was collected at three stages of lactation: early transitional (4 to 7 days postpartum); transitional (10 to 14 days postpartum); and mature (30 to 45 days postpartum). For the transitional and mature stages, representative samples of late evening (PM) and early morning (AM) feedings were collected. Diurnal variation in concentration was observed only for Fe. Concentrations of all elements decreased significantly at successive stages of lactation with Zn showing the greatest decline. Cu, Fe, and Zn contents (means +/- SEM) were 104.1 +/- 5.4, 96.5 +/- 6.5, and 520 +/- 20 micrograms/100 g in early transitional milk; 93.9 +/- 3.6, 85.4 +/- 4.5, and 410 +/- 10 micrograms/100 g in transitional milk, and 84.7 +/- 3.8, 76.1 +/- 3.8, and 290 +/- 10 micrograms/100 g in mature milk, respectively. No significant relationship was found between levels of Cu and Zn in milk and whether mothers had taken dietary supplements containing these elements. In addition, no significant correlations were found between maternal age, parity, or previous history of lactation and the elemental content of milk. Based on these data, it was estimated that fully breast-fed infants would receive approximately 0.11, 0.10, and 0.50 mg/kg per day of Cu, Fe, and Zn, respectively, during the neonatal period.

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... The trace-element iron consistently shows circadian variation in concentration with the acrophase during the evening or night [53,67,70,71] (See Figure 2). One study found that circadian variation in iron concentration was suppressed in mothers with iron deficiency [67]. ...
... Sodium and potassium levels possibly exhibit a circadian rhythm, based on a single publication with adequate methodology [72] and an additional exploratory study in which a false positive result cannot be ruled out since no correction for multiple testing was made [35]. Calcium concentrations in human milk do not exhibit circadian variation [35,[73][74][75], and the same result was found for copper [53,70,71,75]. Zinc concentrations in human milk might, however, follow a circadian rhythm with three [53,74,76] out of seven [53,70,71,[74][75][76][77] publications using the same adequate analytical method finding its acrophase in the morning. ...
... Calcium concentrations in human milk do not exhibit circadian variation [35,[73][74][75], and the same result was found for copper [53,70,71,75]. Zinc concentrations in human milk might, however, follow a circadian rhythm with three [53,74,76] out of seven [53,70,71,[74][75][76][77] publications using the same adequate analytical method finding its acrophase in the morning. For phosphorus, magnesium, CuZn-superoxide dismutase, iodide, iodine, and molybdenum, evidence is either contradictive or limited [35,44,[73][74][75][78][79][80]. ...
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Background: Breastfeeding is considered the most optimal mode of feeding for neonates and mothers. Human milk changes over the course of lactation in order to perfectly suit the infant's nutritional and immunological needs. Its composition also varies throughout the day. Circadian fluctuations in some bioactive components are suggested to transfer chronobiological information from mother to child to assist the development of the biological clock. This review aims to give a complete overview of studies examining human milk components found to exhibit circadian variation in their concentration. Methods: We included studies assessing the concentration of a specific human milk component more than once in 24 h. Study characteristics, including gestational age, lactational stage, sampling strategy, analytical method, and outcome were extracted. Methodological quality was graded using a modified Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS). Results: A total of 83 reports assessing the circadian variation in the concentration of 71 human milk components were included. Heterogeneity among studies was high. The methodological quality varied widely. Significant circadian variation is found in tryptophan, fats, triacylglycerol, cholesterol, iron, melatonin, cortisol, and cortisone. This may play a role in the child's growth and development in terms of the biological clock.
... Firstly, it promotes an acidic environment which facilitate iron absorption, secondly, it chelates Fe 3+ and maintains it in a stable complex, and lastly, it reduces Fe 3+ to Fe 2+ forming a soluble complex available for absorption (22,23). Iron in breast milk is readily absorbed because it is bound to lactoferrin which aids the absorption of iron through the lactoferrin receptor into the enterocyte (24). The concentration of iron in breast milk starts relatively low (0.6 mg/L), and reduces to about 0.2-0.3 ...
... The concentration of iron in breast milk starts relatively low (0.6 mg/L), and reduces to about 0.2-0.3 mg/L 5-6 months of age (24,25). Although, the bioavailability of breast milk iron is high (15-42%) (26). ...
... Any variation may have implications for milk sampling in research studies. Indeed, this is evidenced by studies with a wide range of sampling protocols employed to collect HM for macro-and trace-element analysis (Feeley et al., 1983;Sabatier et al., 2019;Wasowicz et al., 2001). Samples can be collected pre-feed, post-feed, mid-feed, a pooling of prefeed and post-feed, or involve emptying of the entire breast (George et al., 2020). ...
... Sampling for measurement of HM iron is problematic due to differences pre-and post-feed as well as changes over the day. Indeed, we found higher concentrations of HM iron in the evening (supplementary Table 5) which is consistent with previous studies (Feeley et al., 1983;Shashiraj et al., 2006). In addition, we measured higher post-feed iron concentrations (pre-feed: 123.1 ± 15 µg/L; post-feed: 248.0 ± 15 µg/L). ...
Article
Background Daily variations of macro- and trace-elements in human milk (HM) are not well characterised and sampling protocols are highly variable between studies. Objectives To investigate diurnal and within-feed variation of HM macro- and trace-elements using pre- and post- feed concentrations and to compare infant intake estimates using limited samples with measured 24-hour intake. Methods HM Samples were collected pre- and post- every feed in a 24-hour period from 11 mother-infant dyads. Test-weighing was used to determine the volume of HM consumed in each feed. For macro- and trace-elements within-feed and daily variation was measured. Intake estimated from a morning pre-feed sample was compared to the measured milk intake calculated from every feed over 24-hours. Macro- and trace-elements concentrations were measured using ICP-MS. Linear mixed modelling was used for statistical analysis. Results Average intake of HM was 737 ± 63 mL for infants aged 1-6 months and 508 ± 50 for infants aged 6-12 months. Pre- and post-feed HM variation was found for phosphorus, calcium, manganese, iron, copper, zinc, selenium, molybdenum, and iodine (p<0.05). Variation across 24h was found for magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, manganese, iron, and selenium (p<0.05). Estimated intake using morning, pre-feed samples resulted in significantly lower intake when compared to measured milk intake for iron, phosphorus, selenium, and manganese (p<0.05). Conclusion Standardised sampling protocols using large sample volumes and multiple collections over 24-hours provide a calculated intake that is more reflective of actual infant HM macro- and trace-elements intake.
... Calcium, phosphorous and magnesium concentrations in maternal serum are tightly regulated and it has been reported that there is little effect of maternal dietary intake of these minerals on their concentrations in human milk [46,47]. The mean concentrations of calcium and magnesium in mature milk reported in the literature are approximately 280 mg/L and 35 mg/L, respectively [46,48,49]. The observed concentrations of calcium and magnesium in breast milk reported here are in agreement with these values. ...
... Zinc concentrations in human milk decrease over lactation and steeply decline over the first month of lactation from that found in colostrum (>10 mg/L) and then gradually to 0.5 mg/L by the twelfth month of lactation (Casey 1989). The dietary intake of zinc has mostly been reported in the literature as having little impact on the concentrations found in breast milk [14,48,50]. Two studies, however, reported that zinc supplementation may influence zinc concentration in late lactation [51,52], which is in agreement for the positive association found here (Figure 2). ...
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Human milk is nutrient rich, complex in its composition, and is key to a baby’s health through its role in nutrition, gastrointestinal tract and immune development. Seventy-eight mothers (19–42 years of age) of Asian, Māori, Pacific Island, or of European ethnicity living in Manawatu-Wanganui, New Zealand (NZ) completed the study. The women provided three breast milk samples over a one-week period (6–8 weeks postpartum), completed a three-day food diary and provided information regarding their pregnancy and lactation experiences. The breast milk samples were analyzed for protein, fat, fatty acid profile, ash, selected minerals (calcium, magnesium, selenium, zinc), and carbohydrates. Breast milk nutrient profiles showed no significant differences between the mothers of different ethnicities in their macronutrient (protein, fat, carbohydrate, and moisture) content. The breast milk of Asian mothers contained significantly higher levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), omega-3 (n-3) and omega-6 (n-6) fatty acids, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and linoleic acids. Arachidonic acid was significantly lower in the breast milk of Māori and Pacific Island women. Dietary intakes of protein, total energy, saturated and polyunsaturated fat, calcium, phosphorus, zinc, iodine, vitamin A equivalents, and folate differed between the ethnic groups, as well as the number of serves of dairy foods, chicken, and legumes. No strong correlations between dietary nutrients and breast milk components were found.
... Method validation and quality control are keys to ensuring data accuracy. However, of the 28 studies, only 8 studies applied some kind of method validation or quality control procedures (79,87,(93)(94)(95)(96)(97)(98). Of these, 6 used standard reference materials (87,93,94,(96)(97)(98). ...
... However, of the 28 studies, only 8 studies applied some kind of method validation or quality control procedures (79,87,(93)(94)(95)(96)(97)(98). Of these, 6 used standard reference materials (87,93,94,(96)(97)(98). ...
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Human milk is considered to be the ideal food for infants. Accurate, representative, and up-to-date nutrient composition data of human milk are crucial for the management of infant feeding, assessment of infant and maternal nutritional needs, and as a guide for developing infant formula. Currently in the United States, the nutrient profiles of human milk can be found in the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, and in books or review articles. Nonetheless, these resources all suffer major drawbacks, such as being outdated, incomplete profiles, limited sources of data, and uncertain data quality. Furthermore, no nutrient profile was developed specifically for the US population. The purposes of this review were to summarize the current knowledge of human milk nutrient composition from studies conducted in the United States and Canada, and to identify the knowledge gaps and research needs. The literature review was conducted to cover the years 1980–2017, and 28 research papers were found containing original data on macronutrients and micronutrients. Most of these 28 studies were published before 1990 and mainly examined samples from small groups of generally healthy lactating women. The experimental designs, including sampling, storage, and analytic methods, varied substantially between the different studies. Data of several components from these 28 studies showed some consistency for 1–6 mo postpartum, especially for protein, fat, lactose, energy, and certain minerals (e.g., calcium). The data for 7–12 mo postpartum and for other nutrients are very scarce. Comprehensive studies are required to provide current and complete nutrient information on human milk in the United States.
