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A Satiety Index of common foods
Abstract
The aim of this study was to produce a validated satiety index of common foods.
Isoenergetic 1000 kJ (240 kcal) servings of 38 foods separated into six food categories (fruits, bakery products, snack foods, carbohydrate-rich foods, protein-rich foods, breakfast cereals) were fed to groups of 11-13 subjects. Satiety ratings were obtained every 15 min over 120 min after which subjects were free to eat ad libitum from a standard range of foods and drinks. A satiety index (SI) score was calculated by dividing the area under the satiety response curve (AUC) for the test food by the group mean satiety AUC for white bread and multiplying by 100. Thus, white bread had an SI score of 100% and the SI scores of the other foods were expressed as a percentage of white bread.
There were significant differences in satiety both within and between the six food categories. The highest SI score was produced by boiled potatoes (323 +/- 51%) which was seven-fold higher than the lowest SI score of the croissant (47 +/- 17%). Most foods (76%) had an SI score greater than or equal to white bread. The amount of energy eaten immediately after 120 min correlated negatively with the mean satiety AUC responses (r = -0.37, P < 0.05, n = 43) thereby supporting the subjective satiety ratings. SI scores correlated positively with the serving weight of the foods (r = 0.66, P < 0.001, n = 38) and negatively with palatability ratings (r = -0.64, P < 0.001, n = 38). Protein, fibre, and water contents of the test foods correlated positively with SI scores (r = 0.37, P < 0.05, n = 38; r = 0.46, P < 0.01; and r = 0.64, P < 0.001; respectively) whereas fat content was negatively associated (r = -0.43, P < 0.01).
The results show that isoenergetic servings of different foods differ greatly in their satiating capacities. This is relevant to the treatment and prevention of overweight and obesity.
... Unprocessed glucose was utilized to verify normal glucose tolerance. This substance also served as the standard against which all other food was evaluated, and the measurement method was similar to that used in determining the GI of various food items (Holt et al., 1995). The subjects were given the test food on seven distinct occasions, with the stipulation that the same type of food will be given to all subjects on each day. ...
... These findings indicate that F0 and F3 have a high SI exceeding that of white bread, which serves as the standard food (100%). According to Holt et al. (1995), cake has a low SI of 65%. Hence, it can be considered that F0 and F3 have a high SI. ...
This study aimed to develop tuber bread from purple sweet potato and bambara beans with high satiety and low glycemic index (GI). Different ratios of purple sweet potato to bambara bean were used: 100:0 (F0), 80:20 (F1), 60:40 (F2), and 40:60 (F3). The satiety index (SI) was determined by assessing the consumption of a 240 kcal isocaloric food and collecting data through a visual analog scale. Blood samples were collected from 11 subjects to determine the GI of the test food. This was achieved using the finger-prick capillary blood sampling method or an EasyTouch glucometer. The results showed that tuber-bread F1 was categorized as high-fiber sources (6.92±0.03 g), whereas F2 and F3 were classified as fiber sources (5.50±0.07 and 5.14±0.11 g, respectively). Significant differences were observed among all formulas. Additionally, formula F3 showed a high SI (160.12%±18.38%) and GI (81.94±2.13), suggesting that the consumption of fiber-rich food may promote feelings of fullness and reduce food cravings. The satiety score analysis of the selected products against standard food yielded a regression equation (y=−0.257x+66.648), showing that tuber-bread F3 extended satiety by up to 95 min compared with white bread. As a result, tuber-bread F3 may help to reduce the consumption of additional food, which is frequently a significant contributor to excessive calorie intake.
... The feeling of sati-ety makes an individual decide that he/she is not eating anymore and, therefore, that the meal is finished. The subjective feeling of satiety is regulated by factors related to the food (e.g., calorie density and palatability) and physiological processes of the consumer, which include physical (e.g., stomach distension) and biochemical parameters (secretion of cytokines such as cholecystokinin or leptin) (Chambers, 2016;de Graaf et al., 2004;Holt et al., 1995). Satiety and appetite control are hot topics that have concentrated enormous interest in recent years, due to the role that both phenomena play in calorie intake and the incidence of obesity (Boutelle et al., 2020). ...
