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Integration of the Cognitive and the Psychodynamic Unconscious
American Psychologist
Abstract
Cognitive-experiential self-theory integrates the cognitive and the psychodynamic unconscious by assuming the existence of two parallel, interacting modes of information processing: a rational system and an emotionally driven experiential system. Support for the theory is provided by the convergence of a wide variety of theoretical positions on two similar processing modes; by real-life phenomena--such as conflicts between the heart and the head; the appeal of concrete, imagistic, and narrative representations; superstitious thinking; and the ubiquity of religion throughout recorded history--and by laboratory research, including the prediction of new phenomena in heuristic reasoning.
... Sometimes SSB take part in solubilization of other minerals such as potassium and phosphates. Solubilized silicates improve the availability of phosphorus to plants by competing with P fixation sites in soil.Its essentiality for higher plants remains questionable because of the lack of evidence showing Si's direct role in plant metabolism and production of Sibearing organic compounds (Ma et al., 2001;Ma and Takahashi, 2002;Richmond and Sussman, 2003) [44,46,47] . Nevertheless, because of the logically flawed definition of essentiality of nutrients (Epstein, 2009) [14] , Si being a major inorganic constituent in higher plants, and the significant amount of evidence showing the value of Si in improving crop productivity (Epstein, 1994) [47] Insoluble minerals such as silicates, phosphates and potash into soluble form by production of organic acids such as 2 keto-gluconic acid, alkalis and polysaccharides. ...
... Solubilized silicates improve the availability of phosphorus to plants by competing with P fixation sites in soil.Its essentiality for higher plants remains questionable because of the lack of evidence showing Si's direct role in plant metabolism and production of Sibearing organic compounds (Ma et al., 2001;Ma and Takahashi, 2002;Richmond and Sussman, 2003) [44,46,47] . Nevertheless, because of the logically flawed definition of essentiality of nutrients (Epstein, 2009) [14] , Si being a major inorganic constituent in higher plants, and the significant amount of evidence showing the value of Si in improving crop productivity (Epstein, 1994) [47] Insoluble minerals such as silicates, phosphates and potash into soluble form by production of organic acids such as 2 keto-gluconic acid, alkalis and polysaccharides. Excess production of proton, organic ligands, hydroxyl anion, extra cellular polysaccharides (EPS) and enzymes by SSB leads to the dissolution of silicates. ...
... Solubilized silicates improve the availability of phosphorus to plants by competing with P fixation sites in soil.Its essentiality for higher plants remains questionable because of the lack of evidence showing Si's direct role in plant metabolism and production of Sibearing organic compounds (Ma et al., 2001;Ma and Takahashi, 2002;Richmond and Sussman, 2003) [44,46,47] . Nevertheless, because of the logically flawed definition of essentiality of nutrients (Epstein, 2009) [14] , Si being a major inorganic constituent in higher plants, and the significant amount of evidence showing the value of Si in improving crop productivity (Epstein, 1994) [47] Insoluble minerals such as silicates, phosphates and potash into soluble form by production of organic acids such as 2 keto-gluconic acid, alkalis and polysaccharides. Excess production of proton, organic ligands, hydroxyl anion, extra cellular polysaccharides (EPS) and enzymes by SSB leads to the dissolution of silicates. ...
Essential and non-essential silicate minerals are abundant in soil. In the form of silicic acid, silicon is quickly absorbed by plant roots and transported to active growth regions where it interacts with organic molecules to strengthen cell walls, giving rise to stronger plants. The alteration of insoluble forms of silicate minerals into soluble ones is a crucial function of silicate bacteria. In addition to solubilizing insoluble forms of silicates, potassium and phosphates can also be effectively dissolved by silicate solubilizing bacteria (SSB), which increases soil fertility and boosts plant productivity. By isolating and screening different bacterial strains, it is possible to identify and select the most effective strains that can efficiently solubilize silica in a particular environment or under specific conditions. Since SSB possesses a variety of PGPR traits, it is a superb choice for use as a biofertilizer to promote plant growth. This review is mainly focused on SSB and their role in activities on plants relative to nutritive perspectives, and the potential to utilise this knowledge to supervise a sustainable and environmentally friendly agricultural system.
... An alternative example of a dual-process model that has been applied as an explanation of jurorlevel decision making is Epstein's (1994) Cognitive-Experiential Self-Theory (CEST). In a similar way to other dual-process explanations, proponents of CEST suggest that information is processed either effortlessly (experiential mode) or analytically (rational mode) (Epstein, 1994). ...
... An alternative example of a dual-process model that has been applied as an explanation of jurorlevel decision making is Epstein's (1994) Cognitive-Experiential Self-Theory (CEST). In a similar way to other dual-process explanations, proponents of CEST suggest that information is processed either effortlessly (experiential mode) or analytically (rational mode) (Epstein, 1994). ...
... The experiential mode is characterised by crude automatic and rapid processing of information whereas the rational mode is conceptualised as an information processing system underpinned by deliberate effortful cognitive appraisal of the circumstances within which an individual finds themselves. An important feature of CEST, when compared to other dual-process models, is the assumption that the default experiential mode of processing only becomes rational when a conscious effort is made to implement higher-level effortful information processing (Epstein, 1994). Integrating heuristic theorising, empirical evidence appears to suggest that within the experiential mode of processing, cognitive shortcuts and biases are relied upon to a much greater extent. ...
Criminal justice systems throughout the world have long considered jury trials to be an essential feature of a fair and just due process. Grounded in the premise that involvement of lay decision makers provides an important safeguard against unfair laws and prosecutions, use of jurors within legal disputes is often attributed as defending against overbearing state control and thereby considered to represent the cornerstone of a demographic society. Today, jury trials continue to be both valued and criticized for including ordinary citizens with no formal legal training, in the most serious trial proceedings, where they are ultimately required to determine guilt (or lack thereof). Although attracting considerable skepticism, especially from countries that rely on legally trained judges to make decision at court, jury trials continue to be used in around 25% of countries around the world.
... A döntéselméletek formálódásának korai időszakát az a felfogás uralta, miszerint a döntéshozatalban a szubjektív élményfolyamatokamelyek a tapasztalatszerzés megszervezésére és a viselkedés tanulásos alapon történő irányítására fejlődtek kialárendelődnek a kognitív folyamatoknak, amelyek az értelmi működés formális logikai aspektusa révén az intuitív folyamatokat meghaladó lehetőségekkel támogatják a választás aktusát (Hastie és Dawes, 2010). A racionalitás elsődlegessége az intuícióval szemben, az érzelmi implikáció döntési hibaforrásként történő felfogása (Phillips, 1997) mára már jórészt meghaladott (Epstein, 1994;Lieberman, 2003). Empirikus eredmények több szinten is rámutatnak arra, hogy elhibázott lenne az észszerűséget állítani a döntési sikeresség mércéjénekugyanis a racionálisnak nyilvánított döntésnek lehetnek elhibázottak is. ...