... Method validation and quality control are keys to ensuring data accuracy. However, of the 28 studies, only eight studies applied some kind of method validation or quality control procedures (79,87,(93)(94)(95)(96)(97)(98). Among them, five used standard reference materials (87,93,94,(96)(97)(98). ...
... However, of the 28 studies, only eight studies applied some kind of method validation or quality control procedures (79,87,(93)(94)(95)(96)(97)(98). Among them, five used standard reference materials (87,93,94,(96)(97)(98). ...
... Sample preparation includes lyophilizing and ashing of the sample before acid (nitric acid, sulfuric acid) digestion; in addition, microwave digestion with the use of nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide have been described (270,272,. Inductively coupled argon plasma spectrometry and ICP-MS have been proposed as a valid alternative for iron analysis in human milk (303)(304)(305)(306)(307). These approaches also require sample digestion by nitric acid or hydrogen peroxide. ...
... However, AAS has emerged as one of the main techniques for zinc analysis in human milk (272, 274, 275, 277-280, 283-285, 288-290, 293, 295-300, 302, 308, 312-322, 329, 332-343). More recently, ICP-AES and ICP-MS have also been described for zinc analysis in milk (303,304,306,323,324,(326)(327)(328)(329)344). ...
Article
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Exclusive breastfeeding is recommended by the WHO for the first 6 mo of life because human milk protects against gastrointestinal infections and supplies balanced and adequate nutrient contents to the infant. However, reliable data on micronutrient concentrations in human milk are sparse, especially because some micronutrients are affected by maternal diet. Microbiological and competitive protein-binding assays, nuclear magnetic resonance or inductively coupled plasma spectroscopy, and chromatographic analyses are among the methods that have been applied to human-milk micronutrient analysis. However, the validation or evaluation of analytical methods in terms of their suitability for the complex human-milk matrix has been commonly ignored in reports, even though the human-milk matrix differs vastly from blood, plasma, or urine matrixes. Thus, information on the validity, accuracy, and sensitivity of the methods is essential for the estimation of infant and maternal intake requirements to support and maintain adequate milk micronutrient concentrations for healthy infant growth and development. In this review, we summarize current knowledge on methods used for analyzing water- and fat-soluble vitamins as well as iron, copper, zinc, iodine, and selenium in human milk and their different forms in milk; the tools available for quality control and assurance; and guidance for preanalytical considerations. Finally, we recommend preferred methodologic approaches for analysis of specific milk micronutrients.
... Thus, maternal HIV status might not or only marginally affect milk mineral concentrations. However, another study conducted in the United States revealed considerably higher mineral concentrations in milk from apparently healthy mothers (Feeley, Eitenmiller, Jones, & Barnhart, 1983), whereas women in Vietnam produced milk with higher iron and copper but lower zinc concentrations at 6 months post-partum (Nakamori et al., 2009). 4.2 | Comparison of milk iron, copper, and zinc concentrations with values used to set the AI for infants 0-6 months Despite the negative ARV effect on breast milk copper and zinc concentrations, 89-94% and 78-81%, respectively, of the milk samples obtained at 2 weeks met the concentrations used to set the AI for infants. ...
... Copper and zinc are both bound to serum albumin, casein, and citrate in milk ; their positive association suggests that the two minerals are not competing for the same binding site but rather for the availability of additional binding capacity (Finley et al., 1985;Lönnerdal, Keen, & Hurley, 1981b). Positive correlations between milk iron and copper have also been reported by Feeley et al. (1983), concluding that milk from mothers with high amounts of iron may also be more likely to contain high concentrations of cop- (2008) showed that severe maternal anaemia adversely affected cord blood and human milk iron concentrations. In our study, moderately anaemic women with higher ferritin also had a higher concentration of iron in their milk compared to non-anaemic or only mildly anaemic women at 2 weeks, whereas lower TfR was associated with higher milk iron content in moderately anaemic compared to non-anaemic women at 2 and 24 weeks. ...
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We evaluated effects of antiretroviral (ARV) therapy and lipid-based nutrient supplements (LNSs) on iron, copper, and zinc in milk of exclusively breastfeeding HIV-infected Malawian mothers and their correlations with maternal and infant biomarkers. Human milk and blood at 2, 6, and 24 weeks post-partum and blood during pregnancy (≤30 weeks gestation) were collected from 535 mothers/infant-pairs in the Breastfeeding, Antiretrovirals, and Nutrition study. The participants received ARV, LNS, ARV and LNS, or no intervention from 0 to 28 weeks post-partum. ARVs negatively affected copper and zinc milk concentrations, but only at 2 weeks, whereas LNS had no effect. Among all treatment groups, approximately 80–90% of copper and zinc and <50% of iron concentrations met the current adequate intake for infants at 2 weeks and only 1–19% at 24 weeks. Pregnancy haemoglobin was negatively correlated with milk iron at 2 and 6 weeks (r = −.18, p < .02 for both). The associations of the milk minerals with each other were the strongest correlations observed (r = .11–.47, p < .05 for all); none were found with infant biomarkers. At 2 weeks, moderately anaemic women produced milk higher in iron when ferritin was higher or TfR lower. At 6 weeks, higher maternal α-1-acid glycoprotein and C-reactive protein were associated with higher milk minerals in mildly anaemic women. Infant TfR was lower when milk mineral concentrations were higher at 6 weeks and when mothers were moderately anaemic during pregnancy. ARV affects copper and zinc milk concentrations in early lactation, and maternal haemoglobin during pregnancy and lactation could influence the association between milk minerals and maternal and infant iron status and biomarkers of inflammation.
... Iron concentration in human milk is relatively low (0.6-0.9 mg/L) in colostrum and declines further, to 0.2-0.3 mg/ L, in mature milk (11)(12)(13)(14). The major iron-binding protein in human milk is lactoferrin, which binds a significant proportion of iron. ...
... transient and disappeared one week after the start of treatment. The mean levels of iron concentration in breast milk found in this study were all within what is considered the normal range of iron concentration in breast milk found in previous studies, ranging from 0.6 to 0.9 mg/L in colostrum and from 0.2 to 0.3 mg/L in mature milk (11)(12)(13)(14). Studies on the iron concentration in breast milk from mothers given iron supplementation have shown diverging results. ...
Article
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Aim: We compared the iron concentration in breast milk after a single high-dose of intravenous iron isomaltoside or daily oral iron for postpartum haemorrhage. Methods: In this randomised controlled trial, the women were allocated a single dose of intravenous 1,200mg iron isomaltoside or oral iron at a mean daily dose of 70.5mg. We included 65 women with sufficient breast milk three days after inclusion - 30 from the intravenous iron group and 35 from the oral iron group - and collected breast milk and maternal blood samples three days and one week after allocation. Results: The mean (± standard deviation) iron concentration in breast milk in the intravenous and oral groups were 0.72 ± 0.27 mg/L and 0.40 ± 0.18 mg/L at three days (p < 0.001) and 0.47 ± 0.17 mg/L and 0.44 ± 0.25 mg/L after one week (p=0.64). Baseline samples were not available that soon after birth. Conclusion: A single high-dose of intravenous iron isomaltoside for postpartum haemorrhage led to a transient increase in the iron concentration in breast milk three days after treatment compared with oral iron. The difference disappeared one week after treatment and mean iron concentrations were within the normal range in all samples. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... There is a decline in the concentrations of many elements across the stages of lactation. Reported declines include copper and zinc in Guatemala (10), calcium, magnesium, copper, iron, and zinc by 45 d postpartum in the United States (11,12), copper, manganese, selenium, and zinc in Austria (13), and sodium, potassium, selenium, and zinc in Japan (7). It has been suggested that this decline in mineral concentrations might reflect lower infant needs for growth (14,15). ...
... Additionally, several other factors have been associated with variability in milk mineral concentrations. Diurnal variations have been noted for sodium and iron (11,28). Other factors include maternal age, parity, length of gestation (29), and infection (5). ...
Article
Background: Breast milk is the recommended source of nutrients for infant growth, but its adequacy to meet infants' mineral and trace element needs is unknown. Objectives: We used breast-milk mineral and trace element concentrations of Guatemalan mothers at 3 lactation stages to estimate total daily intakes and to determine whether intakes were associated with early infant growth. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, breast-milk samples were collected from Mam-Mayan mothers during transitional (5-17 d, n = 56), early (18-46 d, n = 75), and established (4-6 mo, n = 103) lactation; z scores for weight (WAZ), length (LAZ), and head circumference (HCAZ) were measured. Concentrations of 11 minerals (calcium, potassium, magnesium, sodium, copper, iron, manganese, rubidium, selenium, strontium, and zinc) were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). WHO equations were used to calculate the estimated energy requirement, which was divided by the energy density of breast milk to estimate daily milk volume, and this number was multiplied by breast-milk mineral concentrations to estimate intakes. Principal component analyses identified clusters of minerals; principal components (PCs) were used in regression analyses for anthropometric outcomes. Results: Estimated breast-milk intakes during established lactation were insufficient to compensate for the lower milk sodium, copper, manganese, and zinc concentrations in male infants and the lower sodium, iron and manganese concentrations in female infants. Estimated intakes of calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, and selenium were below the Institute of Medicine Adequate Intake for both sexes at all 3 stages of lactation. In early lactation, multiple linear regressions showed that PC1 (calcium, magnesium, potassium, rubidium, and strontium intakes) was positively associated with WAZ, LAZ, and HCAZ. In established lactation, the same PC with sodium added was positively associated with all 3 anthropometric outcomes; a second PC (PC2: zinc, copper, and selenium intakes) was associated with WAZ and LAZ but not HCAZ. Conclusions: Breast milk may be inadequate in selected minerals and trace elements where higher estimated intakes were associated with greater infant growth.
... Studies of milk zinc concentration in relation to time of day have yielded inconsistent results. Four studies found no relation between the time of day and milk zinc concentration [5][6][7][8], but three studies found that specimens obtained early in the morning had ~15% greater milk zinc concentration than specimens obtained in the afternoon or evening [9][10][11]. Thus, it might be advisable to obtain more than one sample during the day to gather more representative information on the total amount of zinc transferred, even though many studies suggest that just one sample might he sufficient. ...