... Yet, the number of studies that address the comparative effect of vegetable protein versus ASF protein, in relation to the feeling of satiety, is limited. Assessing the objective sensation of satiety in a postprandial study, Holt et al. (1995) found that proteins, along with water content and fiber, were the food components displaying higher correlations with satiety. Nielsen et al. (2018) compared isocaloric diets, matched in fiber content, but that differed in the origin of the dietary protein (vegetable vs. animal). ...
Animal‐source foods (ASFs), namely, meat, milk, eggs, and derived products, are crucial components of a well‐balanced diet owing to their contribution with multiple essential nutrients. The benefits of the consumption of ASFs in terms of hedonic responses, emotional well‐being, and mood are also widely documented. However, an increasing share of consumers decide to exclude ASFs from their diets. Some of these vegan consumers are inclined to consume so‐called “meat” and/or “dairy analogs,” which are produced from plant materials (soy, wheat, and oat, among others). In order to simulate appearance, texture, and flavor of ASFs, these industrial vegan foods are designed using an intricate formulation and industrial processing, which justifies their identification as ultraprocessed foods (UPFs). While the introduction of these processed vegan products is becoming popular in developed countries, the consequences of the sustained intake of these products on human health are mostly ignored. Contrarily to common belief, which emphasizes their role as “healthy” alternatives to ASFs, these plant‐based UPFs may enclose certain threats, which are reviewed in the present paper. The remarkable differences between vegan UPFs and the genuine ASFs (meat/dairy products) from sensory, nutritional, hedonic, or health perspectives precludes the designation of the former as analogs of the latter. Understanding the basis of these differences would contribute to (i) providing consumers with grounds to make reasoned decisions to consume meat/dairy products and/or the vegan alternatives and (ii) providing food companies with strategies to produce more appealing, nutritive, and healthy industrially processed vegan products.
... Our finding that diners reported feeling the least hungry after consuming beef compared to all other meat types (H4) is consistent with its second-highest ranking among protein-rich foods on the Satiety Index [54]. As protein is the most satiating macronutrient [55], future research should investigate the potential role that plantbased protein can play in offsetting negative effects on diner hunger in such nudge interventions. ...
Reducing meat consumption, especially in high-intake countries such as the United States, is crucial in mitigating the climate and biodiversity crises and improving public health and animal welfare. Choice-architecture interventions or nudges in the food domain, such as choice defaults (e.g., reduced default portion sizes), can be powerful levers of behavior change. However, evidence remains limited in large-scale, real-life settings, and little is known about potential effects on diner satisfaction and backfiring effects that reduce or even reverse the desired behavior. These uncertainties have posed substantial barriers to scalability and wider adoption by the food service industry. In our single-blinded, quasi-experimental, pre-registered field interventions in Stanford University dining halls with staff-served portions, a 25% reduction in the serving spoon size (Study 1, 24 days, 364 diners, made-to-order burritos) produced a non-significant trend of 18% less meat served per day without reducing overall diner satisfaction ( p = 0.059, d = 0.64) but with a wide CI that included the null (- 49.2, 1.07). A more substantial 50% reduction in serving spoon size (Study 2, 29 days, 1802 diners, varying menu items) did not reduce the amount of meat served ( p = 0.60, d = 0.20), triggered backfiring effects, and significantly decreased diner satisfaction. Combining the two studies, the intervention did not significantly reduce meat consumption. While the trends in our findings are consistent with the ‘norm range model’—i.e., that moderate portion reductions may decrease intake but drastic reductions may prompt compensatory eating—key differences and contextual nuances between the two studies help explain the mixed results. Future studies on the ‘norm range’ of default portion size nudges to reduce meat consumption across different menu items and food service models is suggested to increase our understanding of effective and scalable interventions that facilitate collective shifts towards more sustainable dietary behaviors.