... Döntési helyzetben az alanyok, bár racionális stratégiákat alkalmaztak, döntésüket mégis erőteljesen áthatotta a szubjektivizmus (Blustein és Strohmer, i.m.). Más esetben, döntésképtelenség eseténamikor a munkafeltételekkel kapcsolatos elvárások ütköztek egymással, vagy amikor a belső hang az észszerűséggel ütközöttaz egyén nem a rációnak, hanem belső megérzésének adott elsőbbséget (Denes-Raj és Epstein, 1994;Zajonc, 1980). Másfelől, a személy-pálya illeszkedésre épülő pályaválasztási modell a racionalitás mellett épp a személyességet tekinti kulcstényezőnek a döntési eredményességben (Singh és Greenhaus, 2004;Yates, 2015). ...
... Idővel azonban egyre sokasodtak azok a kutatási eredmények, melyek alátámasztották az intuitív folyamatok érvényességét a sikeres döntésben. Míg egyes szerzők a racionális döntést kísérő nem tudatos folyamatokra mutattak rá (Berridge, 2002;Winkielman és Berridge, 2003;Berridge és Aldridge, 2009), addig mások az intuitív döntés eredményességét igazolták változatos döntési helyzetekben (Epstein, 1994;Lieberman, 2003). A szakirodalomban elégségesen megalapozottnak tekinthető munkák egyenesen a racionalitás korlátait vették célba (Gilbert és Wilson, 2000;Nisbett és Wilson, 1977), és tették nyilvánvalóvá az intuitív folyamatok megkerülhetetlenségét a döntéshozatalban (Kahneman, 2003;Simon, 1955). ...
There are gaps in the literature on further education as part of the career choice process, particularly in relation to secondary education. In the present study, we have processed empirical data on the decision to continue education among age 13-15 years (grade VIII students in the Romanian education system). Specifically, we investigated the predictive value of four decision strategies in the realization of the preference for further education. In line with international trends, our results highlight an increase in the role of media popularity and a decrease in the role of parents and peers at this age. At the same time, they reveal the strong predictive value of a decision strategy based on true self as guide, which has been studied for the first time in an international context in the secondary school age group.
... Сепак, вниманието на повеќе автори во последно време е насочено кон формулација на генерализирани теории на двојни процеси што ги опишуваат општите принципи на обработка на информации (Epstein, 1994;Kahneman, 2011;Lieberman, 2003;Smith & DeCoster, 2000;Strack & Deutsch, 2004) и формализирани модели на двојни процеси што се обидуваат да ги квантификуваат придонесите на дистинктивните процеси во бихејвиоралните одговори, преку техники на математичко моделирање (Conrey, Sherman, Gawronski, Hugenberg, & Groom, 2005;Jacoby, 1991;Payne & Bishara, 2009) Еден од првите обиди за воопштување на два процесни система е двопроцесната теорија на Епштајн (Epstein, 1994(Epstein, , 2003 за когнитивно-искуствено себство, во која оперирањето на претсвесниот искуствен систем се формулира како автоматско, брзо, конкретно, асоцијативно, примарно невербално кодирање на реалноста преку слики, метафори и наративи наспроти оперирањето на рационалниот систем што е свесно, намерно и аналитичко кодирање на реалноста преку апстрактни симболи, зборови и бројки поврзани со каузални релации. Искуствениот систем во теоријата на Епштајн (1994, 2003) е емоционален и се доживува пасивно, а промените во него се случуваат бавно, преку повторени или релативно интензивни искуства. ...
... Сепак, вниманието на повеќе автори во последно време е насочено кон формулација на генерализирани теории на двојни процеси што ги опишуваат општите принципи на обработка на информации (Epstein, 1994;Kahneman, 2011;Lieberman, 2003;Smith & DeCoster, 2000;Strack & Deutsch, 2004) и формализирани модели на двојни процеси што се обидуваат да ги квантификуваат придонесите на дистинктивните процеси во бихејвиоралните одговори, преку техники на математичко моделирање (Conrey, Sherman, Gawronski, Hugenberg, & Groom, 2005;Jacoby, 1991;Payne & Bishara, 2009) Еден од првите обиди за воопштување на два процесни система е двопроцесната теорија на Епштајн (Epstein, 1994(Epstein, , 2003 за когнитивно-искуствено себство, во која оперирањето на претсвесниот искуствен систем се формулира како автоматско, брзо, конкретно, асоцијативно, примарно невербално кодирање на реалноста преку слики, метафори и наративи наспроти оперирањето на рационалниот систем што е свесно, намерно и аналитичко кодирање на реалноста преку апстрактни симболи, зборови и бројки поврзани со каузални релации. Искуствениот систем во теоријата на Епштајн (1994, 2003) е емоционален и се доживува пасивно, а промените во него се случуваат бавно, преку повторени или релативно интензивни искуства. ...
По влијателната публикација на Гринвалд и Банаџи (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995),имплицитната социјална когниција се профилира како истражувачки домен кој ги обединува наодите од индиректните или имплицитни мерки кои се базираат на хронометриски процедури, наспроти мерките на самоизвестување или експлицитнитемерки. Овој труд дава ограничен теоретски преглед за корените на имплицитната социјална когниција во концептуализациитe за автоматизмот и моделите на двојни процеси од една страна и во концептуализациитe за имплицитното помнење и нивната реинтерпретација од Гринвалд и соработниците (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Greenwald,Banaji, Rudman, Farnham, Nosek, & Mellot, 2002) од друга. Во таа насока, најпрво сеотвора прашањето дали имплицитноста е обележје на иманентните процеси илирепрезентации на социјалната когниција или е опис на емпириските конструктикои се профилирани од процедурите на мерење. Прегледот е повеќе историски и концептуален приказ на двете интелектуални традиции и не претендира да ги сумира акумулираните наоди од имплицитните мерки, кои според некои автори повикуваат на реевалуација на постојните сфаќања за имплицитната социјална когниција.
... Given the possibility of both causal directions X → Y or Y → X in the SA data, we identify the actual underlying mechanism based on insights from psychology (Kahneman, 2011;Epstein, 1994). Specifically, we identify the correspondence of the above two causal mechanisms with the Fast and Slow Thinking systems (Kahneman, 2011): (1) a reviewdriven sentiment (as in C1) largely resembles the Slow Thinking process applying reasoning based on evidence, and (2) the process of first coming up with the sentiment and then justifying it by a review (as in C2) conforms to Fast Thinking. ...
... In psychology, the bifurcation into System 1 and System 2 in human decision-making, including sentiment processing, has garnered substantial empirical support (Kahneman, 2011;Epstein, 1994). System 1, or the "Fast Thinking" system, operates involuntarily, effortlessly, and without conscious awareness. ...
