ArticleLiterature Review

The welfare problems of laying hens in battery cages

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Abstract

So far as feeding, health and protection from cannibalism are concerned, the welfare needs of laying hens can be well catered for in cages. In other respects, however, cages fail to provide for hens' welfare needs. Deprived of litter, caged hens are prevented from dust bathing and foraging. Without access to a nest site, nesting motivation is frustrated and without a perch, roosting is prevented. Restrictions on movement within a cage cause frustration and prevent normal bone maintenance, particularly in the legs and wings. Confinement in a battery cage is concluded to cause suffering to laying hens in several different ways.

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... In the egg industry, where feeding, health and protection from cannibalism are concerned, the welfare needs of laying hens are well catered for in cages (Baxter, 1994). However, caging chickens has been tied to increased food safety risk in addition to impaired acquisition of normal gut flora, compromised gastrointestinal function and physiological stressors (Shields & Greger, 2013). ...
... To be precise, caged hens are deprived of litter, are prevented from dust bathing and foraging, are without access to a nest site, nesting motivation is frustrated and, without a perch, roosting is prevented. Restrictions on movement in a cage cause frustration and prevent normal bone maintenance, particularly in the legs and wings (Baxter, 1994). Handling and management of spent layers during transportation over long distances from Gauteng, North West and the Western Cape to the Eastern Cape has been regarded as warranting research (Lovell, 2016). ...
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Poultry meat and eggs are the largest source of animal protein in the human diet worldwide. These are the benefits of decades of poultry research investments that were aimed at developing fast-growing strains, a better understanding of nutrient metabolism and utilization, and the effects of those nutrients on gene expression. The South African poultry industry has advanced alongside global trends in most developed countries. The industry is dominated by a few fully integrated large commercial producers, and a high volume of small-scale producers, either as contract growers or individual producers supplying solely the informal market. Currently, the poultry industry is battling to remain competitive, owing to tons of imported dark chicken meat being dumped in this market by other countries at prices below the cost of production locally. This has had negative consequences on producers, big and small, and on the employment rate. Disease outbreaks, welfare regulations, food safety, house environment and a number of issues relating to nutrition and feeding are among current and future challenges to the poultry industry, particularly the small-scale segment. With urbanization escalating, land availability and accessibility for intensive poultry rearing, and crop production for feed will be a challenge. Simultaneously, although poultry has the lowest carbon and water footprint, global warming is likely to affect feed quality and quantity, increasing feed and energy costs, thereby influencing food security. In future, maize and soybean meal on a worldwide basis will remain the major ingredients in poultry diets, although research on feedstuffs for partial replacement of these two will still be relevant, more so for home mixers. Focus on poultry science education and training, research and extension partnerships between poultry scientists and veterinarians also needs serious attention. Lack of collaboration between the private and public sectors, and lack of innovative ways to articulate concerns from producers and consumers to policy makers remain barriers to technological adoption. This review adopts poultry in sole reference to chickens.
... Laying hens are highly motivated for nests [1][2][3][4] even if they have no prior experience of nesting cues [5] . They feel frustrated when nest sites are out of access [1] , and they will overcome increasing resistance for nest entrance [6] . ...
... Laying hens are highly motivated for nests [1][2][3][4] even if they have no prior experience of nesting cues [5] . They feel frustrated when nest sites are out of access [1] , and they will overcome increasing resistance for nest entrance [6] . Therefore, provision of nests is thought as an improvement for birds' welfare to fulfill pre-laying behaviors. ...
Article
Provision of nest boxes is necessary for laying hens, especially in non-cage systems. This study investigated the effects of nest width on nest utilization and mislaid eggs. Hy-Line Browns hens were transferred from conventional cages to perchery pens at 12 weeks of age. Two experiments were conducted to mutually verify the hypothesis that narrowing group nests would improve nest utilization and reduce mislaid eggs. In experiment 1, group nests of 150 cm wide in two pens were partitioned at intervals of 50 cm and 37 cm, respectively. In experiment 2, partition panels were removed after acclimation. The number of mislaid eggs and nest eggs in each pre-set section were compared. Results indicated that narrowing group nests had positive effects on improving usage uniformity and efficiency of group nests. Nest eggs were more evenly distributed on the egg belt in both narrowed group nests, which was indicated by the significant decrease of variance among different sections (p<0.001). The proportion of mislaid eggs decreased by 3.5% in 37 cm treatment (p<0.05) and 4.7% in 50 cm treatment (p<0.001), respectively. As expected, reuse of the 150 cm group nests after removal of partition panels lowered the usage uniformity of group nests. A growth of three percentage points was found for the proportion of mislaid eggs after removing the partition panels in 50 cm treatment. The present results indicated that it is the width of the nest box that works for a better use of group nests. In conclusion, adding partition panels at intervals of 50 cm and 37 cm in group nests both are effective on nest usage and decreasing the occurrence of mislaid eggs. © 2018, Chinese Society of Agricultural Engineering. All rights reserved.
... kanat çırpma, eşinme davranışları ve diğer bir takım fiziksel aktivitelerinin kısıtlanmasına neden olmaktadır [3,10]. Bu gibi sistemlerde barındırılan hayvanlarda kafes yorgunluğu, ayak ve bacak bozuklukları gibi sağlık sorunları ile sıkça karşılaşılırken aynı zamanda korku ve stres nedeniyle geri gagalama, tüy yolma, polidipsia ve kanibalizm gibi davranış bozuklukları da gelişmektedir [3,5]. ...
... kanat çırpma, eşinme davranışları ve diğer bir takım fiziksel aktivitelerinin kısıtlanmasına neden olmaktadır [3,10]. Bu gibi sistemlerde barındırılan hayvanlarda kafes yorgunluğu, ayak ve bacak bozuklukları gibi sağlık sorunları ile sıkça karşılaşılırken aynı zamanda korku ve stres nedeniyle geri gagalama, tüy yolma, polidipsia ve kanibalizm gibi davranış bozuklukları da gelişmektedir [3,5]. Avrupa'da hayvan koruma dernekleri tarafından hayvan haklarını ihlal ettiği gerekçesi ile alternatif sistemlere yönlendirilme yapılmaktadır. ...
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The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect between the conventional layer breeder hen cages and cages enriched on semen quality. In the study, with 36 RIR-I line hens at 20 weeks of age in Ankara Poultry Research Institute, 4 groups containing different litter materials were created. 36 hens from 4 different groups were used as study material. Semen was collected by abdominal massage and ejaculation volume, concentration, pH, abnormal spermatozoa rate, dead spermatozoa rate and motility were determined. Collected data were analyzed statistically with One-Way ANOVA model. For group I, II, III and IV mean of ejaculate volume (ml) were 0.39±0.22, 0.53±0.35, 0.52±0.16, 0.51±0.23; mean of motility (%) were, 81.30±12.22, 83.33±6.65, 82.59±13.33, 82.04±10.76; concentrations (x106/ml) were, 1726.06, 1868.39, 1949.26, 1896.78 x106/ml; mean of dead spermatozoa (%) rate were, 9,50±8,73, 7,98±3,58, 9,31±8,51, and mean of abnormal spermatozoa rate (%) were 3.92±0.55, 4.11±0.66, 3.88±0.49, 3.80±0,43 respectively. There was no statistically significant difference between the groups among the evaluated semen parameters. (p>0.05). As a result, we concluded that there was no effect of layer breeder hen cages enriched with different materials on semen quality. Çalışmanın amacı, standart ve zenginleştirilmiş kümes bölmelerinin yumurtacı damızlık horozların bazı spermatolojik veriler üzerine olan etkisini araştırmaktır. Çalışmada, Ankara Tavukçuluk Araştırma İstasyon Müdürlüğü’nde bulunan 20 haftalık 36 adet RIR-I hattı horoz, 4 farklı altlık içeren gruba ayrıldı. Toplamda 4 farklı gruptan 36 adet horoz çalışma materyali olarak kullanıldı. Oluşturulan gruplardaki horozlardan spermalar abdominal masaj yöntemi ile alınarak ejakulat miktarı, yoğunluk, pH, anormal spermatozoa oranı, ölü spermatozoa oranı ve motilite belirlendi. Elde edilen veriler, tek yönlü varyans analizi (One-Way ANOVA) ile istatistiksel açıdan değerlendirildi. Grup I, II, III ve IV’de sırasıyla ejakulat miktarı (ml) 0,39±0,22, 0,53±0,35, 0,52±0,16, 0,51±0,23; motilite (%), 81,30±12,22, 83,33±6,65, 82,59±13,33, 82,04±10,76; yoğunluk (x106/ml), 1726,06±171, 1868,39±183, 1949,26±144, 1896,78±174; ölü spermatozoa oranı (%), 9,50±8,73, 7,98±3,58, 9,31±8,51, anormal spermatozoa oranı (%), 3,92±0,55, 4,11±0,66, 3,88±0,49, 3,80±0,43 olarak hesaplandı. Değerlendirilen sperma parametreleri tüm spermatolojik parametreler yönünden gruplar arasında istatistiksel açıdan bir fark bulunamadı (p>0,05). Sonuç olarak farklı materyallerle zenginleştirilen damızlık horoz kümeslerinin spermatolojik parametreler üzerine etkisinin olmadığı belirlendi.