... Dietary changes: High-fat consumption, among other dietary changes such as decrease in fruit and vegetable intake, is known to promote obesity [79]. Weight gain is based on fat-related properties such as satiety, as fat is less satiating than other food components such as carbohydrates and protein, and palatability because of its inherent aroma that brings flavor and thus makes it very palatable [80]. Fat also has high energy density, which promotes passive overconsumption [81], along with its own distinct metabolic pathway [82]. ...
This article provides an overview of gastro‐esophageal (GERD) and laryngopharynegal (LPRD) reflux diseases in the context of obesity as a confounding entity. A detailed review of the clinical presentation, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of laryngopharyngeal reflux disease may be found elsewhere. The association between obesity and gastroesophageal reflux disease has been well established, and a similar Association exists between obesity and laryngopharyngeal reflux disease (LPRD). Reflux should be sought in obese patients with voice complaints, and a weight reduction should be recommended in patients in whom LPRD is diagnosed.
... Foods with a very high fat and energy density can be less satiating than foods with a greater concentration of water, protein, and/or fiber, on a calorie-by-calorie basis [240][241][242]. This does not necessarily imply that fat-reduced products are superior to whole or full fat varieties, which among other things may provide more fat-soluble vitamins; however, it does suggest that significant consumption of high-fat foods could undermine the nourishing capacities of the diet and contribute to excessive energy intakes, fat gain, and obesity. ...
Evolutionary perspectives have yielded profound insights in health and medical sciences. A fundamental recognition is that modern diet and lifestyle practices are mismatched with the human physiological constitution, shaped over eons in response to environmental selective pressures. This Darwinian angle can help illuminate and resolve issues in nutrition, including the contentious issue of fat consumption. In the present paper, the intake of saturated fat in ancestral and contemporary dietary settings is discussed. It is shown that while saturated fatty acids have been consumed by human ancestors across time and space, they do not feature dominantly in the diets of hunter-gatherers or projected nutritional inputs of genetic accommodation. A higher intake of high-fat dairy and meat products produces a divergent fatty acid profile that can increase the risk of cardiovascular and inflammatory disease and decrease the overall satiating-, antioxidant-, and nutrient capacity of the diet. By prioritizing fiber-rich and micronutrient-dense foods, as well as items with a higher proportion of unsaturated fatty acids, and in particular the long-chain polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids, a nutritional profile that is better aligned with that of wild and natural diets is achieved. This would help prevent the burdening diseases of civilization, including heart disease, cancer, and neurodegenerative conditions. Saturated fat is a natural part of a balanced diet; however, caution is warranted in a food environment that differs markedly from the one to which we are adapted.
Breast cancer (BC) is one of the leading causes of death and morbidity among women worldwide. Epidemiologic evidence shows that the risk of BC and other chronic diseases decreases as the proportion of whole plant foods increases, while the proportion of animal foods (fish, meat, poultry, eggs, seafood, and dairy products) and non-whole plant foods (e.g., refined grains, added sugars, French fries) in the diet decreases. Whole plant foods include fruits, vegetables, roots, tubers, whole grains, legumes, nuts, and seeds from which no edible part has been removed and to which no non-whole food been added. A whole plant foods diet lowers insulin resistance, inflammation, excess body fat, cholesterol, and insulin-like growth factor 1 and sex hormone bioavailability; it also increases estrogen excretion, induces favorable changes in the gut microbiota, and may also favorably affect mammary microbiota composition and decrease the risk of early menarche, all contributing to reduced BC incidence, recurrence, and mortality. This review explores the connection between a whole plant foods diet and BC risk and mortality as well as the potential mechanisms involved. Additionally, this diet is compared with other dietary approaches recommended for BC. A whole plant foods diet seems the optimal dietary pattern for BC and overall disease prevention as it exclusively consists of whole plant foods which, based on existing evidence, lead to the best health outcomes.
