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The Psychological Effects of Moving and Living Overseas
Abstract
This study attempts to define distinctive attitudes and character traits found in American teenagers who have lived overseas in different locations for a considerable period of their lives. Such adolescents offer an extreme example of the risks and stresses of geographic relocation. Through the use of the Semantic Differential Technique and a sentence completion questionnaire, we compared the overseas adolescents with a group of high school students in the United States, matched with the overseas group for age, sex, socioeconomic status, and marital status of parents. Our findings suggest that the extent of geographic mobility, overseas residence, and sex significantly affect adolescent attitudes and personality patterns. The mobile overseas group reported less positive self concepts, greater insecurity about the future, less comfort and reliance on the support of interpersonal relationships, and less positive affect states.
... That is, individuals who have poor test scores following a family move, or those who do not graduate from high school at the appropriate pace, may actually rebound from the stress associated with a move and be no worse off than their immobile counterparts. In fact, the important life lessons learned from the move may actually increase the child's longer-term potential for educational and intellectual growth by increasing their independence and self-knowledge (Werkman et al. 1981). ...
... Some past research even suggests that residential mobility may increase a child's sense of autonomy and independence, as well as their open-mindedness to new situations (Werkman et al. 1981). Specifically, the children in the Werkman et al. (1981) study "saw their greatest strength to be intrapersonal (independence, self-knowledge) rather than interpersonal (getting along with others, making friends)" (p. ...
... Some past research even suggests that residential mobility may increase a child's sense of autonomy and independence, as well as their open-mindedness to new situations (Werkman et al. 1981). Specifically, the children in the Werkman et al. (1981) study "saw their greatest strength to be intrapersonal (independence, self-knowledge) rather than interpersonal (getting along with others, making friends)" (p. 655, italics in original). ...
Moving during childhood has typically been found to have negative effects on educational attainment. The loss of important social relationships is likely the cause. Many studies that examine the effect of residential mobility on education take a relatively short-term view by only looking at the effect for those no older than their late teens or early 20s. However, because many family moves are beneficial to children, in terms of improving their neighborhood or home environment, it is possible that the positive effects of family mobility do not appear until much later. I examine the effect of childhood residential mobility on educational attainment using the 1986 Canadian General Social Survey for individuals aged 25 and over. Results suggest that over the long run, residential mobility in childhood is beneficial for later educational attainment in that those who move between birth and age 15 are more likely to eventually graduate from high school than those who remain in the same community.
... Mobility and cross-cultural stress are associated with unresolved grief and loss in the MK, as well as deficiencies in intimate capacity (Powell, 1987;Salmon, 1987). Werkman et al. (1981) reported that mobile overseas teenagers rely less on the support of interpersonal relationships, and have a decreased ability to engage in intimate relationships than U.S. students. ...
... MKs who have attended 5 or fewer schools overseas were found to have greater 'Affective Quality in their Parent-Child' relationship than MKs who attended more than 6 schools. These findings extend Werkman et al. (1981) who found that mobile overseas teenagers have a decreased ability to engage in intimate relationships than U.S. students. The greater mobility may increase the stress within the family environment and decrease the affective quality in the home. ...
This study explored: (a) the differences between MKs and Non-MKs on measures of parental attachment, perceived social support, reverse culture shock and college adjustment; (b) within-group difference on the personality measures for MKs; and (c) the relations between the constructs of parental attachment, perceived social support, reverse culture shock and college adjustment for MKs and for Non-MKs. There were 110 subjects, 49 MKs (completed data on 45) and 65 Non-MKs recruited from Westmont College and Biola University. A significant difference was found between MKs and Non-MKs on the Parents as Facilitators of Independence scale of the Parental Attachment Questionnaire and the Cultural Distance and Interpersonal Distance scales of the Homecomer Culture Shock scale. Significant MK within group comparisons were also found on all of the personality measures. Parental Attachment was found to have a direct causal effect on perceived social support and college adjustment for all subjects. Perceived social support was found to be significantly correlated with college adjustment. Pertinent research and applied implications are discussed.