... So the birds become frustrated, the consequence of such deprivation and frustration, aggressive pecking at other birds increased led to more head injuries and finally death. These obtained results are similar to those obtained by Baxter (1994) who mentioned that the space available in a battery cage does not allow hens even to stand still in the way they would in a more spacious environment. Some behaviors are completely inhibited by confinement in a cage causing a progressive accumulation of motivation to perform the behaviors. ...
... These obtained result agreed with Sainsbury and Sainsbury (1982) who mentioned that the cage system considered to cause stress among birds and therefore its use is discriminated against in some countries while in other countries the number of birds per cage is limited and birds managed under this system occasional suffer from cage fatigue a kind of leg weakness of unknown cause. Moreover, Baxter (1994) mentioned that extreme confinement in wire cages predisposes to external injuries to feet and feathers and exacerbates the development of osteoperosis, leading to bone fractures and chronic pain. The long-term effects of lack exercise on the bones and muscles of birds, caged birds have lower bone weight and greater bone brittleness than birds which have more freedom of movement and more caged birds are lame. ...
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Our work was carried out in three separate experiments; The first experiment concluded that cage systems are still the most efficient form of housing for breeder Japanese quail because it was accompanied with greatest feeding and drinking, egg production, hatchability,egg quality and lower mortality percent, but in order to reduce the welfare problems associated with these systems, the birds have to be equipped at minimum with an area for pecking, scratching, and dust-bathing to meet the fundamental behavioral needs of birds. The second experiment summarized that the sex ratio 1 male to 3 females was the optimum mating ratio in mass-mated groups of Japanese quail which lead to highest level of complete mating, egg production, maximum fertility and hatchability, and lowest level of agonistic encounters. The third experiment revealed that the puberty and sexual maturity ages of female quail were found to be 48 and 54 days, respectively. While in male quail they were found to be 32 and 42 days, respectively. The meat of Japanese quail (breast meat) contains 74.58% moisture, 18.88% protein, 3.45% fat and 2.57% ash in female, while in males 73.90% moisture, 19.75% protein, 2.58% fat.
... on welfare of chicken is also being considered widely (Craig & Swanson, 1994). It has been observed that confinement and complexity in conventional cages restricts the birds to limited natural habitat which eliminates the expression of natural behaviors like roosting, nesting and scratching (Baxter, 1994). Banning of conventional cages by European Union and to overcome the lack of natural behaviors, the alternative housing systems are gaining strength day by day to cope with the consumer's demand. ...
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In the present study, the second generation of two genotypes RNN (Rhode Island Red × Naked Neck) and BNN (Black Australorp × Naked Neck) obtained by two self-crosses (RNN × RNN =RR and BNN × BNN= BB) and two reciprocal crosses (RNN × BNN = RB and BNN × RNN = BR) were evaluated in three alternative production systems (conventional cages, enriched cages, and aviary). In total 480 birds, comprising 240 pullets with 240 cockerels (60 pullets & 60 cockerels from each crossbred) were used during rearing phase (17-21 weeks). Higher body weight, shank circumference, body and drumstick length were noticed in RB and BR genotypes. Among different production systems, chickens reared in enriched cages showed higher body weight and body lengths than other production systems. Comparing the behavior of chickens, higher feeding, jumping and dust bathing were observed in chickens reared in aviary systems than in other production systems while the maximum perching behavior was showed by the chickens reared in enriched cages. The highest glucose level was observed in RR genotypes when reared in aviary systems. Antibody titers against ND and IB were highest in chickens reared in aviary systems. In conclusion, RB and BR genotypes had better performance in terms of morphometrics and blood biochemistry when reared under enriched cages and aviary systems.
... Previous animal husbandry research related to AW has primarily focused on feeding methods, production management, facility innovation, capacity management, animal transportation, slaughter, the traceability of agricultural products, quality certification, food processing, food safety, and investigations regarding animal protection (e.g. Appleby and Hughes 1991; Appleby et al. 1993;Baxter 1994;Hewson 2003;Blokhuis et al. 2007;Rodenburg et al. 2008;Sumner et al. 2011;Janczak and Riber 2015;Bennett et al. 2016). In contrast to previous research, this study explores consumers' buying decisions regarding AW products from the perspective of moral attitudes and perceived higher prices, using the theoretical background of MFT. ...
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The willingness of consumers to buy animal welfare products is an important support for the transformation of animal husbandry to animal welfare. However, animal welfare farming often means a considerable capital investment, which often increases the likelihood of price increases for the products. The main purpose of this study is to assist in the marketing of animal welfare products through the research results and then promote the transformation of animal husbandry to animal welfare-friendly agriculture. The analysis results showed that consumers’ moral attitudes towards animal products significantly affect perceived higher prices and buying willingness, while perceived higher prices negatively affect buying willingness. Still, fortunately, the negative impact is not significant. Based on the findings, a discussion of academic and managerial implications is provided at the end of this article.
... Most animals are bred in overcrowded and confined systems, unable to breathe fresh air, walk, and access land [42], causing a high incidence of several diseases [43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51]. Animals can be regularly tethered [52] in gestation crates [53] and battery cages [54,55], are subject to several types of mutilations without anesthetics [56][57][58], and separated early from their offspring [59,60]. Transportation leads to severe stress, can cause several injuries, and even the death of animals [61]. ...
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Planetary and human health depend on Westerners' ability to reduce meat consumption. Meat production degrades the environment while excessive meat intake is associated with cancer and cardiovascular disease, among others. Effective reasons and motivations are needed for consumers to change their diet. The fact that modern animal agriculture inflicts a great deal of pain on animals from their birth to their slaughter, animal welfare/suffering may drive consumers to curtail their meat consumption. This systematic review examined a total of 90 papers to ascertain consum-ers' awareness of the pain animals experience in animal agriculture, as well as consumer attitudes towards meat reduction due to animal welfare. Results show that consumers have low awareness of animal agriculture. Awareness of animal agricultural practices and animal sentience is associated with increased negative attitudes towards animal suffering. Animal suffering due to farming practices , transportation, slaughter, and animal sentience are factors that may encourage a reduction in meat consumption, and even dietary change in the short term. There is also evidence that animal suffering may be a more compelling motivation for consumers' willingness to change their diet than for health or environmental reasons. Therefore, increasing consumers' awareness of animal suffering in meat production is paramount to contributing to reduced pressure on the environment and improved human health.
... Cages that can individually house laying hens, such as conventional battery cages, are superior to other housing systems because they reduce the labor requirement for the management of hens and the space needed for rearing (Appleby et al., 2004). However, the expression of some innate hen behaviors, such as foraging and dust bathing, is known to be restricted in battery cages (Martin, 1987;Baxter, 1994). Considering this, rearing laying hen flocks on the flat floor of barns (i.e., free-range facilities) has been proposed as an alternative rearing system. ...