Background
Parenteral nutrition (PN) provides nutrition to patients who cannot use the digestive tract. Some patients experience delayed appetite recovery after PN, but the factors contributing to this remain unclear. This study aimed to investigate whether hospitalized patients receiving PN experience reduced hunger or appetite.
Methods
A descriptive cohort study was conducted on adults who underwent PN between April 2022 and July 2023. Data on patient characteristics and nutritional support were collected from medical records. Hunger and satiety were assessed using a validated tool during three phases: clinical stability with calorie‐protein targets on PN, transition to oral/enteral feeding, and PN withdrawal. The primary outcome was the absence of hunger assessed by the tool.
Results
Of 231 screened patients, 102 were included. Among these, 62.7% reported hunger during PN. Lipid doses and energy reduction strategies did not affect hunger or satiety. Transition success to oral/enteral nutrition was 2.38 times higher in patients who experienced hunger compared to those who did not (95% CI: 1.59–3.54). Poisson regression identified higher age, inflammation, and metastatic cancer as independent factors associated with the absence of hunger.
Conclusion
This study suggests that PN does not suppress hunger and that factors other than nutritional therapy (age, inflammation, and cancer) could explain the absence of appetite. Considering individual conditions and needs, these findings could guide decision‐making strategies regarding the transition from PN to oral/enteral feeding.
The present study was designed to evaluate the influence of a high-protein diet under conditions of calorie restriction (CR) in the muscle, adipose tissue, bone, and marrow adipose tissue (MAT). It included three groups of 20 female Wistar Hannover rats, fed with the following diets for eight weeks: control group (C) fed with an AIN93M diet, CR group (R) fed with an AIN-93M diet modified to 30% CR, and CR + high-protein group (H) fed with an AIN-93M diet modified to 30% CR with 40% protein. Body composition was determined by DXA. The femur was used for histomorphometry and the estimation of adipocytes. Microcomputed tomography (μCT) was employed to analyze the bone structure. Hematopoietic stem cells from the bone marrow were harvested for osteoclastogenesis. Body composition revealed that the gain in lean mass surpassed the increase in fat mass only in the H group. Bone histomorphometry and μCT showed that a high-protein diet did not mitigate CR-induced bone deterioration. In addition, the number of bone marrow adipocytes and the differentiation of hematopoietic stem cells into osteoclasts was higher in H than in the other groups. These results indicated that under CR, a high-protein diet was beneficial for muscle mass. However, as the μCT scanning detected significant bone deterioration, this combined diet might accentuate the detrimental effect on the skeleton caused by CR. Remarkably, the H group rats exhibited greater MAT expansion and elevated hematopoietic stem cell differentiation into osteoclasts than the CR and control counterparts. These data suggest that a high protein may not be an appropriate strategy to preserve bone health under CR conditions.
Excess body adiposity, referred to as overweight and obesity, represents a major health concern given that it increases the risk of various diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, and cancer. Body weight reduction can be achieved via a wide variety of dietary strategies as long as an energy deficit is achieved. However, the effect of such diets on disease risk and mortality will depend on the foods included. Increasing evidence shows that consumption of whole plant foods (e.g., fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts, seeds, legumes) in place of animal foods (e.g., meat, poultry, dairy, fish, eggs, and seafood and their derivatives) and non-whole plant foods (e.g., refined grains, French fries, sugar-sweetened beverages) is associated with improvements in cardiometabolic risk factors and lower risk of chronic diseases and mortality. This review focuses on the effect of a whole plant-foods diet on overweight and obesity from observational to clinical studies and discusses the potential mechanisms involved. According to existing evidence, a whole plant foods diet seems to be more advantageous than other dietary approaches for the prevention and treatment of excess adiposity given that it is composed of the foods that lead to the best health outcomes.
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