... Other studies of the relations between maternal age and parity and milk zinc concentrations are difficult to interpret because of the failure to control adequately for infant age. Among the subset of studies that did compare results at specific, narrowly defined time periods postpartum, there are no consistent effects of maternal age or parity on milk zinc concentrations [7,[23][24][25][26]. ...
Article
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Breastmilk is the only dietary source of zinc for exclusively breastfed young infants, and it remains a potentially important source of zinc for older infants and young children who continue breastfeeding beyond early infancy. Therefore, we examined available information on breastmilk zinc concentration and total milk consumption to develop estimates of the amount of zinc transferred in breastmilk to children of different ages. Breastmilk zinc concentration declines rapidly during the first few months postpartum and more slowly thereafter. Breastmilk supplies all of the theoretical zinc needs for at least the first several months of life, although the period during which breastmilk alone remains sufficient is uncertain. Breastmilk continues to provide more than half of children's estimated zinc requirements after the introduction of complementary foods, even into the second year of life. Public health programs to promote and support breastfeeding should be included among the strategies to ensure adequate zinc status of young children.
... In brief, Osredkar et al. (2022) from Slovenia showed distributions that were very consistent with our results. In addition, several studies suggested that micronutrients as Zn and Cu also vary in breast milk during different stages of breastfeeding, with concentrations that decreased significantly at successive stages of lactation (Feeley et al., 1983;Maeda et al., 1990;Wasowicz et al., 2001). The same trend of decreasing of both Zn and Cu serum concentration has been seen in postpartum mothers, in different stages after delivery (Maeda et al., 1990). ...
Article
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Background Trace elements, including zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu), although toxic at higher concentrations are known to play important roles in the maintenance of human health and neurodevelopment. Few epidemiological studies have investigated the association between prenatal or early postnatal Cu and Zn levels and child neurodevelopment. The aim of this research is to assess the association between child neurodevelopment at 18 months of age and cord blood and breast milk concentrations of Cu and Zn in Italian mother-child pairs enrolled in the Italian Northern Adriatic Cohort II (NAC-II), a part of the “Public health impact of long-term, low-level, mixed element exposure in susceptible population strata” project PHIME. Methods The study population consisted of 632 children, and their mothers, born within the NAC-II, who were tested with the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development third edition (BSID-III) at age 18 months. Cu and Zn concentrations were measured in cord blood and breast milk samples. Only children born at term (≥37 gestational week), who completed the BSID-III test and had at least 1 measure of Cu and Zn concentrations were included in the analysis. Information about socio-demographics and lifestyles were collected through questionnaires at different phases of follow-up. Cu and Zn concentrations were log2 transformed because of their skewed distribution. Multiple linear regression models were performed to study the association between each BSID-III composite score (cognitive, motor and language) and each metal concentration. Separate models were applied for each biological sample. The β coefficient (β) and its 95% confidence interval (95% CI) were estimated. Stratified analyses by child's sex were also conducted. Results The mean ± standard deviation (SD) of cognitive, motor and language composite scores were respectively: 106 ± 8, 101 ± 5 and 97 ± 8. The mean ± SD of Cu and Zn concentrations (ng/g) were respectively 699.2 ± 129.0 and 2538 ± 589 in cord blood and 607 ± 498 and 3226 ± 1428 in breast milk. No association between metal concentration and cognitive composite score was found. A higher motor composite score was associated with higher Cu concentrations in cord blood (β = 4.31 95% CI 2.03; 6.59). No associations were found between language composite score and metal concentrations. The effect of Cu cord blood concentration on motor composite score was confirmed when stratified by sex: males (β = 5.49 95% CI 2.15; 8.36) and females (β = 3.11; 95% CI 0.00; 6.22). A direct association, in females only, was found between language composite score and Cu concentration in cord blood (β = 5.60 95% CI 0.63; 10.57) and in breast milk (β = 3.04 95% CI 1.06; 5.03), respectively. Conclusion The results from this cohort study showed a strong direct association between prenatal Cu levels and child motor neurodevelopment at 18 months. However, for generalizability, future research on the effects of Zn and Cu on neurodevelopment should include a larger range of early-life concentration of trace elements.
... Des études suggèrent que la haute teneur en EGF du colostrum pourrait protéger le nouveau-né de l'entérocolite nécrosante (Dvorak, 2010). Le colostrum a également une teneur élevée en certaines provitamines et vitamines liposolubles telles que les caroténoïdes et la vitamine A qui lui donnent sa couleur, vitamine indispensable pour le développement de la vision et l'intégrité des barrières épithéliales, ou encore en oligo-éléments tels que le zinc, essentiel pour le bon fonctionnement du système immunitaire (Ballard, Morrow, 2013 ;Feeley et al., 1983). Les oligosaccharides du colostrum seraient particulièrement efficaces pour inhiber l'inflammation de l'intestin du nouveau-né et favoriser sa maturation (He et al., 2014). ...
... The emergence of lactation as the sole source of nourishment for neonatal mammalian infants has been central to the success of mammals (1), providing a complete system of nourishment. The composition of milk has been a singularly valuable guide for nutrition scientists to identify nutrients, their quantitative requirements, and various mechanisms that ensure their successful absorption (2,3). ...
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Evolutionary selective pressure on lactation has resulted in milk that provides far more than simply essential nutrients, delivering a complex repertoire of agents from hormones to intact cells. Human infants are born with low barrier integrity of their gut, which means that many of the complex biopolymer components of milk enter and circulate in lymph and blood, reaching organs throughout the body. Due to this state of gut maturation, all components of milk are potentially part of the crosstalk between mother and infants. This article highlights the functions of milk's complex biopolymers, more specifically the potential role of microRNAs (miRNAs) contained in extracellular vesicles in human milk. miRNAs are key effectors in the regulation of many biological processes during early-age development, and consequently milk-sourced miRNAs must be considered to provide unique biological assets to the infant during breastfeeding. This article interprets the evidence of the potential action of human milk miRNAs on infant development, taking into account their abundance in milk based on the literature and current knowledge. Human milk miRNAs appear to influence lipid and glucose metabolism, gut maturation, neurogenesis, and immunity. We also show growing evidence that human milk miRNAs are epigenetic modulators that play a pivotal role in the regulation of tissue-specific gene expression throughout life. Furthermore, this article addresses the ongoing debate regarding the potential influence of human milk miRNAs on viral infection as a new research area. This article highlights that these bioactive molecules are now being incorporated into our overall understanding of nutrient needs for healthy infant development, preparing each individual infant to succeed as a healthy and protected adult throughout its life. In essence, miRNAs are a new language in the Rosetta stone of health that is mammalian lactation.
... Des études suggèrent que la haute teneur en EGF du colostrum pourrait protéger le nouveau-né de l'entérocolite nécrosante (Dvorak, 2010). Le colostrum a également une teneur élevée en certaines provitamines et vitamines liposolubles telles que les caroténoïdes et la vitamine A qui lui donnent sa couleur, vitamine indispensable pour le développement de la vision et l'intégrité des barrières épithéliales, ou encore en oligo-éléments tels que le zinc, essentiel pour le bon fonctionnement du système immunitaire (Ballard, Morrow, 2013 ;Feeley et al., 1983). Les oligosaccharides du colostrum seraient particulièrement efficaces pour inhiber l'inflammation de l'intestin du nouveau-né et favoriser sa maturation (He et al., 2014). ...
... Copper is required for iron utilization and a cofactor for enzyme involved in the metabolism of glucose and the synthesis of haemoglobin, connective tissue and phospholipid. [20][21][22] Dietary deficiency of copper is uncommon except in conditions of severe malnutrition. 23 There is no significant correlation between dietary copper intake and milk concentration. ...
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Background: The gross composition of human milk is remarkably constant among women of varying nutritional status. Reliable information is now available on the content, and the principal factor affecting it, of most of the trace elements on human milk. However, for some of the trace elements, there is still a wide variation in reported values in the literature, which is due at least in part, to analytical difficulties. Hence this study was taken up to find out if maternal nutritional status influences the copper and zinc concentrations in colostrum of mother.Methods: Total of 100 mothers were enrolled in the study after obtaining prior informed consent. They were divided into 2 groups - group I had 50 malnourished mothers and group II had 50 well-nourished mothers. Sample digestion was attempted with different quantities of various acids. Analysis of digested colostrum was carried out for copper and zinc.Results: The mean levels of copper and zinc were slightly more among well-nourished than malnourished women. Values of copper were significantly higher in the colostrum of well-nourished as compared to that of the malnourished mothers.Conclusions: The parameters of weight, height weight/height ratio and hemoglobin varied significantly between the well-nourished and malnourished mothers. The difference in milk content of malnourished and well-nourished mothers is not significant for zinc. However, copper levels were significantly higher in well-nourished mothers.
... In a study from Tenerife, Spain, hair Cu content was inversely related to body mass and age [48]. However, BMI and parity do not seem to be determining factors in the Cu content in breast milk, according to the results from this and previous studies [16,26,49,50]. ...
... Copper is required for iron utilization and a cofactor for enzyme involved in the metabolism of glucose and the synthesis of haemoglobin, connective tissue and phospholipid. 30,31 Dietary deficiency of copper is uncommon except in conditions of severe malnutrition. There is no significant correlation between dietary copper intake and milk concentration. ...
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Background: Minerals and trace element content of human milk have been a matter of concern among nutritionist in relation to the availability of the essential elements to the new born. Mineral and trace elements occur in the body in a number of chemical forms, such as inorganic ions and salts, or as constituents of organic molecules, for example proteins, fats, carbohydrates and nucleic acids. There is a paucity of data on the effect of nutrition on the composition of trace elements in milk and its effect on the infant. Hence a comparison made between the trace element and mineral such as sodium, potassium, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper, calcium in milk of malnourished and well-nourished mothers in order to determine the effect of maternal nutrition on the quality of milk and its effect on the growth and physical development of the new-born.Methods: Around 100 mothers were enrolled in the study after obtaining prior informed consent. They were divided into 2 groups-group I had 50 malnourished mothers and group II had 50 well-nourished mothers. The pre-fed milk sample which was collected was stored at - 20℃ until it was processed. It was thawed and analysed for copper, zinc, iron, magnesium, sodium, potassium and calcium.Results: The mean levels of trace elements (iron and zinc) and minerals (sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium) were slightly more among well-nourished than malnourished women. Values of only copper were significantly higher in the colostrum of well-nourished as compared to that of the malnourished mothers.Conclusions: The parameters of weight, height weight/height ratio and hemoglobin varied significantly between the well-nourished and malnourished mothers. The difference in milk content of malnourished and well-nourished mothers is not significant for sodium, potassium, calcium, iron, magnesium, zinc. However, copper levels were significantly higher in well-nourished mothers.