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Upon contact with laid eggs, avians initiate incubation behavior and stop laying additional eggs. This phenomenon suggests that the productivity of laying hens in free-range facilities may decrease because of frequent contact with laid eggs. Here, we examined whether hens of a commercial breed exhibit incubation behavior in a free-range facility and whether egg productivity subsequently decreases. One-hour observations were performed twice weekly for 3 weeks, during which 9 of 129 hens (7.0%) exhibited incubation behavior (i.e., sitting on eggs) in the free-range facility and were defined as incubating hens. During 4 d of continuous behavioral observation, incubating and non-incubating hens laid the same number of eggs statistically (4.6 and 3.6, on average, respectively); however, incubating hens spent significantly more time on average incubating the eggs (2071.9 min) than did the non-incubating hens (20.9 min; P<0.05), indicating a clear behavioral difference. Subsequently, the incubation behavior and egg productivity of incubating hens and a Silky Fowl breed hen, which is known to exhibit typical incubation behavior and cessation of laying, were continuously compared for 27 d. The average minutes spent incubating eggs during the observation period increased in both the incubating hens and Silky Fowl hen and the total time was almost the same (18,088.5 and 23,092 min, respectively). However, the Silky Fowl hen stopped laying on day 17 after laying 17 eggs, whereas the incubating hens continued laying throughout the observation period. Incubating hens laid an average of 24.5 eggs, indicating that some hens (at least those of the commercial breed used in our study) can continue laying while exhibiting incubation behavior. A single-nucleotide polymorphism associated with incubation behavior was detected on chromosome 4 through genome-wide association analysis.
... No primeiro experimento, delineado com densidade de 3 aves por box, o Teste de hipótese para diferença nas taxas de comportamento (α = 0,05) detectou diferenças entre as taxas de ocorrência dos comportamentos coçar a cabeça (p = 0,023), empoleirar (p = 0,000) e ninho (p = 0,000), como mostrado na Tabela 1. (Nicol, 1987;Baxter, 1994). Com a realização do experimento foi possível observar, em ambos os ciclos, que as aves conseguiram demonstrar alguns dos seus comportamentos naturais, apesar dessas aves serem originárias de gaiolas, a alta evolução nos setores da avicultura de postura e o grande avanço da genética nas linhagens comerciais de aves cada vez mais produtivas estarem fazendo com que as linhagens "percam" seus princípios normais de comportamento animal, devido aos avanços genéticos as aves se "esqueceram" Aves criadas em gaiolas convencionais têm restrita capacidade de circulação e expressão de seus comportamentos naturais, o que compromete sua saúde, bem-estar e produção (Alves et al, 2007). ...
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A produção de ovos no Brasil tem crescido fator que acarretou um aumento na densidade de animais nas instalações, gerando diminuição da ambiência e do bem-estar. Desta forma este estudo teve como objetivo realizar uma análise em sistemas de criação de poedeiras, tipo cage free sem enriquecimento e cage free com enriquecimento, no pico e final de produção e sua relação com o enriquecimento ambiental e qualidade de ovos. Para o tratamento com enriquecimento foram utilizados: ninho, poleiro, chocalho, fardos de capim nativo e galhos de Cambuci. Enquanto o tratamento sem enriquecimento possuía apenas um ninho, ambos os tratamentos possuíam comedouros do tipo tubular, bebedouros do tipo pendular e cama de palha de arroz. Foram avaliados o comportamento animal e qualidade dos ovos. Na análise de comportamento obtivemos diferença entre os comportamentos de ninho, empoleirar, ciscar, perseguir e coçar cabeça, possivelmente pelo fato das aves utilizarem dos meios que eram fornecidos e poderem expressar seu comportamento natural. Dentro da qualidade de ovos, observamos uma diferença nos parâmetros de coloração da gema, peso, altura de albúmen, unidade Haugh, espessura da casca e índice de gema (YCF), onde o peso e a coloração da gema foram maiores no tratamento sem enriquecimento, podendo ser devido ao maior consumo de alimento, já que as aves nesse tratamento não possuíam outros meios de distração. Conclui-se que o enriquecimento promove alterações positivas tanto na expressão de comportamentos naturais das poedeiras como melhora os principais requisitos em relação à qualidade dos ovos.
... Battery cages have been criticised for increasing the incidence of feather damage, foot lesions, and brittle bones (SVEDBERG, 1988, GREGORY andWILKINS, 1989;APPLEBY, 1993;CRAIG and SWANSON, 1994;KANG et al., 2016). Moreover, battery cages restrict the movements of hens and prevent certain behaviours, such as laying eggs in nests, scratching and bathing in sand or soil, and roosting on perches (NICOL, 1987;BAXTER, 1994;ABRAHAMSSON et al., 1996). Although some studies have reported that egg production is similar in aviaries and cages, others have indicated that it is lower in the former, since the risks of feather pecking, cannibalism, disease, and parasites increase (TANAKA and HURNIK, 1992;HANSEN, 1993). ...
... Also, conventional cages lack the space that non-cage systems, or even enriched cages, offer -to enable some behaviours to take place. Dawkins and Hardie (1989) demonstrated that hens need between 540 and 1980 cm 2 /hen to perform turning, wing stretching, wing flapping, feather ruffling, preening, and ground-scratching behaviours, although the space used has been shown to depend on the space provided (Nicol, 1990), and, of course, hens require much more space to perform a behaviour than the amount of space it takes up, if they are to avoid hitting the enclosure sides or ceiling (Baxter, 1994). Comfort activities such as wing flapping and head scratching increase up to three-fold after living under spatial restriction compared to when space is not restricted (Nicol, 1987). ...
... Куры не могут садиться на насест и как следствие развитие пододерматитов, и нарушения метаболизма (включая остеопороз). Baxter M. (1994) считает, что лапка курицы «анатомически приспособлена для того, чтобы захватывать насест» и отсутствие насеста вызывает страдание кур-несушек [10]. ...
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In modern poultry farming, the keeping of laying hens is considered from several points of view: economic, investment, financial, livestock, social, economic, veterinary, etc. However, the trend towards sustainable development of society implies priority consideration of the welfare of animals and laying hens, in particular. It is relevant to find a compromise in the production and welfare of the hens, as well as informing the consumer about the welfare of laying hens, because from a suffering bird one receives a corresponding egg and meat that are involved in shaping people's health (it is probably necessary to differentiate certification of eggs from different laying hen keeping systems). The paper presents an analysis of the level of well-being of laying hens in different systems of poultry keeping according to the principle of "cut across" on the basis of our own expert research and analysis of world achievements, as well as approaches to identifying critical points of chicken welfare and determining the prospects for the development of poultry farming for laying hens. The paper presents an analysis of the cage and free keeping of laying hens from the standpoint of the welfare of hens, with an emphasis on critical points of welfare, which significantly affect the condition of the bird. Laying hens, having free access to the external environment, have a number of welfare advantages, at the same time, chickens in their cage systems have the lowest risk of contamination with pathogens of infectious and invasive diseases and pecking, but there is a high level of damage to the skeletal system. We think it is a mistake to think that animal welfare suffers when caged (regardless of cage modification) and it is good for it when birds are kept free. We believe that a compromise solution could be the production of eggs in improved cages, which allows the bird to satisfy behavioral functions. An important point in the modern trend in the development of poultry farming is the analysis of accumulated knowledge and the formation of scientific and practical information groups in the welfare or consulting groups on the welfare of poultry, which will form a policy for animal welfare, carry out legislative harmonization and implementation of the best welfare practices in poultry farming. Key words: animal welfare, laying hens, poultry keeping systems, welfare critical points.
... on welfare of chicken is also being considered widely (Craig & Swanson, 1994). It has been observed that confinement and complexity in conventional cages restricts the birds to limited natural habitat which eliminates the expression of natural behaviors like roosting, nesting and scratching (Baxter, 1994). Banning of conventional cages by European Union and to overcome the lack of natural behaviors, the alternative housing systems are gaining strength day by day to cope with the consumer's demand. ...