Causal reasoning is a cornerstone of human intelligence and a critical capability for artificial systems aiming to achieve advanced understanding and decision-making. This thesis delves into various dimensions of causal reasoning and understanding in large language models (LLMs). It encompasses a series of studies that explore the causal inference skills of LLMs, the mechanisms behind their performance, and the implications of causal and anticausal learning for natural language processing (NLP) tasks. Additionally, it investigates the application of causal reasoning in text-based computational social science, specifically focusing on political decision-making and the evaluation of scientific impact through citations. Through novel datasets, benchmark tasks, and methodological frameworks, this work identifies key challenges and opportunities to improve the causal capabilities of LLMs, providing a comprehensive foundation for future research in this evolving field.
... Pendekatan intuitif adalah menyampaikan jawaban intuitif sebagai pemicu jawaban formal tanpa ada pembenaran (Epstein, 1994;Evans, 2014;Kahneman & Frederick, 2002). Pendekatan konkret adalah menyelidiki permasalahan dari berbagai sudut pandang menggunakan benda konkret, selanjutnya pendekatan representasi adalah membuat berbagai macam representasi dari penyelidikan masalah pada aktivitas konkret (Bruner, 1974;Bruner, 2009;Major & Mangope, 2012). ...
... Pendekatan konkret adalah menyelidiki permasalahan dari berbagai sudut pandang menggunakan benda konkret, selanjutnya pendekatan representasi adalah membuat berbagai macam representasi dari penyelidikan masalah pada aktivitas konkret (Bruner, 1974;Bruner, 2009;Major & Mangope, 2012). Pendekatan abstrak adalah menemukan aturan secara abstrak (Epstein, 1994;Evans, 2014;Kahneman & Frederick, 2002;Robbins, 2011) Keempat pendekatan tersebut dapat mendukung fleksibitas berpikir kreatif karena intuisi (pikiran bawah sadar) memungkinkan seseorang untuk mengatur masalah dengan cara baru (Segal, 2004;Sio & Ormerod, 2009), pemahaman konkret akan membentuk pemikiran yang feksibel dari satu konsep ke konsep lain dalam memecahkan masalah (Kang & Liu, 2018), representasi berkaitan erat ketika seseorang mengeksplorasi ide-idenya dan menghasilkan berbagai macam ide yang berbeda secara konseptual (Delice & Kertil, 2015), dan berpikir secara abstrak mengakibatkan terjadinya proses penyatuan ide sehingga menghasilkan ide-ide lain yang berbeda (Barr et al., 2015). ...
Fleksibilitas dalam berpikir kreatif menjadi sangat penting untuk dibahas karena berpotensi menghasilkan cara-cara yang beragam secara konseptual. Ketika fleksibilitas berpikir dikuasai, maka tercipta kepercayaan diri dan keberanian untuk mengeksplorasi gagasan baru. Dalam konteks matematika, fleksibilitas berpikir memungkinkan siswa untuk merepresentasikan masalah matematika dengan berbagai cara, seperti diagram, grafik, tabel, atau persamaan sesuai dengan pemahaman siswa kebutuhan masalah. Artikel ini membahas secara mendalam konsep fleksibilitas dalam berpikir kreatif matematis meliputi metode penilaian, cara-cara untuk menunjukkan fleksibilitas pada masalah geometri, dan penerapannya dalam situasi praktis. Artikel ini merupakan studi literatur yang mengkaji berbagai jenis artikel jurnal dan buku sehingga dihasilkan deskripsi yang mendalam. Hasil studi literatur ini menunjukkan bahwa fleksibilitas berkaitan dengan kapasitas mengubah cara dengan melihat suatu masalah dari perspektif yang berbeda-beda, Fleksibilitas diukur dengan aktivitas mengubah fokus, mencoba strategi yang berbeda, memanfaatkan representasi yang berbeda, dan menghubungkan berbagai cabang matematika. Beberapa kriteria masalah yang dapat mendukung fleksibilitas dalam berpikir, yaitu masalah terbuka, terkoneksi, visual, dan menantang. Salah satu contoh aplikasi praktis yang mendukung fleksibilitas berpikir kreatif matematis siswa adalah menggunakan pendekatan intuitif, konkret, representasi, dan abstrak.
... All are based on the assumption that there is a direct relationship between the disposition to think critically and the ability to make more rational decisions. According to cognitive-experiential self-theory (Epstein, 1994;Pacini & Epstein, 1999;Kahneman, 2011), people process information through two interacting systems: an experiential, intuitive, and emotional system; and a rational, analytical, and deliberative system (Stanovich & West, 2000). The rational system, aligned with CT skills, facilitates purposeful and self-regulatory judgement (Facione, 1990) and cognitive strategies aimed at desirable outcomes (Halpern & Dunn, 2021). ...
... The experiential system considers intuitions and emotions to be an important part of the decision-making process. The ability to integrate these two systems effectively can lead to more balanced and well-founded decisions (Epstein, 1994;Kahneman, 2011). A greater CT disposition entails not only a tendency to use the rational system but also an ability to harmonise it with the experiential system. ...
Objective: This paper evaluates the outcomes of a critical thinking (CT) training programme designed for university students using a blended approach (Abrami et al., 2008). It aimed to develop students’ CT disposition and new media literacy (NML) in a rapidly changing, digitalised organisational context where the internet is the primary source of information. Methodology: The programme´s effectiveness was assessed using two evaluations: one at the start and another at the end of the course. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to analyse differences resulting from the intervention. Results: The results indicate a significant improvement in CT disposition after the intervention. However, no increase in NML was observed. Although participants showed a greater tendency toward rational thinking, the anticipated direct relationship between enhanced CT and improved NML was weaker than expected. This suggests that the development of CT alone does not sufficiently boost NML, highlighting the need for targeted training to strengthen this critical skill. Limitations: Key limitations include the absence of a control group and the implementation and testing of this type of programme in organisational contexts. Practical implications: The study confirms the programme’s effectiveness in fostering CT disposition but underscores the necessity of focusing more comprehensively on NML in future training efforts. Enhancing NML is vital for young professionals to engage effectively with digital media in an increasingly technological work and social environment.
... Constructive thinking is a concept of Cognitive experiential theory, which is associated with dual process nomenclature of experiential/intuitive (emotionbased) and rational systems (Epstein, 1994;Epstein et al., 1996, Karastoyanov, 2014. CET posited that people process information by two parallel but interacting modes of cognitive styles: analytical-rational style and experiential-intuitive style. ...
... The analyticalrational style operates at the conscious level and it is intentional, analytic, logical, and affect-free. In contrast, the experiential-intuitive style is assumed to be automatic, more rapid processing oriented, and associative (Epstein, 1994, Epstein et al., 1996Epstein, Pacini, 2001;Karastoyanov, 2014). On the positive side, an experiential thinking style is associated with spontaneity, emotional expressiveness, agreeableness, extraversion, and establishing favorable interpersonal relationships. ...