... Indeed, frequent moving can be considered detrimental to the teen support network because it leads to a breakdown in relationships with family, neighbors, teachers, peers, and community members (Adam & Chase-Lansdale, 2002). One study found that some adolescents were still having difficulty forming new friendships and being accepted by peers 9 months after their move (Vernberg, 1990;Werkman et al., 1981). ...
The study aim was to explore the impact of one aspect of military lifestyle, frequent relocations, on the adjustment of youth from Canadian military families. In all, 134 parents completed online questionnaires about their 13- to 18-year-old adolescents. Internalized and externalized problems, school functioning, and prosocial behaviors were assessed. Parental perceived stress levels were also measured. Analyses revealed that the mobility rate was not related to youth academic performance, greater suspensions/expulsions from school, or internalized problems. Conversely, mobility rate correlated positively with the presence of externalized problems and negatively with prosocial behaviors. Although these associations were not significant when relocation recency was taken into account, they remained a trend, suggesting that adjustment issues were not completely resolved after the transition period. Relocation recency, rather than mobility rate, was a better predictor of adolescent adjustment. Furthermore, parental perceived stress was the variable most associated with adolescent internalized/externalized problems and prosocial behaviors. These results indicate that greater attention should be given to adolescent adjustment in the year following a relocation, because this is the period in which adolescents are at greater risk of developing difficulties. Additionally, the substantial influence of parental stress on youth well-being indicates the importance of services to help parents alleviate their own stress.
... For many TCKs, "home" is not defined in the same way that it is for their parents; most TCKs rate "home" in terms of relationships, rather than geographical locations (Fail, 1996). Werkman, Farley, Butler, and Quayhagen (1981) found that, once re-entered, third culture kids have less emotional investment in families and peers. Many returning TCKs become socially marginal because of their interpersonal distance from family and friends (Gerner & Perry, 2000). ...
This article reviews the pertinent literature on the phenomenon of third culture kids--their characteristics, the repatriation issues they may face, and the assistance they may need to succeed in college.
... Much research on MKs is phenomenological in nature, exploring the production of meaning in missionary families (Bolhouse, 1999), and MKs' perceptions of their lifestyle (Kim, 2001;Whitfield, 2003). Some research investigates childhood and adolescent transitions to and acculturation in a foreign or 'host' culture (Nathanson & Marcenko, 1995;Werkman, Farley, Butler, & Quayhagen, 1981), while other studies have focused on topics of re-entry and repatriation into the passport culture (Collier, 2008;Fray, 1988;Schultz, 1985;Sotherden, 1992). Adjustment to post-secondary education as it relates to the TCK re-entry process is an enduring topic of interest within MK research, as many TCKs graduating from international high schools return to their country of citizenship to enroll in college or university (e.g., Hervey, 2009;Huff, 2001;Moss, 1985;Wrobbel, 2005). ...
... Moving has been shown to increase a child's sense of autonomy and independence, as well as being more open minded to new situations (Werkman, Farley, Butler, and Quayhagen 1981). ...