Article
Full-text available
In the present study, the second generation of two genotypes RNN (Rhode Island Red × Naked Neck) and BNN (Black Australorp × Naked Neck) obtained by two self-crosses (RNN × RNN =RR and BNN × BNN= BB) and two reciprocal crosses (RNN × BNN = RB and BNN × RNN = BR) were evaluated in three alternative production systems (conventional cages, enriched cages, and aviary). In total 480 birds, comprising 240 pullets with 240 cockerels (60 pullets & 60 cockerels from each crossbred) were used during rearing phase (17-21 weeks). Higher body weight, shank circumference, body and drumstick length were noticed in RB and BR genotypes. Among different production systems, chickens reared in enriched cages showed higher body weight and body lengths than other production systems. Comparing the behavior of chickens, higher feeding, jumping and dust bathing were observed in chickens reared in aviary systems than in other production systems while the maximum perching behavior was showed by the chickens reared in enriched cages. The highest glucose level was observed in RR genotypes when reared in aviary systems. Antibody titers against ND and IB were highest in chickens reared in aviary systems. In conclusion, RB and BR genotypes had better performance in terms of morphometrics and blood biochemistry when reared under enriched cages and aviary systems.
... Caged hens are prevented from dust bathing and roosting because they are deprived of litter and perches. Movement restriction induces bone disease, particularly in legs and wings (Baxter, 1994). Conventionally confined systems cause animal stress (Jones and Millis, 1999;Marin et al., 2001), which results in poor performance (Mendl, 1999). ...
... Although the CC system has been considered as one of the most efficient housing methods of laying hens for a long time, it is now widely accepted that this system has negative impacts on the welfare of hens (3)(4)(5)(6)(7). The negative impacts of CC are mainly due to the limited space for movement that can cause musculoskeletal weakness, and low complexities of the environment, which can abolish many of their natural behaviors such as nesting, roosting, dust bathing, perching, and foraging (6)(7)(8). ...
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Due to animal welfare issues, European Union has banned the use of conventional cages (CC) and non-EU countries including the US are also under constant public pressure to restrict their use in egg production. Very limited information is available on the composition of the microbial community of hens raised in different housing environments. This study was conducted to determine the effects of CC and enriched colony cages (EC) on cecal microbiota of two commercial laying hen strains, Hy-Line W36 (W36) and Hy-Line Brown (HB) during the late production stage (53, 58, 67, and 72 weeks of age). Cecal microbiota was studied by analyzing 16S rRNA gene sequences with Quantitative Insights Into Microbial Ecology (QIIME) 2 ver. 2018.8. Differentially abundant taxa were identified by Linear discriminant analysis Effect Size (LEfSe) analysis (P < 0.05, LDA score > 2.0). At phylum level, Actinobacteria was significantly enriched in W36 at all time points while Synergistetes (53 weeks), Spirochaetes (58 weeks), and Synergistetes and Spirochaetes (67 weeks) were significantly higher in HB. At genus level, Bifidobacterium (at all time points) and butyric acid producing genera such as Butyricicoccus and Subdoligranulum (58 and 72 weeks) were significantly higher in W36 as compared to HB. Moreover, Proteobacteria (72 weeks) and its associated genus Campylobacter (67 and 72 weeks) were significantly enriched in EC as compared to CC. Alpha diversity was significantly higher in HB (at all time points) and in EC (67 weeks) as compared to W36 and CC, respectively. Similarly, there was a significant difference in community structure (beta diversity) between W36 and HB (all time points) as well as between EC and CC (67 weeks). The effect of housing and strains was not only seen at the bacterial composition and structure but also reflected at their functional level. Notably, KEGG metabolic pathways predicted to be involved in carbohydrates degradation and amino acids biosynthesis by PICRUSt analysis were significantly different between W36 and HB housed at CC and EC. In sum, cecal microbiota composition, diversities, and their functional pathways were affected by housing type which further varied between two commercial laying hen strains, HB and W36. This suggests that both housing and genetic strains of laying hens should be considered for selection of the alternative housing systems such as enriched colony cage.
... Похожее поведение наблюдается у кур при напольном содержании. Куры изначально мотивированы на получение доступа к месту гнездования в период яйцекладки (96,97). На гнездовое поведение влияют и другие факторы, в том числе способность использовать насест (10), а также конструкция гнезд. ...
... Похожее поведение наблюдается у кур при напольном содержании. Куры изначально мотивированы на получение доступа к месту гнездования в период яйцекладки (96,97). На гнездовое поведение влияют и другие факторы, в том числе способность использовать насест (10), а также конструкция гнезд. ...
... Specifications regarding space requirements and maximum stock densities were also provided for non-cage alternative housing systems (Michelle, 2005). Issues of poultry housing, transportation, slaughter and their welfare implications have been severally reported (Nicol, 1987;Baxter, 1994;Appleby, 2003). In view of the stress on chickens, the use of battery cages is being jettisoned while alternative housing systems such as aviaries, deep litter with pasture runs, modified cages and improved cages are better form of housing chickens (Elson, 2004;Tauson, 2005). ...
Article
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Animal welfare is becoming an interesting global issue which must be given the best of attention by researchers, producers, consumers and the governments. The need to ensure the general well-being of the wild and domestic animals in every aspect of their husbandry is mandatory now in many developed countries of the world and poultry industries are responding positively to this new dimension of husbandry. Species of animal are sensitive to the way they are being managed in terms of housing and other husbandry. Meanwhile, there is little or no concern on subjects of applied ethology in developing areas of the world such as Africa and Asia where livestock production and wildlife conservation is currently experiencing tremendous growth. Issues of animal welfare are being promoted by researches, sponsored information, legislation and enforcement by relevant agencies in developed nations of the world. Factors such as poor economic development, political instability, social insecurities, low level of awareness and lack of information on legal provisions on animal welfare have been identified to be responsible for poor animal welfare and its science in developing countries. Despite the fact that livestock sector carries the highest percentage among agricultural facets commercially in Nigeria, the level of welfare of the domestic animals and those in the wild are still below standard. This paper is however suggesting that even with the level of economic developments in most of low and middle incomed nations, researchers can be motivated into animal welfare science, the curricula of colleges and universities can be expanded to include subjects of applied ethology, professional bodies and associations on animal welfare can be formed with international affiliations. All these may change the orientation of the people and governments in developing countries positively towards animal welfare.
... Avrupa Birliği (AB), ticari yumurtacı tavukların fizyolojik ve ekolojik gereksinimlerinin karşılanabilmesi amacıyla kümes, yem, su ve bakım koşullarıyla ilgili 99/74/EC sayılı direktif ile yasal düzenlemeler yapmıştır . AB Komisyonu'nun aldığı kararlar, geleneksel kafes sistemlerinde yetiştirilen tavukların, serbest dolaşımlı (free-range) barınaklardaki yumurtacı tavuklara göre doğal ihtiyaçlarını daha az karşılayabilmeleri (Baxter, 1994) ...
Article
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ABSTRACT Backround/Aim: In EU and other developed country is the cradle of industrial poultry, the public opinion questioning the intensive poultry sector has developed in last decade. The animal’s comforts in which they live were discussed and this was accompanied by the animal welfare concept in their environmental condition in time. The fourth one of the five freedoms published by Brambel Council in 1993 is related to showing the natural behaviours of animals. In this regard, it is important providing the opportunity of showing natural behaviours of animals in terms of layers welfare. One of the priority aims of Turkey is to take place in the countries which are the members of European Union. Today it is continuing accession negotiations between Turkey and European Union. The first legislative text adopted by the European Council for the protection of layers was Council directive 88/166/EEC. This directive has been repealed by directive 99/74/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council. In Turkey, the protect of layers is regulated in compliance with European Union standards, and two by-laws published in 2011 and 2014 constitute the legal basis. The purpose of this review is to give information about an overview of the legal framework for the protect of for layers in the European Union and Turkey, aims to provide information on the breeding systems stipulated by legislation, as well as on the legislation currently in force. Conclusion: Turkey’s regulations on animal welfare in case the realization of application for EU membership will become a necessity. Therefore, it is important to improve the management conditions related to layers, to minimize the stress and to increase welfare in chickens.