... Salas, Rosen y Diaz-Granados (2010) afirman que, como elemento adicional a las características de los decisores (ej., las diferencias individuales en estilos de procesamiento; Epstein, 1994;Hodgkinson, Sadler-Smith, Sinclair, & Ashkanasy, 2009), el ambiente resulta importante al considerar la efectividad de la intuición, sobre todo frente a la presencia o ausencia de estímulos estresores (Hammond, 2000citado en Salas et al., 2010Larsen, 2001). En tal entorno, la "presión del tiempo" representa uno de tales estresores, manifestando "una fuerte influencia sobre la tendencia al uso de la intuición como una base para la toma de decisiones" (Salas et al., 2010, p. 950), debido a que su escasez incrementa la dependencia sobre este proceso cognitivo inconsciente, por el hecho concreto de que los decisores no disponen de una cantidad de tiempo que les permita la búsqueda exhaustiva de estrategias subyacentes a modelos decisorios puramente conscientes y racionales (Lipshitz, Klein, Orasanu, & Salas, 2001citado en Salas et al., 2010. ...
... Para operacionalizar el estilo decisorio predominante se elaboró una tarea en la que los sujetos tenían que evaluar cinco situaciones posibles y habituales con las que un "casco azul" puede enfrentarse en una misión de paz. Cada una de estas cinco situaciones contaba con cuatro opciones posibles de respuesta, de las cuales los sujetos tenían que decidir sólo por una; de estas cuatro opciones, dos proponían respuestas basadas en un procesamiento decisorio intuitivo y las otras dos en un procesamiento decisorio analítico (contrabalanceándose el orden), conforme a los modelos teóricos propuestos por Simon (1947;1955;1987), Epstein (1994) y Klein (1998;2003). Por ejemplo, en una de las cinco situaciones planteadas (ver más adelante) se plantearon las cuatro siguientes opciones de respuesta (el subrayado intenta destacar al lector del presente texto los ítems que indicaban análisis de información o intuición sobre lo ocurrido, más allá de que la decisión fuera intervenir o no hacerlo): a) Decide acercarse al lugar del hecho, dado que parece haber disturbios entre civiles. ...
Militares argentinos que operan de manera voluntaria en misiones de paz deben tomar decisiones en contextos caracterizados por la diversidad cultural y la incertidumbre (Azzollini, Torres, Depaula, Clotet & Nistal, 2010), requiriéndose para el logro de acciones eficaces la aplicación de estrategias de procesamiento intuitivas y/o analíticas según las circunstancias. El objetivo del trabajo es analizar las relaciones entre el estilo decisorio predominante y su efectividad bajo diferentes niveles de incertidumbre cultural, evaluando 116 voluntarios en diferentes situaciones en las que se manipularon experimentalmente tales variables. Los resultados indican que los sujetos con un estilo predominantemente analítico tomaron decisiones más eficaces (f = 17.069; gl = 1; p = .000), aunque tal estrategia resultó más efectiva en situaciones de baja incertidumbre; en tanto que los sujetos con un estilo predominantemente intuitivo, aunque con un nivel de efectividad general menor, resultaron más eficaces en cuando la toma de decisiones correspondía a un contexto de alta incertidumbre (f = 5.450; gl = 1; p = .02). Palabras claves: Toma de Decisiones; Incertidumbre Cultural; Estilo Intuitivo; Estilo Analítico. Incidence Of Predominant Desicion Style And Degree Of Cultural Uncertainty On Effectiveness Of Desicions Taken By Voluntary Military Personnel In Peace Missions: Argentine militaries who voluntarily take part in Peace Keeping Operations, have to take decisions in environments which are influenced by multicultural contexts and uncertainty (Azzollini, Torres, Depaula, Clotet & Nistal, 2010). The effectiveness of their actions requires the use of intuitive and/or analytical processing strategies according to the circumstances. The aim of this work is to analyze the relationships between the predominant decisive style and its effectiveness under different levels of cultural uncertainty. A sample of 116 voluntary servicemen was evaluated in different situations in which such variables were experimentally manipulated. Results show that the subjects with a predominantly analytical style has taken decisions much more effective (f = 17.069; gl = 1; p = .000) being more effective their strategies in situations of low uncertainty. Meanwhile those subjects, with a predominantly intuitive style but with a minor level of general effectiveness, are more effective in the decision making contexts of high uncertainty (f = 5.450; gl = 1; p = .02). Key Words: Decision Making; Cultural Uncertainty; Intuitive Style; Analytical Style.
... El objetivo de este estudio es que los responsables de la alimentación mejoren la calidad de la alimentación complementaria de los bebés de seis a veinticuatro meses de edad, ofreciéndoles alimentos nutritivos de acuerdo con la edad del niño y en la secuencia establecida por la Freud fue el primero en plantear que los seres humanos no tienen todo el control de su mente y explicó que los procesos mentales definen la conducta de los individuos, sobre todo los procesos inconscientes, a los que llamó también primarios. En la época en la que surge su teoría las únicas explicaciones a las conductas tenían carácter mágico, por lo que su propuesta fue revolucionaria (Epstein, 1994). Thompson et al. (1973) proponen que la Teoría Dual de Procesamiento, se enfoca en el resultado del comportamiento de dos procesos mentales: uno, automático, y otro, razonado. ...
... Los seres humanos compartimos la predominancia del proceso asociativo con las otras especies animales. La dominancia del proceso razonado, se considera que surgió como parte de la evolución del hombre (Epstein, 1994). Una característica muy importante del proceso asociativo es que responde rápidamente a los estímulos y se mantiene activo en todo momento (Kahneman, 2011). ...
... Kahneman (2011) reinforces this distinction, noting that logical thinking is slower and more deliberate while narrative thinking is faster and more intuitive. Epstein (1994) adds that the experiential system, associated with narrative thinking, processes information automatically and effortlessly, facilitating the construction of meaning. Consequently, as Haidt (2019) points out, narratives tend to generate emotional reactions, whereas data promote reflection. ...
Introducción: La comunicación política contemporánea se caracteriza por un “giro narrativo” donde políticos y partidos emplean estratégicamente relatos para construir identidades, movilizar a las masas y legitimarse. Este estudio busca analizar la frecuencia con la que los candidatos a la presidencia recurren a narrativas políticas y evaluar si se confirma la tendencia hacia un 'giro narrativo' en las campañas electorales. Metodología: Se realizó un análisis de contenido cuantitativo exploratorio de las publicaciones en redes sociales (Instagram, X, Facebook y TikTok) de candidatos presidenciales en siete países sudamericanos. A su vez, se codificaron variables relacionadas con la presencia de narrativas políticas, la naturaleza de estas, las temáticas predominantes y las reacciones del público. La confiabilidad de los datos se garantiza mediante un riguroso proceso de codificación y análisis interjueces. Resultados: El estudio revela un predominio del contenido narrativo en las campañas presidenciales sudamericanas, confirmando el "giro narrativo" en la comunicación política. El storytelling personalizado supera al storydoing, sugiriendo una preferencia por historias contadas en primera persona. Discusión: Los candidatos priorizan temas proselitistas, pero la ciudadanía muestra mayor interés en el storytelling personalizado, lo que cuestiona la efectividad del storydoing. Conclusiones: Los resultados exhiben una transformación en la comunicación política, donde las narrativas y las imágenes juegan un papel central. La ciudadanía valora la conexión emocional y la identificación con los candidatos, lo que plantea desafíos para la construcción de un debate público más informado y racional.