... Of four zinc supplementation trials during lactation in the literature, three found no effect (Moser-Veillon & Reynolds 1990;Krebs et al. 1995;Chierici et al 1999) and one a lower rate of decline with supplementation (Krebs et al. 1985). Just one observational study found an increased milk zinc in women taking supplements (Karra et al. 1988), while most other observational studies have failed to find a difference in maternal zinc supplement consumption or of dietary intake on milk zinc levels (Picciano & Guthrie 1976;Kirksey et al. 1979;Feeley et al. 1983;Moser & Reynolds 1983;Hannan et al 2009). The great majority of these studies, as well as many others (Lamounier et al. 1989: Bates andTsuchiya 1990;Domellof et al. 2004, Nikniaz et al. 2011, all confirm that milk zinc levels fall naturally during lactation, even in wellnourished women. ...
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The effects of zinc supplementation on levels of zinc, retinol and carotene in serum and breast milk were investigated in a double blind controlled prospective study amongst 66 poor urban Amazonian mothers in 1981. The mothers predominantly breast-fed their infants for the first five months of life and took supplements from soon after birth. Milk retinol levels were already significantly higher in zinc supplemented (ZS) than non-zinc supplemented (NZS) mothers by one month post-partum, and by four months had risen significantly in the ZS mothers but fallen in NZS mothers. At four months post-partum, milk retinol levels of ZS mothers were near normal and double those of NZS mothers. The effect of zinc supplementation on these retinol levels was possibly associated with an increased absorption and utilization of dietary carotene, since milk carotene levels also increased in ZS mothers to levels three times those of NZS mothers at four months post-partum. This impact of zinc supplementation on maternal and breast milk vitamin A levels has not been shown previously and is of potential relevance where zinc and vitamin A deficiency are common.
... We found that primiparous mothers produced slightly higher concentrations of milk iron than did multiparous mothers. This is consistent with previous studies report no relationship between parity and iron concentrations in mature milk [54,55]. Our results are generally consistent with studies that reported no differences based on location, race, or population or attributable to differences in milk volume ( [40,56] but see [57,58]). ...
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Human milk contains essential micronutrients for growth and development during early life. Environmental pollutants, such as potentially toxic metals, can also be transferred to the infant through human milk. These elements have been well-studied, but changing diets and environments and advances in laboratory technology require re-examining these elements in a variety of settings. The aim of this study was to characterize the concentrations of essential and toxic metals in human milk from four diverse populations. Human milk samples (n = 70) were collected in Argentina (n = 21), Namibia (n = 6), Poland (n = 23), and the United States (n = 20) using a standardized mid-feed collection procedure. Milk concentrations of calcium, zinc, iron, copper, manganese, lead, arsenic, and cadmium were determined using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). We used standard multiple linear regression models to evaluate differences among populations, while including infant age, infant sex, and maternal parity status (multiparous or primiparous) as covariates. Concentrations of all elements, except zinc, varied across populations after controlling for infant age, infant sex, and maternal parity. Calcium and magnesium showed more differences across populations than iron or copper. There were no significant differences among population in zinc concentrations. Mean concentrations of lead, but not arsenic, were low compared to recently published values from other populations. The concentrations of trace elements in human milk are variable among populations. Limitations due to small sample sizes and environmental contamination of some samples prevent us from drawing robust conclusions about the causes of these differences.
... However, iron concentrations in human milk were positively associated with a mother's dietary intake of fat, cholesterol, and magnesium, which may be due to the consumption of meat and meat products. Numerous studies have also reported that intake of dietary copper does not affect copper concentrations in human milk [44][45][46][47][48]. However, in the present study, daily intakes of vitamin C, selenium, and iodine were related to copper concentrations in the milk samples. ...
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The aims of this study were to evaluate zinc, copper, and iron concentrations in the transitory milk of Korean lactating mothers and to investigate the relationship between these concentrations and maternal diet. Human milk samples were collected between 5 and 15 days postpartum from 96 healthy, lactating mothers in postpartum care centers in Seoul, Korea. Dietary intake during lactation was determined based on a 3-day dietary record. The mean zinc, copper, and iron concentrations in the human milk samples collected were 3.88 ± 1.74 mg/L, 0.69 ± 0.25 mg/L, and 5.85 ± 8.53 mg/L, respectively. The mothers who consumed alcoholic beverages during pregnancy had tended to have lower concentrations of zinc and copper, as well as significantly lower concentrations of iron, in their milk (p < 0.047). In contrast, the mothers who took daily supplements had much higher iron concentrations in their milk (p = 0.002). Dietary intakes of zinc, copper, and iron during lactation did not affect the concentrations of zinc, copper, and iron in the milk samples analyzed. Intakes of vitamin C, selenium, and iodine were associated with the concentration of copper in the milk samples analyzed, and consumption of food categorized as 'meat and meat products' was positively associated with the concentration of zinc. Consumption of rice was the top contributor to the concentrations of all three minerals. In conclusion, associations between maternal diet and nutrient concentrations in transitory human milk can provide useful information, particularly in regard to infant growth.
... The amount gradually decreases to about 0.6 mg/day at 6 months (65). During lactation, the zinc content of milk remained constant in spite of 60 mg zinc supplementation per day for 2 weeks (66,67). ...
Article
This review critically summarizes the literature on the spectrum of health effects of zinc status, ranging from symptoms of zinc deficiency to excess exposure. Studies on zinc intake are reviewed in relation to optimum requirements as a function of age and sex. Current knowledge on the biochemical properties of zinc which are critical to the essential role of this metal in biological systems is summarized. Dietary and physiological factors influencing the bioavailability and utilization of zinc are considered with special attention to interactions with iron and copper status. The effects of zinc deficiency and toxicity are reviewed with respect to specific organs, immunological and reproductive function, and genotoxicity and carcinogenicity. Finally, key questions are identified where research is needed, such as the risks to human health of altered environmental distribution of zinc, assessment of zinc status in humans, effects of zinc status in relation to other essential metals on immune function, reproduction, neurological function, and the cardiovascular system, and mechanistic studies to further elucidate the biological effects of zinc at the molecular level.
... Despite the declining Cu levels in breast milk during lactation, serum Cu levels in infants are increased, which suggests that the Cu requirements of infants are met. Cu in breast milk appears to be well absorbed and copper levels in breast milk are independent of maternal status [11,[55][56][57]. Salmenperaet al. [55] showed that serum Cu levels were not correlated with daily Cu intake in infants and in mothers. ...
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Background Essential micronutrients are important for maintenance of life. Deficiency of micronutrients is more likely to be encountered in children, and women studies are required to investigate the status of micronutrients in children and women. This study aimed to longitudinally evaluate changes in zinc, copper, and iron levels in breastfed infants and their mothers during the first year of life. Methods Serum and hair samples were obtained from 35 healthy breastfed infants (51 % males, 49 % females) and their mothers 2, 6, and 12 months after delivery. All of the samples were assessed using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Serum iron levels were determined by a Roche/Hitachi/Modular analyzer. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS-PC (Version 21.00) software. Results Hair zinc (p < 0.05) and serum iron (p < 0.001) levels of infants were significantly decreased towards the end of the first year. Infants’ serum copper levels were increased towards the end of the first year. Maternal serum and hair copper levels and serum iron levels were significantly decreased towards the end of the first year. There were no significant correlations between dietary zinc, copper, iron intake, and trace element levels of infants and their mothers. Conclusions Infants’ hair zinc levels, maternal and infants’ hair copper levels, and infants’ and maternal serum iron levels declined towards the end of the first year. Infants need more zinc after 6 months of age. Infants’ and mothers’ daily iron intake was less than the recommended intake.
... The prevalence of this variation may explain the susceptibility of some premature and term infants to disturbances in growth and disease that have been attributed to insufficient Zn intake [18]. Collectively, this affords the novel insight that polymorphic variants in ZnT2 may contribute to unexplained variation in the composition and quality of breast milk [19]. ...
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The zinc (Zn) transporter ZnT2 (SLC30A2) is expressed in specialized secretory cells including breast, pancreas and prostate, and imports Zn into mitochondria and vesicles. Mutations in SLC30A2 substantially reduce milk Zn concentration ([Zn]) and cause severe Zn deficiency in exclusively breastfed infants. Recent studies show that ZnT2-null mice have low milk [Zn], in addition to profound defects in mammary gland function during lactation. Here, we used breast milk [Zn] to identify novel non-synonymous ZnT2 variants in a population of lactating women. We also asked whether specific variants induce disturbances in intracellular Zn management or cause cellular dysfunction in mammary epithelial cells. Healthy, breastfeeding women were stratified into quartiles by milk [Zn] and exonic sequencing of SLC30A2 was performed. We found that 36 % of women tested carried non-synonymous ZnT2 variants, all of whom had milk Zn levels that were distinctly above or below those in women without variants. We identified 12 novel heterozygous variants. Two variants (D(103)E and T(288)S) were identified with high frequency (9 and 16 %, respectively) and expression of T(288)S was associated with a known hallmark of breast dysfunction (elevated milk sodium/potassium ratio). Select variants (A(28)D, K(66)N, Q(71)H, D(103)E, A(105)P, Q(137)H, T(288)S and T(312)K) were characterized in vitro. Compared with wild-type ZnT2, these variants were inappropriately localized, and most resulted in either 'loss-of-function' or 'gain-of-function', and altered sub-cellular Zn pools, Zn secretion, and cell cycle check-points. Our study indicates that SLC30A2 variants are common in this population, dysregulate Zn management and can lead to breast cell dysfunction. This suggests that genetic variation in ZnT2 could be an important modifier of infant growth/development and reproductive health/disease. Importantly, milk [Zn] level may serve as a bio-reporter of breast function during lactation.