... Movements and behavioral repertoire of birds are restricted in conventional cages because of the limited space and barren environment [1][2][3][4] , which is thought unfriendly for animal welfare. Therefore, conventional cage systems for laying hens are required to be phased out by 2012 in EU [5,6] and replaced by enriched cage systems with more space and environmental enrichments according to the Egg Products Inspection Act Amendments of 2012 (HR 3798) [7] . ...
... FP behaviour and FD outcomes can pose a greater risk in these alternative systems where a pecking bird has access to a larger number of pecking victims [26], although these housing systems can provide welfare benefits such as increased space allowance, nesting areas, and opportunities for dustbathing and foraging that conventional cages do not [25,27]. Birds in furnished cages are typically housed in groups of 10-100 birds [25] and >1000 birds in non-cage systems [2]. ...
Article
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Feather pecking is a continuous welfare challenge in the housing of egg-laying hens. Canada is currently making the transition from conventional cages to alternative housing systems. However, feather damage (FD) among laying hens due to feather pecking remains a welfare concern. An explorative approach was taken to assess bird, housing, and management associations with FD in Canadian laying hens housed in alternative systems. A questionnaire focused on housing and management practices was administered to 122 laying farms across Canada in autumn of 2017 (response rate of 52.5%), yielding information on a subset of 26 flocks housed in furnished cages. Additionally, a three-point feather cover scoring system was developed to estimate the prevalence of FD. Farmers assessed FD by sampling 50 birds per flock. Linear regression modeling was applied to explain FD as a function of 6 variables (out of an available 54). Of the 6 modeled variables, “increased age”, “brown feather colour”, “midnight feeding”, and “no scratch area” were associated with higher levels of FD at farm level (R2 = 0.77). The results indicated that FD resulting from feather pecking is a multifactorial problem, and supported existing evidence that FD increases as birds age. These results also suggested that “feather colour”, “midnight feeding”, and “access to (or lack of) a scratch area or additional substrate” play a role in FD prevalence in furnished cages.
... The result is support, by default, for furnished cages as an acceptable alternative to the battery cage (Tauson and Abrahamsson 1994a;Tauson 1995) and in the UK, where furnished cages were developed (Appleby 1993a;Hughes and Sherwin 1994) there appears to be considerable support for this system(s). Also, on the basis that the five freedoms (see Appleby 1991) prescribed in 'Freedom Foods' (UK, RSPCA marketing initiative, see above) cannot all be met in battery cages (Appleby 1993b;Baxter 1994), this tends to lend support for furnished cages. However, it must be recognised there is some circularity in this latter argument as included in the five freedoms concept is the perception that close confinement is unacceptable. ...
Conference Paper
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This workshop was hosted by RIRDC (Rural Industries Research and Development) to develop a strategic plan for research into furnished cages under Australian conditions and to revise the research proposal from Dr John Barnett on “Welfare of laying hens in furnished cages” in light of this plan. A background paper (Appendix 1) was prepared by Dr Barnett and circulated to workshop participants prior to the workshop. The workshop commenced with four background information sessions to set the scene for the discussion required to achieve the workshop objectives. The workshop identified that many behaviours of poultry are present in all environments, although some are modified by environment and some may be prevented by the environment. The question to be answered is “How important are these behaviours to welfare?” The current European attitude to animal welfare is based on the “Five Freedoms” (UK FAWC, 1992) . Freedom from hunger and thirst . Freedom from discomfort . Freedom from pain, injury and disease . Freedom to express normal behaviour . Freedom from fear and distress Most dispute arises from the fourth point “Freedom to express normal behaviour” due to the difficulty in defining “normal behaviour”, particularly in different environments. Difficulties associated with current scientific methods for the assessment of welfare are not insurmountable. The production, physiological, health and behavioural indicators are essential but cannot stand alone. They need to be merged in a rational manner. Given the close relationship between disease, health and welfare, the diagnostic process used for disease provides the framework for integrating results from the four types of indicator. The added advantage of the diagnostic process is that it adds history and an examination of the environment. The concept of motivational state may be a useful adjunct for integrating information around welfare issues. Diagnosis of disease attempts to identify the range of primary and secondary causative factors that are involved. The diagnosis of welfare issues can have the same aim. The result could be the formulation of innovative interventions for animal welfare problems. There may be an application to the welfare enhancement of cages for layer hens. As long as we make assumptions regarding hen welfare and the needs of laying hens we will not be able to “think outside of the box” and may miss the opportunity of finding better ways to improve the welfare of laying hens in commercial systems. It was felt that the bulk of the research trials that have been conducted in Europe on furnished cages were confounded by only investigating the effects on a very limited range of parameters. Therefore, a comprehensive study under Australian conditions is required to provide basic information on the importance of the behavioural and physiological traits that these cages are designed to address. This information will assist in identifying the priority welfare issues that should be focussed on in subsequent studies to determine the best way to address these issues in a commercial situation. The recommendations of the workshop are that: 1. Dr John Barnett prepares an updated research proposal for consideration by RIRDC along the lines of his original proposal to RIRDC but taking into information gained in his recent trip to Europe and the discussions held during this workshop. 2. RIRDC uses the information gained from this project to develop a strategic approach to evaluating the welfare issues for laying hens in cages and the most effective means of addressing these issues in a commercial situation.
... Specifications regarding space requirements and maximum stock densities were also provided for non-cage alternative housing systems (Michelle, 2005). Issues of poultry housing, transportation, slaughter and their welfare implications have been severally reported (Nicol, 1987;Baxter, 1994;Appleby, 2003). In view of the stress on chickens, the use of battery cages is being jettisoned while alternative housing systems such as aviaries, deep litter with pasture runs, modified cages and improved cages are better form of housing chickens (Elson, 2004;Tauson, 2005). ...
Data
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... Specifications regarding space requirements and maximum stock densities were also provided for non-cage alternative housing systems (Michelle, 2005). Issues of poultry housing, transportation, slaughter and their welfare implications have been severally reported (Nicol, 1987;Baxter, 1994;Appleby, 2003). In view of the stress on chickens, the use of battery cages is being jettisoned while alternative housing systems such as aviaries, deep litter with pasture runs, modified cages and improved cages are better form of housing chickens (Elson, 2004;Tauson, 2005). ...
Article
Full-text available
Researchj ournali’s Journal of Agriculture Vol. 5 | No. 9 October | 2018 2 www.researchjournali.com ABSTRACT Animal welfare is becoming an interesting global issue which must be given the best of attention by researchers, producers, consumers and the governments. The need to ensure the general well-being of the wild and domestic animals in every aspect of their husbandry is mandatory now in many developed countries of the world and poultry industries are responding positively to this new dimension of husbandry. Species of animal are sensitive to the way they are being managed in terms of housing and other husbandry. Meanwhile, there is little or no concern on subjects of applied ethology in developing areas of the world such as Africa and Asia where livestock production and wildlife conservation is currently experiencing tremendous growth. Issues of animal welfare are being promoted by researches, sponsored information, legislation and enforcement by relevant agencies in developed nations of the world. Factors such as poor economic development, political instability, social insecurities, low level of awareness and lack of information on legal provisions on animal welfare have been identified to be responsible for poor animal welfare and its science in developing countries. Despite the fact that livestock sector carries the highest percentage among agricultural facets commercially in Nigeria, the level of welfare of the domestic animals and those in the wild are still below standard. This paper is however suggesting that even with the level of economic developments in most of low and middle incomed nations, researchers can be motivated into animal welfare science, the curricula of colleges and universities can be expanded to include subjects of applied ethology, professional bodies and associations on animal welfare can be formed with international affiliations. All these may change the orientation of the people and governments in developing countries positively towards animal welfare. Keywords:Animal, developing countries, implementation, welfare
... The traditional review may also seek to explore the edge of understanding so that gaps in knowledge can be identified and the course of further research can be plotted. The review of layer hen welfare by Baxter (1994) provides a general and selective glimpse of layer hen welfare. That of Craig and Swanson (1994) emphasises genetic aspects of layer hen welfare while that Barnett and Newman (1997) provides a reasoned basis for research on the issue in Australia. ...