... This relationship draws attention due to differing views that either argue whether decisions are based on rational reasoning or that they rely on intuition and cognitive shortcuts. When dual-process theories of information processing are examined, two distinct systems emerge: the rational and the experiential information processing systems (Epstein, 1994). ...
Decision making is a situation that we encounter everyday. we come across theories supporting that we make decisions based on intuitions against the theories supporting that we make a decision by evaluating the possible results of the choices. Working memory has an important part in remembering the results of previous decisions and evaluating the consequences and studies are made to examine the relation between the two. Any load that limits working memory capacity effects decision making outcomes. The fact that there are two groups of theories that support rational or intuitive decision making has led to the investigation of relation between rational-experiential information processing and decision making. Yet studies investigate these relations separately. In the current study, the effect of cognitive load on information processing strategy and the way which it alters decision making is examined. Results show a significant relationship between working memory capacity and rational information processing, but no such relationship is found to be significant in relation to experiential processing as excepted. Cognitive load had a significant main effect on decision making and rationality but had no effect on experientiality. Results are discussed in accordance with relevant literature.
... In the second type, parallel models, both processes are activated from the beginning. The deliberative process is shut down if no conflict is detected between the two processes and if there is a conflict, the deliberative finishes to process its answer [20,31,54]. However, these two types of model share a common flaw. ...
... A recent review indicated that healthcare staff relies more frequently on so-called intuitive processes in situations with time pressure, uncertainty, and dynamic event development [91]. Using the dual-process theory [24,42], clinical researchers (e.g., [21,88]) have contrasted the analytic process described above with an intuitive process. The intuitive process is driven by heuristics and experience and is frequently described as matching the present situation to patterns that have been learned or experienced before [66]. ...
Recent advancements in artificial intelligence have sparked discussions on how clinical decision-making can be supported. New clinical decision support systems (CDSSs) have been developed and evaluated through workshops and interviews. However, limited research exists on how CDSSs affect decision-making as it unfolds, particularly in settings such as acute care, where decisions are made collaboratively under time pressure and uncertainty. Using a mixed-method study, we explored the impact of a CDSS on decisionmaking in anesthetic teams during simulated operating room crises. Fourteen anesthetic teams participated in high-fidelity simulations,
half using a CDSS prototype for comparative analysis. Qualitative findings from conversation analysis and quantitative results on decision-making efficiency and workload revealed that the CDSS changed team structure, communication, and diagnostic processes. It homogenized decision-making, empowered nursing staff, and introduced friction between analytical and intuitive thinking. We discuss whether these changes are beneficial or detrimental and offer insights to guide future CDSS design.
... I present a theoretical and empirical perspective of life perception in the context of young people from two types of schools: primary school (13-15 years old pupils) and high school (16-18 years old students). Theoretical framework based on two theories: cognitive-experiential self-theory of personality by S. Epstein (1985Epstein ( , 1991Epstein ( , 1994Epstein ( , 2003 and Urie Brofenbrenner's ecological theory (1979) and Polish condition for development in local environment described by many authors (Bańka, 2002; Mendel, 2005; Pilch, Lepalczyk, 1995, Theiss, 2001 and others). I was looking for dependencies between the image of life and interpersonal relations, dependencies between interpersonal relations and the sense of effectiveness and the differentiation of living conditions depending on the size of the place of residence (big city/medium sized cities/small town and rural environment). ...
present a theoretical and empirical perspective of life perception in the context of young people from two types of schools: primary school (13–15 years old pupils) and high school (16–18 years old students). Theoretical framework based on two theories: cognitive-experiential self-theory of personality by S. Epstein (1985, 1991, 1994, 2003) and Urie Brofenbrenner’s ecological theory (1979) and Polish condition for development in local environment described by many authors (Bańka, 2002; Mendel, 2005; Pilch, Lepalczyk, 1995, Theiss, 2001 and others). I was looking for dependencies between the image of life and interpersonal relations, dependencies between interpersonal relations and the sense of effectiveness and the differentiation of living conditions depending on the size of the place of residence (big city/medium sized cities/small town and rural environment). The image of life was analysed as beliefs about the ability to control events in it and personal effectiveness vs helplessness is a phenomenon mostly determined by learning experiences (reactions of the environment to the individual’s actions), although in part they are developmental in nature, being related to cognitive, emotional and social development. The results of the research, provided by diagnostic survey method, show that in adolescents aged 13–15, the image of life correlates significantly (p˂0,05) and positively (r˃0) with total interpersonal relationships and all its subscales (prosociality, non-aggressiveness, self towards others, support, no threat, others against me). In adolescents aged 16–18, I note significant correlations only in a few parameters – prosociality, self towards others, support and together with the category of interpersonal relations. I did not notice any statistically significant differentiation of living conditions depending on the size of the place of residence among young people aged 13–15 (all of them p>0,05). For the oldest group – among adolescents aged 16–18 – I find lower levels of self-efficiency in students in large cities. It is significantly lower than among adolescents from medium-sized cities and significantly lower than among adolescents from small towns and rural areas among adolescents aged 16–18. It confirmed that social ties, relationships in medium size cities, small towns and rural environments are more close and significant, and offer more opportunities for supporting personal development than big cities for adolescents at their 16–18 years of age.
... number ratio, despite their statistical equivalence. In fact, some people are w i h g to pay small amounts of money for the privilege of choosing from the large number ratio (Kirkpatrick & Epstein, 1992), and 61% of participants preferred a 9% probabdity using the large number ratio over a 10% probability using the small number ratio (Denes-Raj & Epstein, 1994). In sum, the ratio-bias effect is useful for comparing the theory's experiential and rational systems because, despite knowledge to the contrary, people often make choices based on their intuitive impressions (Kirkpatrick & Epstein, 1992;Denes-Raj & Epstein, 1994;Denes-Raj, Epstein, & Cole, 1995;Pacini, Muir, & Epstein, 1998;Pacini & Epstein, 1999). ...
The ratio-bias effect refers to the perception that a low probability event is more likely when presented in the form of a larger, e.g., 10-in-100, than smaller, e.g., 1-in-10, numerical ratio. This phenomenon has been used to help distinguish between rational-analytic versus heuristic-automatic ways of problem solving. In the current study, responding in accordance with the ratio bias was more prevalent when choices were presented pictorially as opposed to textually. Results are discussed with respect to how various factors, including mode of information presentation, may affect whether problems are solved via heuristic, automatic processes as opposed to effortful, analytic strategies.