Article
Objective To assess the within‐subject and between‐subject coefficients of variation (CV) of iron, zinc and copper concentrations in the milk of Guatemalan mothers. Methods We performed a cross‐sectional study in lactating women who had delivered a healthy infant 1 to 6 months previously in two low‐income peri‐urban areas (San Bartolomé Milpas Altas and Ciudad Peronia) and a low‐income rural area (San Juan Chamelco) in Guatemala. Women infested with Ascaris lumbricoides or Trichuris trichiura received a single dose of albendazole (400 mg) or placebo. Two weeks after treatment, milk samples were collected on 3 or 4 consecutive days. Trace element concentrations in milk were measured by inductively coupled plasma/atomic emission spectrometry. Results The instrumental error of the inductively coupled plasma/atomic emission spectrometry method, expressed as SD, was 0.04, 0.27 and 0.02 mg/L for iron, zinc and copper, respectively. Concentrations in milk samples collected from 47 mothers on 3 or 4 consecutive days, expressed as mean ± SD, were 0.28 ± 0.13, 2.03 ± 0.37 and 0.29 ± 0.07 mg/L for iron, zinc and copper, respectively. The within‐subject CV was 46.1%, 18.2%, and 22.8% and the between‐subject CV was 61.2%, 48.3% and 31.7% for iron, zinc and copper, respectively. Stage of lactation, infestation with intestinal parasites and residential area had a significant influence on milk zinc, copper and iron concentrations. Conclusions One sample of milk is sufficient to give a reliable estimate of the zinc concentration in milk. Two samples taken on consecutive days are required for a reliable estimate of iron and copper concentrations.
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https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0946672X24000130?dgcid=author under this link is a free access to the publication up to the March 2024
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Objective Preterm infants have high zinc (Zn) requirements and are generally believed to be in a negative Zn balance in the early period of life. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effect of high-dose Zn supplementation in very low birth weight (VLBW: infants with birth weight < 1.5 kg) infants on feeding intolerance and development of mortality and/or morbidities including necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) and late-onset sepsis (LOS). Study Design This is a prospective randomized trial. VLBW preterm infants with gestational age of <32 weeks were randomly allocated on the seventh day of life to receive extra amount of supplemental Zn along with the enteral feedings (9 + 3 mg), besides regular low-dose supplementation (3 mg), from enrollment until discharge. Outcome measures were feeding intolerance, NEC (stage ≥ 2), LOS, and mortality. Results A total of 195 infants (97 from study group and 98 from control group) were analyzed. A total of 46 (47.4%) infants in the study group and 64 (65.3%) infants in the control group ended up with feeding intolerance (p = 0.012). NEC was observed in 11 infants (11.2%) in the control group and only 1 infant (1%) in the study group (p = 0.003). There was a negative correlation between high-dose Zn supplementation and number of culture-proven LOS episodes (p = 0.041). This significance was also present for clinical sepsis, being higher in the control group (p = 0.029). No relationship between high-dose Zn supplementation and mortality and other morbidities (hemodynamically significant patent ductus arteriosus, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, retinopathy of prematurity, and severe intraventricular hemorrhage) was observed. Conclusion Zn supplementation for VLBW infants is found to be effective to decrease feeding intolerance, NEC, and LOS episodes in this vulnerable population. Current data support the supplementation of VLBW infants with higher than regular dose of Zn. Key Points
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Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA) derived Dietary Reference Values (DRVs) for copper. Owing to the absence of appropriate biomarkers of copper status and the limitations of available balance studies, the Panel was unable to derive Average Requirements (ARs) and Population Reference Intakes (PRIs). Hence, Adequate Intakes (AIs) were defined based on mean observed intakes in several European Union (EU) countries, given that there is no evidence of overt copper deficiency in the European population. Data from balance studies were used as supportive evidence. For adults, AIs of 1.6 mg/day for men and 1.3 mg/day for women are proposed. For children, AIs are 0.7 mg/day for children aged 1 to < 3 years, 1 mg/day for children aged 3 to < 10 years, and 1.3 and 1.1 mg/day for boys and girls aged 10 to < 18 years, respectively. For infants aged 7–11 months, based on mean observed intakes in four EU countries, an AI of 0.4 mg/day is proposed, which is supported by upwards extrapolation of estimated copper intake in exclusively breast-fed infants. For pregnant women, an increment of 0.2 mg/day is estimated to cover the amount of copper deposited in the fetus and the placenta over the course of pregnancy and in anticipation of the needs for lactation, and for lactating women the same increment is estimated to cover the amount of copper secreted with breast milk. Thus, for pregnant and lactating women, the Panel derived an AI of 1.5 mg/day.
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Amaç: Demir tüm canlıların büyüme ve gelişmesi için son derece önemli olan bir elementtir. Özellikle ilk 6 aylık dönemde infantlar için tek demir kaynağı anne sütü olduğundan anne sütünün demir konsantrasyonu ve buna etki eden faktörleri belirlemek önemlidir. Bu çalışmada annenin demir durumunun, hepsidin düzeyinin ve anne sütüne geçen demir miktarı üzerine etkisi araştırılmıştır. Materyal–Metod: Bu çalışma Mayıs 2013 Kasım 2013 tarihleri arasında Erciyes Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi Çocuk Hastanesine başvuran bebeklerin annelerinden süt ve kan örnekleri alınarak yapıldı. Çalışmada herhangi bir sağlık problemi olmayan, yaşları 18 ile 36 arasında değişen, laktasyonun 15. gün ile 18. ay arasında olan ve matür bebek doğuran toplam 240 anneden, 08.00-12.00 saatleri arasında süt ve kan numuneleri alındı. Bulgular: Çalışma grubu hemoglobin, serum demir ve ferritin düzeylerinin normal ve düşük oluşuna göre alt gruplara ayrıldı. Annelerin 194 ünün (%80.8) hemoglobin değeri normal, 46 sının (%19.2) düşük bulundu. Serum demir düzeyine göre sınıflandırıldığında 170 annenin (% 70.8) demir düzeyininin normal, 70 annenin (% 29.2) düşük olduğu tespit edildi. Ferritin düzeylerine göre değerlendirildiğinde 140 annenin (% 58.3) ferritin düzeyinin normal,100 annenin (% 41.7) ferritin düzeyinin düşük olduğu görüldü. Hemoglobin, serum demir ve ferritin ile anne sütü demir konsantrasyonu arasında bir ilişki görülmedi. Hepsidin ile anne sütü demiri arasında pozitif bir korelasyonun olduğu dikkat çekti. Hemoglobin, serum demir ve ferritin düzeylerine göre ayrılan grupların anne sütü demir konsantrasyonları benzer bulundu. Hepsidin düzeyi yüksek olan grubun anne sütü demir konsantrasyonunun daha yüksek olduğu tespit edildi. Sonuç: Annenin demir durumu anne sütüne geçen demir düzeyini etkilemez. Hepsidin yalnızca intestinal demir emiliminde değil aynı zamanda meme dokusunda da demir regülasyonundan sorumlu olan ve süte demir geçişinde etkili olan bir hormondur
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A fast procedure to determine 27Al, 53Cr, 55Mn, 57Fe, 60Ni, 65Cu, 64Zn, 66Zn, 78Se, 82Se, 112Cd, 114Cd, 206Pb, 208Pb, 138Ba, 51V, 59Co, and 75As in Brazilian human milk by quadrupole inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (Q-ICP-MS) is proposed. Mature and colostrum human milk samples were mineralized using closed-pressurized and high-performance microwave (MW) oven digestion. Aqueous calibration was performed with an r2 higher than 0.99 for all isotopes investigated. A reference material, Infant Formula (NIST SRM 1846), was analyzed to test the accuracy of the proposed methodology. In addition, recovery assays were carried out to check the interference effects. Recoveries ranged between 80.8% and 110.9%. The precision of the method, expressed as a relative standard deviation (RSD), was better than 3.4% for all analytes investigated. Precision and accuracy of the method show that it is useful for the intended purpose.
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The composition of breast milk is influenced by many factors, some of which dependent on the mother and others on the child. Changes in lactation and other factors depending on the mother’s physiology and anthropometric characteristics, as well as her nutritional status and diet, are of key importance. Breast milk minerals have been extensively studied with highly uneven results. In this work, a comparison will made with data across the world. To understand the factors that might explain the disparity, several minerals (Na, K, Ca, P, Mg, Fe, Se and I) have been analyzed using ICP-MS in a set of human milk samples (n = 75). The samples had an identical geographical origin (Galicia, in northwestern Spain) but different lactation circumstances, including maternal anthropometric data, lactating time, newborn sex and maternal adherence to healthy dietary patterns (Mediterranean Diet, MD, or Atlantic Diet, AD). The required concentrations of essential elements reported in the literature are similar to those found in these Spanish women. A univariate approach revealed that factors such as lactating time, body mass index (BMI) and newborn sex have a significant influence in breastmilk mineral content. According to multivariate linear regression analysis, minerals in milk are particularly associated with lactating time, but also with newborn sex, maternal BMI, age and diet pattern in some cases. More precisely, these results suggest that the iron and selenium concentrations in the milk of Galician donors may be positively influenced by maternal adherence to AD and MD, respectively.
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Following a request from the European Commission, the Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies derived Dietary Reference Values (DRVs) for iron. These include Average Requirement (AR) and Population Reference Intake (PRI). For adults, whole-body iron losses were modelled using data from US adults. Predicted absorption values, at a serum ferritin concentration of 30 µg/L, of 16 % for men and 18 % for women were used to convert physiological requirements to dietary iron intakes. In men, median whole-body iron losses are 0.95 mg/day, and the AR is 6 mg/day. The PRI, calculated as the dietary requirement at the 97.5th percentile, is 11 mg/day. For postmenopausal women, the same DRVs as for men are proposed. In premenopausal women, additional iron is lost through menstruation but, because losses are highly skewed, the Panel set a PRI of 16 mg/day to cover requirements of 95 % of the population. In infants and children, requirements were calculated factorially, taking into consideration the needs for growth, replacement of losses and percentage iron absorption from the diet (10 % up to 11 years and 16 % thereafter). PRIs were estimated using a coefficient of variation of 20 %. They are 11 mg/day in infants (7–11 months), 7 mg/day in children aged 1–6 years and 11 mg/day in children aged 7–11 years and boys aged 12–17 years. For girls aged 12–17 years, the PRI of 13 mg/day is the midpoint of the calculated dietary requirement of 97.5 % of girls and the PRI for premenopausal women; this approach allows for the large uncertainties in the rate and timing of pubertal growth and menarche. For pregnant and lactating women, for whom it was assumed that iron stores and enhanced absorption provide sufficient additional iron, DRVs are the same as for premenopausal women.