Technical Report
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SCIENCE AND LAYER HEN HOUSING (1) The current National Layer Hen Housing Review has identified major differences in the assessment of the welfare of layer hens under different systems of housing. These may reflect difficulties and uncertainties in the scientific subject matter or competing interests and the tendency for interested parties to marshal arguments around predetermined positions. With this in mind, the present paper examines the 2 body of science that bears upon vexed questions about layer hen housing. The aim is to clarify the facts, as well as they can be known, in order to allow the system to speak for itself. Weaknesses in the factual and conceptual basis of animal welfare will have an adverse impact on value judgements about morality and subsequent political decisions. Furthermore, maintenance of the integrity of scientific analysis is an issue in its own right. (2) Since the assessment of the scientific aspects of animal welfare depends upon the perspective taken, it has been necessary to examine the application of science to animal welfare in general. An additional reason for making this extra step is the possibility of animal welfare becoming an issue for international trade. Here it will be similar to food safety and animal health in that science will be called upon for its capacity to answer particular problems in a logical and objective manner. How is this to be done? The implications are important for Australia, which has a major economic stake in the export of animals and animal products. (3) The scientific literature on layer hen welfare is large: particularly the secondary literature, which embraces reviews, commentaries and opinions. In order to make the present task manageable, a particular depiction of the welfare issues of layer hens is scrutinised. The focus in this depiction is squarely on cages. To quote: There is now a large amount of scientific evidence which demonstrates that conventional cages have major problems with regard to layer hen welfare. These are discussed in detail in the Housing Report, in the RSPCA and Animals Australia Submissions and also in the EC Report which formed the basis of the EU Directive. Does this large amount of scientific evidence exist and can it be found in the EC Report? The conclusions in the EC Report (Report on the Welfare of Laying Hens, 1996, Animal Welfare Section, Scientific Veterinary Committee, European Commission) have been highly influential. (4) The method used for examining the capsule summary of the Welfare Report in the present review is to compare and contrast statements on the vexed questions of layer hen housing in the 1996 EC Report and the 1994 Temple Report commissioned for the National Layer Hen Housing Review of 1994. The similarities and differences between these statements are analysed according to a framework of ideas that involves the various definitions of animal welfare and the behavioural, health, physiological and production indicators of welfare. (5) Comparison of the two reports leads to the conclusion that the capsule summary of the major welfare issues of layer hens is scientifically unsound and that little or no new information appears in the EC Report of 1996 compared with the Temple Report of 1994 (section 3.2). • There is not a large amount of scientific evidence to demonstrate that conventional cages have major problems with regard to layer hen welfare. However, space allowances could be increased in the absence of aggressive strains of hens. • The case is not sustained for “severe behavioural frustration which has shown to be extremely aversive to hens ” in the absence of a nest or substrate for scratching and dust-bathing. The EC Report argues for frustration in regard to nesting and egg-laying only and the analogy made with feeding frustration is false. Physiological evidence around nesting and 3 egg-laying is misquoted. The conclusions of the EC Report that hens have a preference for laying their eggs in a nest, for a littered floor and for perching are disconnected from and not supported by the line of thought pursued in the body of the report. A drift and shift of argument occurs within the EU report from the actual analysis to the summaries at the end of each chapter to the conclusions. A further drift and shift occurs in the capsule summary. • All systems of housing have “inherent” welfare problems which are solvable and the word “inherent” is a rhetorical device. For example, perceived problems with pre-laying behaviour can be solved by genetic selection. • Perches may actually do harm and should not be sought for cages. • Claw shortening devices should be considered on their merits and the pros and cons evaluated. They are not mentioned in the EU Report. (6) As for layer hen welfare in general, the EC Report has an excellent introductory chapter on basic welfare issues, which could have wide application (section 3.2.6). However, the EC Report does not contain a clear statement about the methods to be used in analysing questions about animal welfare. For example, it does not say explicitly that it will look at evidence from the health, production, physiological and behavioural indicators and then argue from them for a particular picture of welfare based on a particular amalgam of welfare definitions. Without this statement of methods, the opportunity is left open to ignore results from particular indicators or to move between definitions of welfare, for example when discussing different questions or making conclusions compared with setting out arguments
... Requests for change of cages of layer hen housing, is not the only improvement of the poultry living conditions (Baxter MR. 1994;Scientific Veterinary Committee. 1996;Department for Environmental Food and Rural Affairs, 2002;Hunton, P, 2002), but also improving egg quality produced by them and the sensitivity of citizens for eggs income from free range chicken or subject to conditions and their well-being (Van Horne PLM and N. Bond 2003;European Commission. ...
Article
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In this paper the performance indicators outlined in two poultry cage systems, were studied. For this purpose, in a poultry farm have been monitored for 20-56 week period two batches of birds housed in two different caging systems: control group was housed in a conventional battery cages and experimental group in enriched cages. Chickens in two herds were hybrid Hy-Line W 98, the same age and it was used the same amount and structure of the ration. They were recorded continuously egg production, egg weight, mortality, food consumption and food was estimated FCR (Feed Conversion Rate). At the end of the study it was showed that the use of different cage system showed no impact on production performance of eggs and egg weight. Layers reared in conventional cages manifested a higher egg laying than the experiment and that the standard of the hybrid. As a result of greater density than the rate allowed in the two groups mortality was observed higher than the standard (the control group 3,04% more and EUROPEAN ACADEMIC RESEARCH-Vol. V, Issue 2 / May 2017 1475 the experiment group 4.78% more). The control group has saved 2,48g more feed for egg, or 2% compared with that of the experiment. There were no significant differences (P≤0.05) between the groups regarding the feed utilization. In both groups have achieved good results in the performance indicators. It leaves much to be desired but the use of feed for eggs, egg mass per kg, or as kg eggs are obtained from 1 kg of feed utilization compared to standard hybrid. This will certainly lead to increased cost of egg produced.
... Similarly, Nielsona et al. (1983 ) also reported a correlation to efficient of 0.62 between these two traits. Baxter (1994) had reported a correlation co-efficient of 0.62(P<0.0 I) between body condition and milk production at five weeks of lactating cows. ...
Article
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Animal welfare means how an animal is coping with the conditions in which it lives; it is based on ‘five freedoms’ and ‘four principles’ of animal welfare. Dairy cattle are considered as sentient beings due to which husbandry should be provided as per their needs. As cattle and human beings are intrinsically connected to each other, protection of cattle from diseases and unnecessary suffering should become prime responsibility of human. Welfare of dairy cattle cannot be measured directly, as is multidimensional in nature and can be measured by various indicators which are either direct or indirect. In this review we try to analyze dairy cattle welfare, their indicators and their assessment.
... Tavukların sınırlı ve dar alanlarda barındırıldığı kafes sisteminde, folluk, tünek ve altlık gibi materyallerin bulunmamasının bir sonucu olarak, tavukların doğal ihtiyacı olan yumurtlama, kanat çırpma, tüneme, eşinme davranışları ve diğer birtakım fiziksel aktivitelerinin kısıtlanması söz konusu olmaktadır. Hayvanların kısıtlı alanlarda barındırılması, bir taraftan hareketsizlik, kafes yorgunluğu, ayak ve bacak bozuklukları gibi sağlık sorunlarına sebep olurken, diğer taraftan korku ve stres kaynaklı kanibalizm, tüy yolma geri gagalama ve polidipsia gibi davranış bozukluklarına da neden olmaktadır [1][2][3][4]. ...
... However, to prove and verify animal welfare requirements in practice is not simple. In intensive poultry production a large number of factors, such as stocking density, environmental deterioration, unsuitable social environments, thermal stress, or difficulties in accessing essential resources can be major sources of stress that can lead to welfare deterioration and reduced performance [2][3][4][5][6][7]. Many of these factors can be controlled through well-established management practices to provide birds with an optimal environment. ...