... Physicians quickly establish preliminary diagnoses through certain typical descriptions and specific combinations of symptoms that have been repeatedly validated in long-term clinical practice. The dual-processing theory (DPT) [21,22], which integrates hypothesis testing methodologies with pattern recognition approaches, has gained widespread recognition and acceptance among medical experts. DPT includes system 1 and system 2 [23]. ...
Large language models (LLMs), particularly those with reasoning capabilities, have rapidly advanced in recent years, demonstrating significant potential across a wide range of applications. However, their deployment in healthcare, especially in disease reasoning tasks, is hindered by the challenge of acquiring expert-level cognitive data. In this paper, we introduce Citrus, a medical language model that bridges the gap between clinical expertise and AI reasoning by emulating the cognitive processes of medical experts. The model is trained on a large corpus of simulated expert disease reasoning data, synthesized using a novel approach that accurately captures the decision-making pathways of clinicians. This approach enables Citrus to better simulate the complex reasoning processes involved in diagnosing and treating medical conditions.To further address the lack of publicly available datasets for medical reasoning tasks, we release the last-stage training data, including a custom-built medical diagnostic dialogue dataset. This open-source contribution aims to support further research and development in the field. Evaluations using authoritative benchmarks such as MedQA, covering tasks in medical reasoning and language understanding, show that Citrus achieves superior performance compared to other models of similar size. These results highlight Citrus potential to significantly enhance medical decision support systems, providing a more accurate and efficient tool for clinical decision-making.
... Factors to influencing the decisions through recommendations may be helpful by using expert's opinions so it may use short-term decisions to sell and hold stock (Krishnan & Booker, 2002). Epstein (1994) experienced the importance of social information to individual investors. It may analyze the worth of yearly reports to investor's shareholders. ...
Behavioral finance examines psychological and sociological factors that affect decisions when individuals making investment decisions. Investors carry out investment analysis used to examine assets, trends in the market, and past market data. Investors' judgment is linked with decision choices. It is commonly used to analyze information and know-how about business, minimize risk, and their outcome. The current study objects to investigate the impact of different factors like accounting information, self/firm image, advocate recommendations, personal financial needs, and neutral Information on investment decisions. 169 investors that constituted the sample size. The current research found that there is a positive and significant impact of these factors on investment decisions. JEL Classifications: G11, B31, E22
... The term altruism was first coined by Comte, the founder of French sociology, to mean the willingness to benefit others through one's actions [4]. Dual processing theory [5][6][7][8][9][10][11] suggests that humans have an analytical and empirical information processing system. The former involves conscious, relatively time-consuming, rulebased reasoning mediated primarily by language. ...
The current study delved into how aesthetic context intertwined with cell molecular biomechanics to influence pupils’ explicit and implicit altruistic behaviour. In Experiment 1, when looking at the effects of different aesthetic contexts on pupils’ explicit altruistic behaviour, it was found that explicit aesthetic context had a notable priming effect on implicit altruistic behaviour. From a cell molecular biomechanics perspective, perhaps in an explicit aesthetic context, specific cell surface receptors respond to external stimuli related to beauty, triggering intracellular molecular signaling pathways that eventually influence implicit altruistic responses more than in implicit or non-aesthetic contexts where such coordinated signaling is less pronounced. Experiment 2 on implicit altruistic behaviour again detected the implicit association test (IAT) effect. Implicit aesthetic contexts showed a significant priming effect. Here, at the cell molecular level, the microenvironment within cells might be altered by the implicit aesthetic perception, like changes in cytoplasmic viscosity or the movement of organelles affected by aesthetic feelings, which then play a key role in shaping implicit altruistic behaviour compared to explicit and non-aesthetic contexts. Overall, it’s clear that explicit and implicit altruistic behaviours rely on distinct processing mechanisms involving both aesthetic context and cell molecular biomechanics. The two aesthetic contexts have selective impacts via different path mechanisms related to these cellular processes.
... It has been suggested that personal will, similar to brain states, could be both conscious and unconscious, depending on the circumstance (Deecke, 2012). According to Cognitive-Experiential Self-Theory (CEST), a dual-process model by Epstein (1994), the rational system and the emotionally driven experiential system are interactive. This interaction could explain the mediation identified in Nahmias et al. (2020), as well as the counterintuitive finding that free will belief was predicted by experiential, but not rational thinking style (Forstmann & Burgmer, 2018). ...
The existence of free will has been a subject of fierce academic debate for millennia, still the meaning of the term “free will” remains nebulous. In the past two decades, psychologists have made considerable progress in defining lay concepts of free will. We present the first systematic review of primary psychological evidence on how ordinary folk conceptualise free will, encompassing folk concepts, beliefs, intuitions, and attitudes about free will. A total of 1,384 records were identified following a pre-registered protocol. After abstract and full-text screening, 18 articles published from 2008 to 2020 were eligible for inclusion, comprised of 36 studies and 10,176 participants from regions including the United States, Singapore, Hong Kong, India, Turkey, and Germany. A narrative synthesis of results showed that for ordinary folk, especially the more educated population from the United States, free will is a dynamic construct centred on the ability to choose following one’s goals and desires, whilst being uncoerced and reasonably free from constraints. Results suggesting metaphysical considerations regarding consciousness, dualism, and determinism were inconclusive. Our findings provided preliminary support for a psychological model of folk conception of free will, and elucidated potential pathways mediating the effects of consciousness and dualism on free will attributions. Further research is needed to explicate the distinction between having free will and having the ability to exercise free will, as well as the cross-cultural generalizability and differences of findings on folk conceptions of free will.
Keywords: free will, choice, folk concepts, lay beliefs, systematic review, open science
... Given that emotions can be triggered more quickly than rational responses (Ekman, 1992;Epstein, 1994), it is not surprising that aesthetics not only influences whether people like or dislike a given website within milliseconds (Lindgaard et al., 2006;Tuch et al., 2012), but it also affects different intentional and behavioural outcomes. Before utilizing a website, aesthetics influences preference more strongly than usability (Lee & Koubek, 2010;Baek & Michael Ok, 2017). ...
The present study assess Algerian hotels website design, thru its technical and aesthetic elements defined as: Content, Structure, Interaction and Representation. Thru the analysis of combined scores and ratios obtained from a content analysis and loading time user's experiment for four Algerian hotels websites located in the city of Constantine, we choose Marriott Bonvoy® website for the Marriott Constantine hotel as a benchmark for aesthetic elements, as well for the rest of technical elements. The study concludes that Marriott is the best hotel followed by a three-star hotel named El Bey Hotel, which is considered as the best designed hotel for all the elements even some serious structure element problem due to the long loading time for both Mobile Internet and Wi-Fi Internet in the first user's experience, with 39,2 and 25,15 seconds beyond the recommended 5.3 seconds. Moreover, the study suggest some managerial implications improvements to the managerial staff of these hotels.