本文运用2017年全国流动人口卫生计生动态监测调查数据，使用多元线性模型和双重稳健模型展开分析，发现童年迁移经历给农村流动人口成年时期收入带来显著的消极影响。中介效应分析表明，童年迁移经历会通过对个体的受教育年限、健康状况和原有社会资本产生消极影响降低农村流动人口成年时期收入。同时，童年迁移经历会对个体的新增社会资本产生显著的积极影响从而提高农村流动人口成年时期收入。异质性分析发现，童年迁移经历对男性农村流动人口成年时期收入的消极影响大于对女性的影响；6～12岁时迁移产生的消极影响最大，6岁以前迁移产生的消极影响次之，13～15岁时迁移产生的消极影响最小；市内跨县迁移的消极影响大于省内跨市迁移，而跨省迁移的影响则并不显著。本文的研究为理解迁移对个体经济福利的影响提供了新的视角，同时也为减轻迁移造成的消极影响提供了政策启示。
An adolescent who spends some part of his or her developmental years in one or more countries other than their country of origin or citizenship due to the international work of their parents is called an Internationally Mobile adolescent (IM) or Third Culture Kid (TCK) or Global Nomad (GN) or International School Student (ISS). Research has suggested that these adolescents develop greater cultural acceptance; they have an increased openness to learning other languages; they generally are satisfied living abroad; they wish to maintain geographically mobile lives; and they are interested in future international careers. Interestingly, gender differences on these variables with internationally mobile adolescents have not appeared in the professional literature even though there is a voluminous literature with other groups. This reanalysis used data from the largest known study of internationally mobile adolescents on two continents with peers who have maintained residence in only one country throughout their lives (N = 1,076). Findings support the impression of consistent gender differences. This analysis suggests the possibility that living abroad is a crucial experience to develop female interest in international careers. The largest and most meaningful differences in this study are between females who have lived abroad and both males and females who have not, and between females and males who have never lived abroad.
By The work contained within this document has been submitted by the student in partial fulfillment of the requirement of their course and award
This article concernes Third Culture Kids (TCKs), i.e. persons, who due their parents’
work spent a significant period of their childhood or school years in a different country than
that of their parents. Due to the fact that in today’s globalizing world more and more people
experience working abroad and many of them are accompanied by their families, the issue of
the consequences of such a mobile and multicultural childhood becomes extremely important.
The author has conducted 53 biographical interviews with adult Third Culture Kids. The
biographical consequences of moving in one’s childhood are analyzed in a few spheres:
professional life, social relations, psychological problems, and identity construction. TCKs
are most often from the families of diplomats, professionals working abroad on contracts,
employees of international firms. The vast majority of them has tertiary education and
chooses a career which gives independence, the possibility to travel and capitalize cultural
competences, which one has acquired thanks to his or her upbringing. Unfortunately, such
a lifestyle since childhood is associated with the risk of psychological (ranging from the lack
of embeddedness to depression) and social (e.g. sense of alienation, difficulties in engaging in
deeper relations) problems. Building a coherent and long-lasting identity is also a challenge
for Third Culture Kids. The author describes means of dealing with the above-mentioned
problems.
This anecdotal ethnography describes the student culture at Columbia Academy, an international school in Kobe, Japan. The paper begins by contrasting the affluence of Columbia Academy and its students with the relative austerity of a nearby Japanese middle school. The paper follows a typical day at Columbia, and describes the nationalities of the students, their attitudes, and their peer relations, both in and out of class. In the next section, the typical experience of newcomers throughout their first year at the school is described. Included are observations on the students' dress codes and musical tastes, supported by direct quotations from various students . The subsequent section, entitled "Joining," is a detailed account of the socialization process at Columbia, including the various cliques based on common interests or traits in evidence among the students. The role of language in defining membership in these groups is then discussed, followed by a description of group dynamics. One group singled out for analysis is the "intensives," Japanese-speaking students who enter Columbia Academy from Japanese schools. The last part is a sampling of direct quotes from students reflecting their values, goals, and sense of purpose. The most interesting finding in this respect, according to the author, is the relative unimportance of nationality in friendships at Columbia Academy. An extensive 24-page bibliography is included. (TE)
An adolescent who spends some part of his or her developmental years in one or more countries other than their country of origin or citizenship due to the international work of their parents is called an Internationally Mobile adolescent (IM) or Third Culture Kid (TCK) or Global Nomad (GN) or International School Student (ISS). Research has suggested that these adolescents develop greater cultural acceptance; they have an increased openness to learning other languages; they generally are satisfied living abroad; they wish to maintain geographically mobile lives; and they are interested in future international careers. Interestingly, gender differences on these variables with internationally mobile adolescents have not appeared in the professional literature even though there is a voluminous literature with other groups. This reanalysis used data from the largest known study of internationally mobile adolescents on two continents with peers who have maintained residence in only one country throughout their lives (N = 1,076). Findings support the impression of consistent gender differences. This analysis suggests the possibility that living abroad is a crucial experience to develop female interest in international careers. The largest and most meaningful differences in this study are between females who have lived abroad and both males and females who have not, and between females and males who have never lived abroad.