Article
Full-text available
Consideration of animal welfare is essential to address the consumers’ demands and for the long term sustainability of commercial poultry. However, assessing welfare in large poultry flocks, to be able to detect potential welfare risks and to control or minimize its impact is difficult. Current developments in technology and mathematical modelling open new possibilities for real-time automatic monitoring of animal welfare and health. New technological innovations potentially adaptable to commercial poultry are appearing, although their practical implementation is still being defined. In this paper, we review the latest technological developments with potential to be applied to poultry welfare, especially for broiler chickens and laying hens. Some of the examples that are presented and discussed include the following: sensors for farm environmental monitoring, movement, or physiological parameters; imaging technologies such as optical flow to detect gait problems and feather pecking; infrared technologies to evaluate birds’ thermoregulatory features and metabolism changes, that may be indicative of welfare, health and management problems. All these technologies have the potential to be implemented at the commercial level to improve birds’ welfare and to optimize flock management, therefore, improving the efficiency of the system in terms of use of resources and, thus, long term sustainability.
... Accepted June 15, 2016. 1 Corresponding author: kch8059@korea.kr roosting, and scratching (Nicol, 1987;Baxter, 1994;Tactacan et al., 2009). The use of non-cage housing systems for laying hens increased after the 2012 EU ban on conventional cages was implemented. ...
Article
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The effects of stocking density on the performance, egg quality, leukocyte concentration, blood biochemistry, corticosterone levels, bone mineral density, and noxious gas emission of laying hens were investigated. Eight hundred 34-week-old Hy-Line Brown laying hens (Gallus gallus domesticus) were randomly assigned to one of 4 treatments, each of which was replicated 4 times. Four stocking densities, including 5, 6, 7, and 10 birds/m², were compared. A commercial-type basal diet was formulated to meet or exceed nutrient recommendations for laying hens from the National Research Council. The diet was fed to the hens ad libitum for 8 wk. Results indicated that hen-day egg production, egg mass, and feed intake were less for (P < 0.01) 10 birds/m² stock density than other stock densities. Production rate of floor and broken eggs and eggshell strength were greater (P < 0.01) for 10 birds/m² stock density than other stock densities. There were no significant differences in the level of leukocytes among densities. However, heterophils and the H/L ratio were greater (P < 0.01) for 10 birds/m² than in stock density of 6 or 7 birds/m². Serum corticosterone was greater (P < 0.01) 10 birds/m² than stock density than other stock densities. Litter moisture and gas emission (CO2 and NH3) were greater (P < 0.01) for 10 birds/m² than stock density than 6 and 7 birds/m² stock density. Bone mineral content was not influenced by increasing stock density. However, bone mineral density was less (P < 0.05) for 10 m² stock density than other stock densities. These results indicate that increasing the density beyond 5 birds/m² elicits some negative effects on laying performance of Hy-Line brown laying hens.
... J. L203:53-57. 95 Baxter, 1994. 96 Korsgaard, 2007. ...
... Tavukların sınırlı ve dar alanlarda barındırıldığı kafes sisteminde, folluk, tünek ve altlık gibi materyallerin bulunmamasının bir sonucu olarak, tavukların doğal ihtiyacı olan yumurtlama, kanat çırpma, tüneme, eşinme davranışları ve diğer birtakım fiziksel aktivitelerinin kısıtlanması söz konusu olmaktadır. Hayvanların kısıtlı alanlarda barındırılması, bir taraftan hareketsizlik, kafes yorgunluğu, ayak ve bacak bozuklukları gibi sağlık sorunlarına sebep olurken, diğer taraftan korku ve stres kaynaklı kanibalizm, tüy yolma geri gagalama ve polidipsia gibi davranış bozukluklarına da neden olmaktadır [1][2][3][4]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Dunyada ve ulkemizde yumurta uretiminde kullanilan en yaygin ve en ekonomik sistem olan kafes sistemi, son yillarda hayvan haklarinin ihlal edildigi gerekcesiyle yogun elestirilerine maruz kalmis ve alternatif sistemlere gecis calismalari baslamistir. Avrupa Toplulugu’nun kafeste barindirilan tavuklarla ilgili yaptigi yeni duzenlemelere gore, 2012 yilindan sonra geleneksel kafeslerin tamamen yasaklanacagi bildirilmistir. Alternatif olarak tunekli ve kusluklu tip kumesler ve serbest gezinmeli (Free-Range) sistem gibi, hayvanlarin fizyolojik ve davranissal olarak rahat edebilecegi sistemler kullanilmaya baslanmistir. Free-range sistemi; tavuklarin hareketlerini kisitlamadan, temiz hava ve gunes isigindan azami faydalanabildigi, daha saglikli kosullarda ve daha az strese maruz kaldiklari, dogadaki cesitli yiyeceklerden yararlandiklari icin beslenme maliyetinin dusuk oldugu bir sistemdir. Sistem hayvanlara; serbest dolasim imkani, daha saglam bir iskelet ve iyi bir tuy yapisi, dogal beslenme ile buna bagli olarak daha kaliteli yumurta ve et uretim olanagi yaninda, tuketicilere saglikli et ve yumurta tuketim olanagi gibi avantajlar da saglamaktadir. Butun bunlarin yani sira, hayvanlarda saglik problemlerinin artmasi, canli agirlik kazancinda yavaslama, daha fazla yem tuketimi ve yem sacimi gorulmesi, hayvanlarin uzun surede kesime gelmesi, yuksek iscilik masraflari nedeniyle maliyetin artmasi ve guvenlik problemleri gibi dezavantajlari da beraberinde getirmistir. Sistemin, avantaj ve dezavantajlarinin bilinmesi; yetistiricilere isik tutmasi ve tuketici tercihlerine yon vermesi acisindan onemlidir.
... Although globally the prevalent system, the move away from keeping hens in conventional battery cages is extending beyond Europe to countries such as Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the USA. This follows increasing recognition of the extreme spatial and behavioural restriction these cages impose on hens, possibly offsetting their advantages in terms of hygiene and reduced exposure to potential disease causing organisms [1,2,3]. Therefore, increasing numbers of laying hens are being kept in non-cage housing systems in large groups of several thousand birds. ...
Article
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Data from ten sources comprising 3,851 flocks were modelled to identify variation in levels of mortality in laying hens. The predicted increase with age was curvilinear with significant variation between the seven breed categories. Mortality was higher in loose housing systems than in cages and variable within system, confirming previous reports. Cumulative mortality (CM) was higher in flocks with intact beaks (χ2 = 6.03; df 1; p = 0.014) than in those with trimmed beaks. Most data were available for free-range systems (2,823 flocks), where producer recorded CM at 60-80 weeks of age averaged 10% but with a range from 0% to 69.3%. Life cycle assessment showed that the main effect of increased levels of hen mortality is to increase the relative contribution of breeding overheads, so increasing environmental burdens per unit of production. Reducing CM to levels currently achieved by the 1st quartile could reduce flock greenhouse gas emissions by as much as 25%. Concurrently this would enhance hen welfare and better meet the expectation of egg consumers. More research to understand the genetic x environment interaction and detailed records of the causes of mortality is required so that improved genotypes can be developed for different systems and different breeds can be better managed within systems.
... They compromise most or all of the independent Farm Animal Welfare Council's five freedoms -freedom from hunger and thirst; from discomfort; from pain, injury, and disease; to express normal behaviour; and from fear and distress (Webster and Nicol, 1988). Baxter (1994) commented that "Concern over the welfare of caged hens arises in two general areas: first that the barren environment within a cage prevents the performance of hens' natural behaviour patterns and, secondly, that the small amount of space in a cage imposes severe restrictions on hens' general freedom of movement". ...