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The aim of our research was the examination of breast-milk composition from mothers living in the Csík region and to follow their milk composition variations during lactation. In this article we present the results obtained from three mothers, paying particular attention to essential components. The breast milk samples were collected from healthy mothers with similar habits and age. The milk samples were collected with a hand pump at thesame time after the feeding. The sampling period was from day 5 to the 14th weeks of lactation. The nutrition of mothers was recorded on a questionnaire, completed by the mothers themselves. Comparing our experimental results with data in the literature it was concluded that the milk protein content was very similar to the milk of mothers from other European countries, and is decreased during lactation.The total saturated fatty acid content was lower, but the palmitic acid content was slightly higher. Regarding the essential fatty acid composition the linoleic- and the arachidonic acid contents were appropriate from a nutritional point of view. The linolenic acid was present in lower amounts, but the docosahexanoic acid was almost undetectable.The iron and manganese contents were in good agreemen with published results, but the zinc content of the breast milk was lower and its copper content was higher. These differences in milk composition can be explained by the different nutritional habits of our subjects.
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Zusammenfassung Frühgeborene haben ein erhöhtes Risiko, einen Zinkmangel zu erleiden, da bedingt durch die fehlende intrauterine Reifung die Zinkspeicher in der Leber nicht gefüllt werden können. Bei einem eutrophen weiblichen Frühgeborenen von 25+5 Schwangerschaftswochen zeigten sich ab dem 14. Lebenstag ein perinealer und perianaler „Dekubitus“. Zahlreiche lokale Therapieversuche blieben erfolglos. Die Diagnostik erbrachte einen erniedrigten Serum-Zinkspiegel, sodass mit einer Substitution begonnen wurde. Bereits nach wenigen Tagen begannen die Defekte zu heilen und waren nach drei Wochen vollständig abgeheilt. Trotz regulären Nahrungsaufbaus mit Formula-Nahrung war der Zinkbedarf in diesem Fall vermutlich aufgrund unvollständiger Resorption nicht gedeckt worden. Der Fall macht auf eine latente Unterversorgung von Frühgeborenen mit Zink aufmerksam und unterstreicht die Notwendigkeit von Kontrollen, besonders bei entsprechenden Hautsymptomen.
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Nutrients of concern when vegetarian diets are analyzed for adequacy include: protein, iron, calcium, zinc, iodine, riboflavin, vitamin B-12 and vitamin D. With careful planning it is possible for a lacto-ovo-vegetarian to meet or exceed the dietary requirement for all nutrients. Since vitamin B-12 is found only in animal products, very strict vegetarians cannot meet their vitamin B-12 requirement through diet. In this review, the effect of diet on breast milk composition will be examined with particular emphasis on those nutrients likely to be inadequate in vegetarian diets. In addition, the effect of dietary fat on the composition of breast milk will be considered.
Chapter
Iron deficiency anemia is common during infancy and childhood. In some developing countries, the incidence has been reported to be as high as 60–80%1. The effects of this iron deficiency are several; immune function is impaired and recent reports suggest many non-hematological manifestations including changes in level of catecholamines and impairment of carbohydrate and energy metabolism. Prolonged deficiency may affect brain function and learning ability2,3. Breast-feeding has traditionally been thought to protect against iron deficiency anemia. The occurrence of iron deficiency in breast-fed infants in Finland was nil at 4 months of age, while that of infants fed an unsupplemented formula was 4%4. However, the iron provided by breast milk is not sufficient indefinitely. At 9 months of age a similar incidence of anemia, 4%, was observed in breast-fed while at 12 months of age 7% of the breast-fed and 4% of the formula-fed infants were iron deficient. In addition, Siimes et al.5 have shown that although anemia was not found in breast-fed infants at 9 months of age, they had a higher incidence of iron deficiency than iron-supplemented infants. In the U.S. anemia in infancy is uncommon, possibly due to the frequency of breastfeeding and/or the feeding of iron-supplemented formula. Duncan et al.6 have shown adequate iron status of exclusively breast-fed U.S. infants at 6 months of age.
Article
Objectives: Vitamin A (VA) is an essential micronutrient required for a range of biological functions throughout life. VA deficiency (VAD) claims an estimated 1 million preschool children's lives annually. Human milk is enriched with VA (retinol) from the maternal blood, which originates from the hepatic reserve and dietary intake. Secreting retinol into milk will benefit the nursing infant through breast milk, but retaining retinol is also important for the maternal health. Previous studies found that the public health intervention of high-dose VA supplementation to lactating mothers did not significantly lower child mortality. The World Health Organization (WHO) recently acknowledged that our understanding about the principle of VA allocation within the maternal system and the secretion into milk is too incomplete to devise an effective intervention. Methods: We present a secondary analysis of data collected among lactating mothers in VAD endemic northern Kenya (n = 171), examining nutritional, inflammatory, and ecological factors that might associate with maternal retinol allocation. Regression models were applied using the outcome milk-retinol allocation index: milk retinol/(milk retinol + serum retinol). Results: Ten percent of the sample was identified as VAD. The average milk retinol concentration was 0.1 μmo/L, grossly below what is considered minimally necessary for an infant (1 μmol/L). VAD mothers and mothers with inflammation did not seem to compromise their milk retinol even though their serum retinol was lower than non-VAD and noninflammation mothers. Breast milk fat concentration positively correlated with milk retinol but not with serum retinol. Conclusions: This exploratory study contributes toward an understanding of maternal retinol allocation.
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Zinc is essential for a wide variety of cellular processes in all cells. It is a critical dietary nutrient, particularly in the early stages of life. In the early neonatal period, adequate sources of zinc can be obtained from breast milk. In rare circumstances, the mammary gland produces zinc deficient milk that is potentially lethal for exclusively breast-fed infants. This can be overcome by zinc supplementation to the infant. Alterations to key zinc transporters provide insights into the mechanisms of cellular zinc homeostasis. The bioavailability of zinc in food depends on the presence of constituents that may complex zinc. In many countries, zinc deficiency is a major health issue due to poor nourishment. Young children are particularly affected. Zinc deficiency can impair immune function and contributes to the global burden of infectious diseases including diarrhoea, pneumonia and malaria. Furthermore, zinc deficiency may extend its effects across generations by inducing epigenetic effects that alter the expression of genes. This review discusses the significance of adequate zinc nutrition in infants, factors that influence zinc nutrition, the consequences of zinc deficiency, including its contribution to the global burden of disease and addresses some of the knowledge gaps in zinc biology.
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Lactation provides many health benefits to the nursing infant and breastfeeding mother. In order to successfully breastfeed, the mammary gland must expand and differentiate to activate numerous processes that regulate milk production and secretion. This involves a complex series of molecular, biochemical and cellular events driven largely by lactogenic hormones. Recent advances implicate zinc as a critical modulator of mammary gland function. Here, we provide an overview of our current understanding of the role and regulation of zinc in promoting proliferation, differentiation and secretion in the mammary gland during lactation, and highlight critical gaps in knowledge.
Chapter
Let us remind ourselves at this point once again: The discussion regarding a rise in the production of staple foods is focused on providing sustenance, in other words calories, and not high-quality, nutritious food for the world’s growing population. The goal is to avoid potential famines. The guiding principle is that no person should starve. Persons whose hunger is satisfied in this manner still find themselves in a state of undernourishment and susceptible or ‘sensitive’ to starvation in the words of the FAO, the WHO, and other organizations. Sensitive means that a sudden drop in calories could lead to death by starvation.
Chapter
The primary dietary sources of zinc are red meats, seafood, and cereals (Welsh and Marston, 1983). The zinc content of raw vegetables, legumes, cereals, and even meat is not retained after cooking and the availability of zinc in various foods may be adversely affected by ligands such as phytate. Because of the above, it is difficult to estimate the actual absorbed amounts of zinc solely on the basis of zinc as calculated from food tables.
Chapter
Although a decline in breast-feeding has been evident in many industrialized countries during the last decades, human milk is a major source of nutrition for the infant in most parts of the world. The many benefits provided by human milk, beyond being a source of nutrients, are now well-recognized. Components with physiological activity include immunoglobulins (especially secretory IgA), enzymes (such as lipases and lysozyme), growth factors and oligosaccharides with anti-adhesive function (inhibiting attachment of bacteria). Having recognized the significance of human milk in providing nutrition and functional components to the growing and vulnerable infant, it is logical to be concerned about the possibility that poor maternal nutrition may compromise the quantity and quality of human milk. Furthermore, if milk yield and composition can be affected by maternal nutrition, will dietary supplementation of the mother overcome any shortcomings? Such information will aid in designing effective relief programs in areas of poor nutrition and in nutrition counseling to less educated and poor mothers in areas of otherwise adequate food supply.
Article
The aim of this research was to determine the levels of serum zinc in a rural population under 15 years old, in Lara State, Venezuela, in order to know the deficiencies of this oligoelement and start the nutritional intervention by the involved organizations. The sample was made up of 310 subjects (M: 163; F: 147) under 15 years old, with an average age of 86.39 months. The serum zinc was measured by atomic absortion spectrophotometry. The serum zinc level was 0.83 ± 0.18 μg/ml. Deficiency of zinc (values = 0.72 μg/ml) was presented in 19.7% of the subjects; the most affected were those under two years old. Likewise, the highest percentage of zinc deficiency was observed in subjects with nutritional deficit followed by those that had a normal nutritional condition. By splitting the group of subjects with zinc deficiencies by age and nutritional condition, it was observed that 55.6% of those under two years old had a normal nutritional condition and the remaining 44.4% showed nutritional deficiency. Meanwhile, more than 70% of the subjects with zinc deficiency belonging to the groups aged 2-6 and 7-14 showed a normal nutritional condition. All the subjects with nutritional deficit belonged to families living in extreme poverty. Due to the negative consecuences that imply the lack of zinc, it is necessary to make a more accurate diagnosis of its deficiency through indirect methods like the zinc tolerance test or oral supplementation of zinc, in order to identify population with risk of zinc deficiencies. Likewise, to start intervention programs with this oligoelement, especially in the vulnerable child population like the one studied.