To evaluate the effects of overseas sojourns on the psychosocial conditions of children, we observed Japanese children and their mothers temporarily living in the United States. Using a questionnaire, we examined the psychosocial condition of 61 Japanese mother-and child pairs (male = 51 percent, aged 8 to 15) living in the United States. One-fourth of the mothers were regarded as having minor psychiatric illness according to the General Health Questionnaire. One-tenth of the children were assessed as depressive by the Children’s Depression Inventory, and 30 percent of the children were identified as having a high level of anxiety according to the Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale. Multiple regression analysis revealed that the mother’s minor psychiatric illness was significantly associated with the levels of depression and anxiety in their children.
The literature concerning geographical mobility, psychiatric disturbances and mental health among children of professional and executive level migrants is reviewed. Most studies were found to be conceptually and methodologically flawed, tending to find whatever they set out to look for. Various problems that might be experienced by geographically mobile children, both in the short and the long term are reviewed. The question is raised as to what eventually becomes of third culture children, brought up neither in their home culture nor that of the host culture, but in an expatriate community.
Adolescents who spend part of their developmental years in one or more countries other than their country of origin or citizenship because of the international work of their parents are called internationally mobile or third-culture adolescents. Exploratory research has suggested that these adolescents develop greater cultural acceptance, they have an increased desire to learn other languages, they are interested in international careers, they wish to maintain geographically mobile lives, and they are closer to their families because of the shared experience of adjusting to other cultures. This study describes the largest known analysis of internationally mobile adolescents on two continents with peers who have maintained residence in only one country throughout their lives (N = 1,076). Our findings support the impression that U.S. internationally mobile adolescents have more interest in travel and learning languages, and that they rate themselves more culturally accepting and more oriented to an international lifestyle in the future than their peers in the United States (p < .001). However, not all characteristics suggested by exploratory research were supported for this group of U.S. internationally mobile adolescents, and there were differences between U.S. adolescents who live overseas and internationally mobile adolescents from other countries. This study follows a call for research (Gerner, School Psychology Quarterly, 5(1), 21–23, 1990) so that school psychologists, administrators, counselors, and teachers in U.S. schools overseas, and educators in the United States who work with these students upon their return, can have more information available about internationally mobile adolescents.
Thesis (M.A.)--University of Western Ontario, 1998. Includes bibliographical references.
This article focuses on how corporate and military wives cope with international relocation. Specifically, the coping behaviors of women who exhibited signs of depression and anxiety and those women who did not in a convenience sample of 28 military and corporate women were studied. Six instruments were used: (a) the Relocation Survey, (b) the Beck Depression Inventory, (c) the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List, (d) the CAGE Questionnaire, (e) the Sarason Life Experience Survey, and (f) the Coping Questionnaire. Coping and adaptation formed the conceptual framework. The findings revealed that women who coped well used active coping behaviors and women who coped poorly used more passive coping behaviors. This study offers some direction for health care providers who may use anticipatory guidance and counseling for women prior to international moves.
Past work suggests that stressful life changes and the availability of social support exert opposing effects on the health of adolescent mothers and their infants. We have developed a theoretical perspective in which the effects of both stressful and protective social factors are viewed as acting on health through their capacity to either undermine or sustain an individual's sense of permanence and continuity in life experience. To examine this hypothesis, a population of 89 unmarried, pregnant adolescents were studied to ascertain psychosocial influences on maternal and infant health outcomes. This paper reports a cross-sectional analysis of perinatal complications and psychological well-being as they relate to a variety of psychosocial variables, including stressful life events, social network support and a questionnaire measure of the sense of permanence. Multivariate analyses indicate that while life events and social support had effects in the expected directions, the sense of permanence constituted an important, additional factor in the effects of social experience on pregnancy outcomes.