Article
Full-text available
An industrial experiment with ISA-Brown commercial layers was carried out during the laying period (from 18 to 76 weeks of age) in 2009/2010 at the poultry complex "Eggs and Chickens - Zora" JSC - Donchevo. The layers were reared under three poultry management systems: in conventional cages type BKN-3 - 66 300 layers distributed equally in five poultry houses; in enriched cages type Eurovent 1500-EU-60 - 123 430 layers distributed equally in two poultry houses; and in barn with slat flooring with manure pit and deep litter - 30 000 layers distributed equally in four poultry houses. The results showed that for the whole laying period the layers kept in conventional cages exhibited an average egg laying capacity of 336.1 eggs per hen, the egg laying capacity was over 90% from 25 to 50 weeks of age, the mortality was the lowest - 5.35% and feed conversion ratio per egg was the highest - 155.9 g. The layers kept in enriched cages gave the highest yield of eggs from a hen - 339.2, the egg laying capacity was over 90% from 26 to 59 weeks of age, the mortality was 7.96 % and feed conversion ratio per egg was the lowest - 150.1 g. The layers reared in the floor/litter system l were characterized with the lowest yield of eggs per hen - 330.5 eggs, the egg laying capacity was over 90% from 26 to 61 weeks of age, the mortality was the highest - 9.43% and feed conversion ratio per egg was 151 g.
... Spatial restriction has diverse behavioral consequences in other animals. Confinement imposes movement limitations in egg-laying hens [6][7][8], and induces behavioral and psychological disorders in captive animals [9][10][11][12]. A common abnormality associated with spatial restriction is the occurrence of stereotypic behaviors-a group of repetitive and non-varying behavioral patterns [9], for instance, compulsive pacing in cats and bar gnawing in laboratorycaged mice [13,14]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Drosophila adults display an unwillingness to enter confined spaces but the behaviors induced by spatial restriction in Drosophila are largely unknown. We developed a protocol for high-throughput analysis of locomotion and characterized features of locomotion in a restricted space. We observed intense and persistent locomotion of flies in small circular arenas (diameter 1.27 cm), whereas locomotion was greatly reduced in large circular arenas (diameter 3.81 cm). The increased locomotion induced by spatial restriction was seen in male flies but not female flies, indicating sexual dimorphism of the response to spatial restriction. In large arenas, male flies increased locomotion in arenas previously occupied by male but not female individuals. In small arenas, such pre-conditioning had no effect on male flies, which showed intense and persistent locomotion similar to that seen in fresh arenas. During locomotion with spatial restriction, wildtype Canton-S males traveled slower and with less variation in speed than the mutant w1118 carrying a null allele of white gene. In addition, wildtype flies showed a stronger preference for the boundary than the mutant in small arenas. Genetic analysis with a series of crosses revealed that the white gene was not associated with the phenotype of boundary preference in wildtype flies.
... Conventional cages for laying hens are widely used around the world because they are low-cost, high-performance, easy to manage and hygienic. However, conventional cages lead to many welfare issues (Nicol 1987a; Baxter 1994); for example, laying hens in conventional cages lack the opportunity to express their natural behaviour, which can cause frustration and stress to the hen (NAWAC 2012). In addition, the narrow living space could restrain their movements and activities, and lack of exercise may lead to osteoporosis (Webster 2004). ...
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The study investigated the effects of large or small furnished cages on laying hens. Hyline brown hens (n ≤ 360) were placed into three treatments with six replicates: large furnished cages (LFC), small furnished cages (SFC), and conventional cages (CC). The results showed that egg production of hens in the LFC treatment was significantly lower (P < 0.05) than that in SFC and CC groups. Daily feed intake, feed:egg ratio, egg weight, and proportion of broken eggs and dirty eggs were not affected by cage types. However, Haugh unit and albumen height of the eggs from LFC and SFC hens were significantly higher (P < 0.01) than those from the CC hens. Welfare indicators (feather conditions, gait score, and fluctuating asymmetry of tibia length or wing length) in LFC and SFC hens were much better than in CC hens (P < 0.05). In conclusion, the hens in the LFC treatment had lower productivity, higher egg quality and better welfare conditions than those in the SFC and CC treatments.
... They compromise most or all of the independent Farm Animal Welfare Council's five freedoms -freedom from hunger and thirst; from discomfort; from pain, injury, and disease; to express normal behaviour; and from fear and distress (Webster and Nicol, 1988). Baxter (1994) commented that "Concern over the welfare of caged hens arises in two general areas: first that the barren environment within a cage prevents the performance of hens' natural behaviour patterns and, secondly, that the small amount of space in a cage imposes severe restrictions on hens' general freedom of movement". ...
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Abstract GERZILOV, V., V. DATKOVA, S. MIHAYLOVA and N. BOZAKOVA, 2012. Effect of poultry housing systems on egg production. Bulg. J. Agric. Sci., 18: 953-957 An industrial experiment with ISA-Brown commercial layers was carried out during the laying period (from 18 to 76 weeks of age) in 2009/2010 at the poultry complex „Eggs and Chickens - Zora” JSC – Donchevo. The layers were reared under three poultry management systems: in conventional cages type BKN-3 – 66 300 layers distributed equally in five poultry houses; in enriched cages type Eurovent 1500-EU-60 – 123 430 layers distributed equally in two poultry houses; and in barn with slat flooring with manure pit and deep litter – 30 000 layers distributed equally in four poultry houses. The results showed that for the whole laying period the layers kept in conventional cages exhibited an average egg laying capacity of 336.1 eggs per hen, the egg laying capacity was over 90 % from 25 to 50 weeks of age, the mortality was the lowest - 5.35 % and feed conversion ratio per egg was the highest - 155.9 g. The layers kept in enriched cages gave the highest yield of eggs from a hen - 339.2, the egg laying capacity was over 90 % from 26 to 59 weeks of age, the mortality was 7.96 % and feed conversion ratio per egg was the lowest - 150.1 g. The layers reared in the floor/litter system l were characterized with the lowest yield of eggs per hen - 330.5 eggs, the egg laying capacity was over 90 % from 26 to 61 weeks of age, the mortality was the highest - 9.43 % and feed conversion ratio per egg was 151 g. Key words: layers, laying hen, poultry housing system, egg laying capacity
... Suto et al. (1997) reported that birds housed inside conventional battery cage had higher hen-day production of eggs than those on free range. However, housing laying hens intensively inside battery cages has received so much opposition recently with the argument that this system poses welfare problems on the birds (Baxter, 1994). According to Nicol (1987), birds housed inside cages are always under stress and will not be able to exhibit some natural behaviors. ...
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Technical Report
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Climate change mitigation policies are in essence about equitable, sustainable, and humane development. Here the environmental and social impacts of a climate change policy focused on reduced methane emissions from animal agriculture are examined, with a particular focus on the implications of such a policy for low-income households in the developing world. Reductions in short-lived greenhouse gas species-especially methane, which has a much larger warming potential than the longer-lived carbon dioxide-offer an effective and relatively inexpensive option for mitigating climate change. Since animal agriculture is responsible for approximately 37 % of global anthropogenic methane emissions, this sector could be a central focus of near-term GHG reductions. Based on a systematic review of climate change and food security literature, this chapter shows that developing countries with large farm animal populations, such as India and Brazil, can achieve a reduction in farm animal populations, and thus reduced methane emissions, by supporting free-range, environmentally sustainable farm animal production by small farmers instead of industrialized farm animal production systems. Such a policy would maintain food security in poor households and may help protect them from climate-change-induced hunger and displacement. © 2013 Springer Science+Business Media New York. All rights are reserved.
Chapter
Many behaviors in poultry can be modified by genetic selection. Selection of laying hens for maximum egg production had the unfortunate side effect of increased rates of beak inflicted damage on other birds. Selective breeding has eliminated broodiness and has either increased or decreased other behaviors, such as hysteria, fearfulness, appetite in broilers, social dominance, ability and damage to other birds. Genetic selection can be used to reduce behaviors that cause welfare problems. However, it must be approached with caution to avoid unintended consequences that would be detrimental to welfare. A calm, docile bird that appears behaviorally calm, may take longer for its heart rate to return to normal after it is frightened. The use of group selection instead of single-bird selection can be effectively used to reduce undesirable behaviors such as feather pecking and to maintain high egg production. An entire group of birds is selected instead of selecting individuals.
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