... People comprehend reality in two primary fashions-an intuitive one and an analytical one [1]. As such these two approaches lend themselves to how we interpret risk in general and how we interpret it in a business context. ...
https://www.intechopen.com/online-first/1180614
n modern industry, risk is often understood, communicated, and actioned upon through decision support tools. These tools often incorporate machine learning, statistical and optimization models. These models, especially optimization models, are often point estimate based and must be artfully massaged to incorporate uncertainty to build robust—risk adjusted models that provide a good basis for optimal, long term, goal-based decision making. Probability estimation, simulation and chance constrained optimization are three well known techniques that when used alone or in combination can increase the power of optimization models by considering the underlying risk of the process being optimized when recommending alternatives to decision makers.
... Scholars organised the information processing systems as System/Type 1, which is rapid, intuitive, automatic, implicit and associative and System/Type 2, which is slower in comparison, analytic, rule-based, explicit and contextual (Evans and Stanovich, 2013;Stanovich and West, 2000). Dual process theories sometimes hold dichotomous descriptions of duality, such as implicit/explicit (Reber, 1998), reflexive/reflective (Lieberman, 2007), experiential/rational (Epstein, 1994), or nonlinear/linear (Vance et al., 2007). In many of these theories, intuition is embedded in a particular system, one of the multiple dimensions of a composite construct (Groves and Vance, 2015). ...
... Literatürdeki çalışmalar, bu sonuçları destekler niteliktedir. Örneğin, Epstein (1994) sezgisel karar vermenin deneyim ve duygusal süreçlere dayandığını, akılcı karar vermenin ise analitik ve mantıksal süreçlere dayandığını belirtmiştir. Bu durum, akılcı karar verme stilinin daha yaygın olabileceğini ve eğitim süreçlerinde daha fazla vurgulanabileceğini göstermektedir. ...
Bu araştırmanın temel amacı, sporcuların akılcı ve sezgisel karar verme ve sportmenlik davranış düzeylerini belirlemek, aralarındaki ilişkiyi ortaya koymak ve belirlenen değişkenler açısından incelemektir. Bu amaçla üniversite sporlarında hentbol oynayan toplam 144 (78’i kadın %54,2, 66’sı erkek %45,8) katılımcı çalışma grubunu oluşturmuştur. Çalışma grubuna kolay örneklem oluşturma yöntemi ile ulaşılmıştır. Araştırma nicel yaklaşım perspektifinde kesitsel-tarama yöntemi ile yapılmıştır. Çalışmada “Akılcı ve Sezgisel Karar Verme Sitilleri Ölçeği”, “ Sportmenlik Davranış Ölçeği” ve araştırmacı tarafından oluşturulan “ Kişisel Bilgi Formu” kullanılmıştır. Verilerin analizinde betimsel istatistik, bağımsız gruplar için T-Testi, tek yönlü ANOVA, Korelasyon ve Regresyon testlerinden yararlanılmıştır. Analizlerin uygulanabilirliğine basıklık ve çarpıklık değerleri göz önünde bulundurularak karar verilmiştir. Araştırma katılım sağlayan hentbol sporcularının akılcı ve sezgisel karar verme sitilleri ile sportmenlik davranışlarının ortalama düzeyin üzerinde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Akılcı ve sezgisel karar verme ölçeği ile bağımsız değişkenler arasında farklılıklar incelendiğinde; cinsiyete, üniversitede okuduğu akademik bölüme, spor yapma amacı vegelir algısına göreanlamlı farklılıklar saptanmıştır. Sportmenlik davranışları açısından bağımsız değişkenlerden elde edilen bulgulara göre, cinsiyet, yaş, spor yapma amacına bağlı anlamlı farklılıklar görülürken; spor yapma yılı ve okuduğu akademik bölüm açısından sportmenlik davranışları benzeşmektedir. Diğer önemli bir bulgu ise, akılcı ve sezgisel karar verme sitilleri ile sportmenlik davranışları arasındapozitif yönlü (0,627) orta düzeyde anlamlı ilişki olmasıdır. Ayrıca, sporcuların sportmenlik davranışlarınıyordamada (%39) sporcuların akılcı ve sezgisel karar verme sitillerinin önemli rolü olduğudur.
... Third, our model is based on rational decision-making, where we present the process of saliency as conscious and considered. In practice, however, actors might use intuition or even irony when facing organizational issues in general (Dane and Pratt 2007;Keller and Sadler-Smith 2019) and sustainability in particular (Menzel 2013), where decisions are made using unconscious information processing (Epstein 1994;Lieberman 2000). ...
Sustainability issues are associated with numerous tensions. These tensions are sometimes being referred to as wicked or even paradoxical. As long as tensions stay latent for organizational members, they will not be perceived and, thus, will not be adequately managed. The question of how tensions become salient is therefore of particular interest. Prior research suggests that contextual and cognitive factors render latent tensions salient and argues that advanced cognition is required to recognize sustainability tensions. In this paper, we show that developing cognition is only one possible strategy. We argue that information links a situation with actors' cognition and is therefore vital for rendering latent sustainability tensions salient. We show that simplifying information and making information more complex are two additional ways to recognize sustainability tensions. The situation–information–cognition (SIC) rule we develop in this article shows when and under which conditions the three strategies apply interchangeably or in combination.
... Die Begriffschöpfung des Resistance to Change wird Kurt Lewin (Lewin, 1947) (Plomin & Nesselroade, 1990;Plomin, 1986 (Sloman, 1996;Epstein, 1994 "People that are high on dispositional resistance to change, which is conceptualized as a stable personality trait, are less likely to voluntarily incorporate changes into their lives, and when change is imposed upon them they are more likely to experience negative emotional reactions, such as anxiety, anger and fear" (S.77). ...
To cope with the challenges of climate change, proactive changes in our habits of consumption are inevitable. Food consumption goes along with a large environmental impact, thus the food we buy yields substantial ecological saving potentials. Sustainable nutrition necessitates a certain willingness to change on side of the consumer, therefore the consumer shares a certain amount of responsibility regarding the market equilibrium. The Resistance to Change (RTC) scale makes a person's refusal towards changes measurable but has yet not been used in the context of nutrition. This thesis examines to what extent the individual resistance to changes correlates with aspects of sustainable nutrition. Regarding operationalization, this study seeks to develop a suitable questionnaire based on theoretical background and optimizes a german version of the RTC scale. To answer the research question, statements of 118 german-speaking adults, collected by an online survey, are statistically analysed with the aid of correlation analysis. Results show, that some aspects of sustainable nutrition-as consumption of animal products-yield weak coherences with RTC. In contrast, there is no relation with organic foods. Moreover, with small effect size, there is a significant negative correlation of the packaging variable and resistance variable observable. Thus, it is assumed that with pronounced RTC, there is less heed to eco-friendly packaging. Also, participants consume less animal but more ecological products, when they stated to be mindful of eco-friendly packaging. The results highlight the assumptions of previous research, that individual-related attributes are of importance regarding sustainable behaviour. For further research, the examination of a potential correlation of environmentally relevant moral values and RTC seems promising. Moreover, the question how far awareness for sustainable diets, paired with willingness to behaviour change, has impact on the individual eating habits, remains auspicious.