Article
The response of breast milk to maternal supplementation with vitamins and essential trace elements is a fundamentally different problem from that of the passage of drugs into milk after being given to the mother. By definition, milk must contain all the essential trace nutrients, because they are essential for the survival and development of infants. In the course of evolution, the control mechanisms have arisen ensuring that, in nearly all instances, milk contains sufficient of these nutrients to meet the minimum requirements of infants. Nutrients are often transported into milk at the expense of depleting maternal tissues if maternal intakes are low and maternal nutrient status is consequently poor. Conversely, mechanisms have also arisen, for at least some of the nutrients, which ensure that excessive amounts do not appear in the milk when the maternal intake is very high. It is therefore important to define whether the purpose of maternal supplementation is to correct the deficiency in the mother's tissues or to improve the status of her infant. The effect of supplementation often depends on the status of the mother beforehand. If it is poor, and the milk nutrient level is lower than normal, a small increment in maternal intake will often correct it. If maternal status is already good, additional amounts of a nutrient given to the mother may have little effect on milk concentrations. For some nutrients, such as selenium, iodine, fluorine, vitamins D, and K, very large doses to the mother can produce a substantial increase in breast-milk concentration.
Article
The vitamin and mineral content of mature breast milk from 54 Saudi mothers was examined. All measurements of vitamins A, E, B, and B2 in milk were determined by HPLC. Minerals were determined by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry. The mean vitamin A concentration in milk was 82.01 ± 35.9 μg/100 ml. Milk vitamin E, B1 and B2 concentrations were 0.84 ± 0.70, 0.027 ± 0.005 and 0.02 ± 0.003 mg/100 ml respectively. Ca, Mg, Na, K, Fe, Cu and Zn contents (Mean ± SD) were 487.5 + 62.43, 44.80 ± 5.43, 145.2 ± 53.54, 391.5 ± 83.81, 0.82 + 0.38, 1.32 ± 0.60 and 1.25 ± 0.46 μg/ml respectively. Maternal age had no effect on Ca, Mg, K, Na, Fe, Cu and Zn contents of breast milk. Calcium level in breast milk increased as parity increased. Potassium was reduced significantly (P < 0.05) in breast milk of mothers with more than 8 children. On the other hand, parity had no significant influence on Mg, Na, Fe, Cu and Zn.
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Compositon of human milk was studied during the feed in six women, through-out the day in one woman on 3 consecutive days and in three women on 39 occasions during established lactation. The total lipid content varied in the course of suckling as well as diurnally in a regular and predictable manner, but the fatty acid composition of the lipid remained constant and was similar in the subjects examined. Fatty acid pattern of milk lipid of one woman supplementing her diet with unsaturated fats was studied. The changes in the milk lipid compostion, induced by the altered diet, are discussed in relation to the mechanism of milk fat synthesis. The described changes in milk composition are specific and may be physiologically significant. The composition of lipid in milk of mothers on adequate and balanced diet shows only limited fluctuations forming a species-specific pattern. The variations that occur in extreme dietary conditions (malnutrition, undernutrition, supplementation) are not random and can be predicted.
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PIP The effects of mineral intake and long-term oral contraceptive use before pregnancy on the mineral content of milk of healthy lactating women were evaluated in a study of 52 volunteers ages 18-31. Subjects reporting previous oral contraceptive use had significantly lower levels of copper in serum, perhaps reflecting reduced copper stores resulting from prolonged estrogen exposure, but concomitant changes in copper levels in their milk were not noted. Serum calcium and magnesium levels were not significantly affected by prior pill use. Pill use had no significant effect on concentrations of calcium, magnesium, zinc, copper, or iron in colostrum at day 3 or more mature milk at day 14 of lactation, while mean manganese levels were significantly lower at both times for previous oral contraceptive users (but still exceeded manganese levels recommended for infants). Mineral and vitamin supplementation significantly improved the levels of zinc and iron intake, but did not appreciably alter the mineral content of milk. Higher levels of zinc were found in colostrum compared to day 14 milk, while manganese concentrations increased significantly during the 1st 2 weeks of lactation. Calcium, magnesium, iron and copper levels did not change significantly as lactation progressed. Levels of calcium, magnesium, zinc, copper, and manganese in colostrum were significantly positively correlated with the mineral concentration on day 14. No significant diurnal or daily variation was observed in the levels of calcium, magnesium, or zinc content in milk during 2 24-hour periods.
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The contents of total nitrogen, nonprotein nitrogen, lactose, and individual milk proteins have been determined in human milk from well-nourished Swedish mothers. Breast milk samples from 50 mothers at different stages of lactation (up to 170 days) were collected. Furthermore, three mothers gave samples repeatedly throughout the whole lactation period. The protein content in mature milk was found to be 0.8 to 0.9% by amino acid analysis. The nitrogen content and the contents of the major human milk whey proteins, alpha-lactalbumin and lactoferrin, are very high for the first few days, then decrease rapidly and reach, thereafter, the more slowly declining level of mature milk. Nonprotein nitrogen and the nonspecific milk protein serum albumin are present in constant concentrations throughout lactation. The daily milk volumes were determined and found to be 500 to 600 ml in the very early part and 700 to 800 ml in the later part of the lactation period.
Article
Some factors related to the milk consumption and total dietary intake of twenty-two complete or partially breast-fed infants are described.
Article
An investigation of the amount and variability of protein, fat and mineral contents of human milk samples representative of the beginning and end of a single nursing was undertaken. As the nursing period progressed, human milk protein content tended to increase but in a less significant degree than the fat content. Variations in calcium, sodium and most strikingly in iron contents of human milk during a single nursing were observed. Human milk magnesium, potassium, copper and zinc contents do not appear to fluctuate from the beginning to and end of a feeding. Results from this investigation stress the need for investigators to fully describe conditions associated with human milk compositional studies.
Article
A method for the analysis of soil extracts and plant tissue ash solutions is described using a direct reading plasma emission spectrometer. The instrument is programed for 16 elements and is capable of determining the elemental content in prepared solutions at a very rapid rate and at sensitivity levels equal to or better than that obtained using the atomic absorption technique.
Article
Vuori, E. and Kuitunen, P. (Department of Public Health Science and Children's Hospital, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland). The concentrations of copper and zinc in human milk—a longitudinal study. Acta Pædiatr Scand, 68: 33, 1979.—Twenty-seven healthy Finnish mothers were followed during the course of their entire lactation period. A total of 229 individual milk samples, collected in the beginning and at the end of each feed during a 24-h period, were obtained from the 2nd week to the 9th month of lactation. The copper and zinc concentrations were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The concentrations of the trace-elements investigated were dependent on the stage of lactation. The median copper and zinc concentrations decreased during the course of lactation from about 0.60 mgyl and 4.0 mg/l to 0.25 mg/l and 0.5 mg/l, respectively. The importance of considering the stage of lactation in the evaluation of the trace-element nutrition value of breast milk should be emphasized. The calculated means of the concentrations of these trace-elements in mature human milk presented in the literature seem to overestimate the actual levels in prolonged lactation.
Article
Milk samples from 33 women from a rural area of the Ivory Coast were analyzed once a month. In two longitudinal studies covering 23 months of breast feeding, analyses of lipid components and protein were performed. The compositions remained virtually constant over 23 months of lactation except for a decrease of protein concentration during the first 6 months, a rising trend of myristic acid (14:0) and a falling trend of oleic acid (18:1). Infants were growing well on breast milk with nothing else for the first 5 months, but thereafter their growth curves were no longer satisfactory as judged by Western standards: weight for age (percentage of Harvard standards) decreased from 5 to 10 months of age to level off thereafter at a value of 80%. The mothers' weight for height remained constant. In a cross-sectional study, additional determinations were performed: aminograms, lactose, calories, iron, copper, manganese, zinc, and vitamin E. All data were compared with those of the literature. Lauric (12:0) and myristic (14:0) acids were higher, total lipids and polyunsaturated fatty acids lower than those published for Western countries. Plasma composition of the mothers showed lower levels of albumin, lipids, and polyunsaturated fatty acids as well as blood hemoglobin. Possible correlations between various variables such as milk composition, plasma levels, and anthropometry were calculated and discussed.
Article
Thirty-eight lactating women, from 1 to 31 months postpartum, provided monthly milk samples for determination of calcium, magnesium, manganese, copper, iron, and zinc. Subjects remained in the study an average of 4 consecutive months, with a maximum participation of 9 months. Subject variation accounted for the majority of variance in the raw data. After statistically controlling subject effect, copper, iron, and zinc levels were shown to be significantly related to duration of lactation. Prediction equations for these three minerals were developed, making it possible to calculate, on an individual basis, the copper, iron, and zinc levels of milk to be produced in future months. Data were also collected to determine possible correlations between breast milk mineral levels and the maternal dietary intake, serum levels, or hair concentration of these same minerals. No significant correlation was found between the milk mineral content and any of the three parameters under study.
Article
Twenty-seven healthy Finnish mothers were followed during the course of their entire lactation period. A total of 229 individual milk samples, collected in the beginning and at the end of each feed during a 24-h period, were obtained from the 2nd week to the 9th month of lactation. The copper and zinc concentrations were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The concentrations of the trace-elements investigated were dependent on the stage of lactation. The median copper and zinc concentrations decreased during the course of lactation from about 0.60 mg/l and 4.0 mg/l to 0.25 mg/l and 0.5 mg/l, respectively. The importance of considering the stage of lactation in the evaluation of the trace-element nutrition value of breast milk should be emphasized. The calculated means of the concentrations of these trace-elements in mature human milk presented in the literature seem to overestimate the actual levels in prolonged lactation.
Article
The present investigation is the first longitudinal study of the concentration of iron in breast milk and is based on 229 milk samples obtained from 27 mothers during their period of lactation up to 9 months. The samples were collected at the beginning and at the end of each feed during a 24-h period to reflect as accurately as possible the actual concentration of iron. The median value declined during the course of lactation from 0.6 to 0.3 mg/l with a large range of values. The results indicate that the concentration is lower than is generally stated or is unusually low in Finnish mothers. As a consequence some infants may require iron supplementation during prolonged breast feeding although in general, the high bioavailability of breast milk iron prevents the development of iron deficiency.