A questionnaire survey which was devised from the MMPI which was administered to Japanese children aged between 6 and 18 who had returned from an overseas sojourn for the duration of no less than one year (n = 1941) and matched control groups from the same schools who had no overseas experiences (n = 1354). Returnee children showed more dissatisfaction with their lives in Japan, but there was no indication that returnee children had more adjustment difficulties than their counterparts. In fact, they were less worried about their academic achievement and interpersonal relationships. Positive effects of the transcultural relocation were discussed as well as the adjustment.
The problem of readjustment to the home culture among international students who have spent some time in a foreign culture has not received satisfactory empirical investigation in the literature. We present a longitudinal study of the readjustment of 199 Japanese adolescents who have been enrolled in 1-year placement with a host family in various countries of the world. The personality trait, coping style, social support, and emotional distress of the subjects were measured before departure, while abroad, and 6 months after return home. The students showed substantial emotional distress even 6 months after return from a foreign sojourn; neuroticism, emotion-oriented coping, and concurrently measured social support were found to significantly predict mental health during readjustment. Close attention is recommended not only for the adjustment of the international students while abroad but also for the readjustment process involved in the so-called reverse culture shock.
Measures of family stability, sociocultural background, and emotional ties to parents in medical students (N = 589, mean age = 22 years) predicted their social support measures, assessed 23 to 39 years later (mean age = 56 years). Father's education and family's involvement in church were positively associated with group participation (number of group memberships), whereas parental loss between the ages of 11 and 20 was negatively associated with group participation; perceived emotional closeness to parents was positively associated with social closeness (number of close contacts providing emotional and instrumental support). Thus, group participation and social closeness were influenced by distinctly different childhood factors.
Two areas of parental attitudes relevant to geographical mobility were found to distinguish the parents of disturbed military children from the parents of normals. The actual incidence of geographical relocation in the childrens' histories, however, did not appear related to the criteria of emotional disturbance.
A significant number of American families, military and civilian, are based in Europe. Does living in a foreign culture have any positive or negative emotional impact on these families and their children? How adequate are the mental health and educational resources provided by the military? What new services might be needed for such communities? (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved)
This article discusses the emotional problems of children aggravated by family moves. Each family's concept of the significance of the move to their children is unique and different. This concept is a production of the individual and group psychodynamics of the family. In school-age children, it would seem indicated to consider the relative importance of the relationships with peers. Problems of adolescents deserve special attention. The importance of social groups and clubs to them has been clearly shown by several observers. In summary, family moves occur very frequently in our American society, family moves can significantly distort existing family adjustments, behavior, dreams and daydreams of children reveal the ambivalence and regression which frequently develop in the children and Methods can be developed which will minimize the traumatic effect of these family moves and which will permit the development of positive attitudes about new friends and new experiences.
A study of some 450 children in the fifth to eighth grades showed that the number of schools these pupils had attended is unrelated to Otis' mental ability scores, but may have a somewhat complex relationship to their social acceptance scores.
The author reviewed the case records of 792 children and adolescents seen in a military clinic over a two-year period. His data suggest that the incidence of behavioral disorders was higher in this clinic than in a civilian mental health center. Seven problem areas common to records in which a behavioral disorder was diagnosed were found. The author suggests that the behavioral problems of the group studied represent a process of acting out in the rigid, autocratic system of the military. He also suggests that an approach using systems theory and modified goals may be more helpful in dealing with problems of military families than the traditional individual approach.
Overseas living complicates the tasks of child rearing in unique ways. Some complications may result in overt psychiatric disorders, others in character distortions of varying degrees. Many of them can be avoided, minimized, or resolved through anticipation, open discussion, informed planning, and decisive action. Issues of recurring clinical importance include unusual child-rearing practices, problems with caretakers, aberrant sexuality, fears, and alienation.
The military family syndrome. Amer. j. Psychiat., 135: I 040-1 043 The Measurement oj" Meaning Relationships among geographical mobility, pa-rental attitudes and emotional disturbances in children
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A heritage of transience
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