Article
Daily, weekly, and within day variations in copper, iron, and zinc contents of human milk were investigated in order to determine whether one sample from an individual is representative of these elements. Total solids, fat, and protein contents were also measured. Fifty women in their 6th to 12th week of lactation each provided seven milk samples consisting of five consecutive daily samples and two additional samples collected either within a single day or at weekly intervals. Fat varied the most of all constituents and total milk solids reflected this variability. Values ranged from 0.2 to 10.4 g/100 ml for fat and from 8.58 to 17.49 g/100 ml for total solids. Protein varied from 0.76 to 2.04 g/100 ml among individuals, with little variation within an individual. Copper content varied considerably among women and within the same woman. With a large proportion of low values, the range was 0.09 to 0.63 μg/ml. Iron content was also found to vary within women as well as among women. Values ranged from < 0.1 to 1.6 μg/ml with a preponderance of low values. Zinc content was more evenly distributed over the range 0.14 to 3.95 μg/ml, and within an individual it did not vary widely. A representative estimate of copper and iron contents would therefore require multiple samples, whereas only one sample may provide a representative estimate of zinc content. Comparison of morning, midday, and evening values showed that copper and zinc are higher in the morning and iron is lower at this time. Increased amounts of copper, iron, and zinc were found in multiparous women whether or not they had previously lactated. Milk from older women had lower iron and higher copper and zinc contents than that from younger women. No differences were found in milk of women receiving dietary mineral and vitamin supplements. Calculations indicated that fully breast fed infants under 3 months of age receive approximately 0.35 mg/kg per day of zinc and 0.05 mg/kg per day of both copper and iron.
Article
Infant formula foods, such as evaporated milk, modified milk, and formulas containing lamb meat and soya flour, were collected quarterly from the Cincinnati, Ohio, market. Human milk from 13 mothers residing in the cincinnati area was collected during April and May 1968. They were analyzed for Cd, Cu, Fe, Pb, Mn, and Zn by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Averaged elements in various formulas including evaporated milk and human milk as ppm were: Cd, 0.020 to 0.042; Cu, 0.024 to 1.49; Fe, 0.84 to 19.1; Pb, 0.012 to 0.87; Mn, 0.12 to 2.68; and Zn, 1.34 to 8.60. Human milk and formulas containing milk base had least Cd, Cu, Mn, and Pb; evaporated milk, however, had the most Pb. Formulas containing soya flour and lamb meat products were high in trace elements.
Article
Breast milk iron concentrations from Malaysian women taken on the second postpartum day were comparable with those reported from Finland. The present study did not find any correlation between the total iron-binding capacity (TIBC) of milk whey, presumed to be rich in lactoferrin, and the whole milk iron concentrations. On the average, about 30% of the whey iron-binding proteins were saturated with iron. Again, the correlation between the milk iron values and plasma iron or plasma TIBC is not statistically proven. There were no significant differences in the haemoglobin, haematocrit, reticulocyte count, plasma iron and whey TIBC obtained from Malaysian parturient women of the 3 major ethnic groups, viz. Chinese, Malays and Indians. However, the plasma TIBC was significantly lower in Malay women and the milk iron content lower in Chinese women.
Article
The composition of human milk from mothers delivering prematurely (PT) and at term (T) was studied over the first weeks of lactation. Complete 24 h milk expressions were obtained by electric pump at weekly or biweekly intervals through 44 wk conceptual age (120 samples from 20 PT mothers and 28 samples from 7 T mothers). PT milk was found to contain significantly higher concentrations than T milk of the following nutrients: total nitrogen, protein nitrogen, sodium, chloride, magnesium and iron. No differences were found between T and PT milk for nonprotein nitrogen, volume, solids, total calories, lactose, fat, fatty acids, potassium or calcium. The nutrients supplied to a 33 wk preterm infant fed 200 ml/kg/day of "average" PT milk were in excess of theoretic intrauterine requirements for all substrates except calcium and phosphorus. PT human milk is theoretically more suitable for the premature infant than either mature or term human milk, but may be deficient in specific nutrients for the very low birth weight baby.
Article
Copper, zinc, and magnesium contents were determined in samples of breast milk obtained from 412 women in a low income group, from 100 women in a high income group of an urban population, and from 22 women from a low income group living in a rural area. Paired samples of milk and serum were collected from 152 women and the concentrations of copper and zinc in these two fluids were estimated. Copper levels fell from 0.46 microgram/ml in colostrum to 0.17 microgram/ml at 7 to 12 months of lactation; zince levels fell from 5.32 to 1.12 microgram/ml by 7 months. Magnesium level in colostrum was 40 micrograms/ml and reached a stable level of around 30 micrograms/ml in mature milk samples. Concentrations of copper and zinc in serum were not correlated with those in milk. Day to day and diurnal variations in the concentrations of these elements in milk were not significant indicating thereby that analysis of one sample provides satisfactory information of the trace element content in milk. There were no differences in the levels of these elements in milk between rural and urban low income groups of women. However significant differences were noted in the copper and zinc contents of milk of women from low and high income groups of the urban population, from the 1st to 3rd month of lactation.
Article
Milk and mineral intakes of twenty-six full term infants receiving human milk as their sole milk source were determined by "test weighing" and direct analyses of milk samples at months 1, 2 and 3 of lactation. Data indicate that volume of milk ingested ranged from 295 to 996 ml/day and mean intakes (606, 601, 626 ml/day at months 1, 2 and 3, respectively) are less than the often quoted 850 ml/day. Taking into account Swedish and Scottish data and that from the present investigation, it appears that typical human milk intakes are 500 to 800 ml/day. No relationship was observed between volume of intake and growth of infants. Ranges of intake for copper, iron, zinc, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium and chloride are comparable to values reported for these mineral intakes by both early and modern investigators even though different data collection techniques and analytical methods were employed.
Article
Fifteeen breast-feeding mothers who volunteered for a study of trace elements in human milk, kept two 7-day food records during the course of lactation. The 1st survey week ranged from 6 to 8 weeks and the 2nd survey week from 17 to 22 weeks postpartum. The milk samples submitted for analysis represented a sample of every feed during a period of 24 hr and contained foremilk and hindmilk in equal proportions. The 7-day food records were handled by a computing system to give an average daily food consumption and nutrient intake, but iron was the only trace element given by the system. In order to estimate the trace element intakes of the mothers, mixtures were prepared to represent the average daily food consumption. The trace element concentrations of the mixtures and milk samples were analyzed using the atomic absorption spectrophotometric method. The estimated average daily copper intake was 1.8 mg, the iron intake 16 mg, the manganese intake 5 mg, and the zinc intake 13 mg. The mean copper, iron, manganese, and zinc concentrations of the milk samples were 0.36 +/- 0.07 mg/liter, 0.40 +/- 0.10 mg/liter, 4.5 +/- 1.8 microgram/liter, and 1.89 +/- 0.74 mg/liter for the 1st survey week and 0.21 +/- 0.07 mg/liter, 0.29 +/- 0.09 mg/liter, 4.0 +/- 1.5 microgram/liter, and 0.72 +/- 0.44 mg/liter for the 2nd survey week. A significant positive correlation (P less than 0.01) was observed in the 2nd survey week between maternal manganese intake and the manganese content of human milk. The intake of copper, iron, and zinc, at the present level of intake, did not seem to affect the corresponding trace element levels in human milk.
Article
The distribution of iron among various fractions of human milk was determined by gel filtration, ultrafiltration, and atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Total iron varied between 0.26 and 0.73 microgram/ml; 1.5 to 46% of the iron was bound to the lipid fraction and 18 to 56% was found in a low molecular weight fraction. Only a small amount of iron was bound to lactoferrin, the major iron-binding protein of human milk; the iron saturation of this protein was found to be 1 to 4%, at the most. Thus, much less iron is bound to lactoferrin than earlier reported; this may be important in regard to the suggested role of this protein as a bacteriostatic agent. A correlation was found between iron and fat content during the course of a single nursing, but not between iron and lactoferrin.
Article
Age and weight were significantly correlated with intake of breast milk for completely but not for partially breast-fed infants (N = 22). The largest mean intakes of breast milk occurred in the early morning of the three days observed, although feedings showed an association with the interval since the previous feeding. Breast milk was the major source of food energy for all partially breast-fed infants, and intakes of breast milk in contiguous periods tended to be correlated. Intakes of protein and calcium averaged higher for partially breast-fed infants than for completely breast-fed infants. However, mean intakes of both groups were below the 1974 Recommended Dietary Allowances, although growth was within normal ranges.
Article
Meconium passed during the first 24 hours after birth was collected from 6 babies and analysed for iron, copper, and zinc. The intake and urinary and faecal excretion of the three metals were measured on another 10 babies, all breast-fed, over a three-day period at the end of the first week. Meconium contained an average of 1 7 mg./I00 g. iron and copper and 6 -5 mg./100 g. zinc. The concentration of all three metals was very variable in breast milk and there was no relation between the volume of milk secreted and its composition. All the babies were in negative iron balance: the faeces contained on the average more than 10 times as much iron as the food and the mean loss of iron from the baby's body amounted to 3 -6 mg. a day. Some of the babies were in negative and some in positive copper balance, but all except one were in negative zinc balance. They were losing more than i 00 of the body's total iron and zinc each day. It is not known how long these large negative balances continue, but possible explanations for them are discussed.
Longi- tudinal changes in the mineral content of human milk Rajalakshmi K, Srikantia 5G. Copper, zinc and magnesium content of breast milk of Indian women Consider-azioni sul contenuto di zinco, di rame e di ferro nd colostro e nd latte umano
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Vaughan LA, Weber CW, Kemberling SR.Longi- tudinal changes in the mineral content of human milk. Am J Clin Nuts l979;32:2301-5. 10. Rajalakshmi K, Srikantia 5G. Copper, zinc and magnesium content of breast milk of Indian women. Am J Clin Nutr l980;33:664-9. 1 1. Nassi L, Poggini G, Vecchi C, Galvan P. Consider-azioni sul contenuto di zinco, di rame e di ferro nd colostro e nd latte umano. Minerva Pediatr 1974;26:832-6.
Recommended di-etary allowances
  • Nat Sci
Nat Acad Sci-Natl Res Council. Recommended di-etary allowances. 9th ed. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 1980. by guest on July 15, 2011 www.ajcn.org Downloaded from
Breast-feeding, a commentary in celebration of the International Year of the Child
Considerazioni sul contenuto di zinco, di rame e di ferro nd colostro e nd latte umano.
  • Nassi
Concentrations of some trace elements in human and cows milk.
  • Casey