... Why the dual process theory does not work in clinical reasoning and decision-making From a historical perspective, the cognitive model of dichotomising human thought processes into separate pathways of intuition ("irrational thinking") and reason ("rational thought") actually originated in the early 1900s from the works of psychologists James and Freud [13], before it became formalised, developed and widely advocated by mainstream scholars and psychologists such as Kahneman [18], Epstein [19], Evans [20,21], Stanovich [21] and Carruthers [22]. Subsequently, in the medical arena, Croskerry and colleagues have directly applied the dual process model to explain clinical reasoning and how errors in diagnosis and clinical judgment occur [10-12, 23, 24]. ...
Clinical reasoning is a quintessential aspect of medical training and practice, and is a topic that has been studied and written about extensively over the past few decades. However, the predominant conceptualisation of clinical reasoning has insofar been extrapolated from cognitive psychological theories that have been developed in other areas of human decision-making. Till date, the prevailing model of understanding clinical reasoning has remained as the dual process theory which views cognition as a dichotomous two-system construct, where intuitive thinking is fast, efficient, automatic but error-prone, and analytical thinking is slow, effortful, logical, deliberate and likely more accurate. Nonetheless, we find that the dual process model has significant flaws, not only in its fundamental construct validity, but also in its lack of practicality and applicability in naturistic clinical decision-making. Instead, we herein offer an alternative Bayesian-centric, intuitionist approach to clinical reasoning that we believe is more representative of real-world clinical decision-making, and suggest pedagogical and practice-based strategies to optimise and strengthen clinical thinking in this model to improve its accuracy in actual practice.
... Coronavirus (31) Amplifier (30) Contaminant/contamination (29) Swab/s (21) Airborne (20) Variant/s (20) Superspreader(s), superspreading (20) Atypical pneumonia (18) SARS-CoV (severe, acute respiratory syndrome from coronavirus) (18) Quarantine (16) Amplification host(s) (15) Blood serum (13) Contagious (12) Reservoir species (11) Airborne transmission/transmissible (10) Spike/s (10) N95 (FFP2) (8) Intubated/intubation (7) Seroprevalence (7) Virus hunter (7) Wet market (7) Droplet(s) (6) Contagion (6) Gowns (6) Virosphere (4) Intensive care (3) Pangolin (3) Cytopathic effect (1) ...
The term “Anthropocene”, introduced by Crutzen and Stoermer in 2000, describes the massive impact of human activities able to influence geological processes: humans are a force of nature in a geological sense. The recognition of a close interdependence between man and nature has been consciously elaborated only since the late 1960s and early 1970s, thanks to publications in scientific environmentalism. It is indeed valuable to note that literary texts discuss these issues much earlier. Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862), in his essay Walking back in 1861 introduces the idea of preserving nature when it was unknown and unpredictable. A few years later, another author, John Muir (1838–1914), supports the interpretation of nature as worthy of intrinsic value and contributes to the creation of the Yosemite Park in California. What these texts have in common is that they belong to the genre “nature writing”, which is capable of putting itself at the service of the natural environment and to which Spillover: Animal Infections and the Next Human Pandemic (2012) by American nature writer, David Quammen, also belongs. Spillover fits perfectly into this literary tradition, embodying the main characteristics of the genre. Moreover, it shows some optimism towards the future, offering the possibility of redemption to our species. The redemption of literature in the context of environmental narration is solidified not only through nature writing. Spillover proves to be prophetic like its classical ancestors, also through the introduction of a new terminology that contributes to developing a new lexicon, that of the Anthropocene.
... The fourth discursive theme is that humans create artificial intelligence, which will serve humankind. Copernicus's discovery showed us that our planet is not the center of the universe, Darwin's discovery pointed out that humankind is not unique compared with other creatures, and finally, Freud told us that we are not even in control of our minds (Epstein, 1994). All these three significant scientific revolutions still cannot break the firm belief that everything is under the control of humankind and that everything in this universe is created to serve humankind. ...
This research delves into the perceptions of Generation Z—those on the brink of stepping into managerial and employer roles—regarding the advancements in technology, with a particular focus on artificial intelligence (AI) and its potential effects on their future careers and the overall job landscape. Through in-depth inter
views with eight university students belonging to Generation Z, conducted in a focus group setting on their campus, this study aims to uncover how this digitally native generation envisions the integration of AI into their professional lives. Contrary to the common narrative that views technological advancements as a threat to human employment, the findings from our discourse analysis reveal a different concern among Gen Z participants. They do not regard AI as a peril to their career prospects. Instead, they identify the real threat as being dominant and dictatorial management styles. This pivotal insight shifts the discourse from the often fear-mongered narrative surrounding AI’s impact on jobs to a more nuanced understand
ing of workplace dynamics in the context of emerging technologies. By highlighting Generation Z’s concerns and expectations, this research contributes significantly to the ongoing conversation about the evolving nature of work amid technological, sociocultural, and political-economic transformations. The study underscores the importance of understanding young professionals’ viewpoints on technology’s role in shaping a future where human-centric management practices are valued over authoritarian leadership, regardless of the technological tools in use.
... Individuals rely on mental shortcuts and strategies to make these decisions, adapting them based on attitudes, perceptions, and experiences. Dualprocess models of decision-making classify this as System One, contrasting with the slow, deliberative choices characteristic of System Two (Epstein, 1994;Kahneman, 2003Kahneman, , 2011. While distinguishing between intuitive and deliberative decisions in simple tasks may be challenging, complexity can highlight this difference, especially in time-consuming complex tasks where the heterogeneity in decision-making behaviour becomes more evident (Moffatt, 2005). ...
Different people think in different ways, and their behaviour can be analysed in different ways. In this paper, we analyse the correlation between the type of behaviour and the time taken to reach a decision in a dynamic context and under ambiguity with different monetary incentives, linking the results with fast and slow thinking processes. Four different types of dynamic decision-makers are identified: Resolute, Myopic, Sophisticated, and Expected Utility (EU). The different types use different methods to solve dynamic problems: A Resolute decision-maker (DM) decides right at the beginning his or her strategy, a Myopic DM simplifies the problem by ignoring part of it, a Sophisticated DM works by backward induction, and an EU DM either works by backward induction or by using the Strategy Method. We use data from (Caferra et al., 2023) where subjects were asked to solve a two-stage dynamic allocation problem. In that experiment, there were two treatments, incentivised and unincentivised. We found that their type matters: EU subjects take more time to solve the ambiguity, showing a relationship between dynamic consistency and ambiguity-neutrality with a deliberative thinking process. We also found that subjects in the non-incentivised treatment take less time, indicating that monetary incentives matter. The gap between the probabilities at each stage appears to be a good predictor of uncertainty for uncertainty averse subjects: the higher is the gap, the clearer is the most probable event and the lower is the time subjects spend to solve the decision problem.
... Being one of the most studied and referred models, it is often praised for its emphasis on highlighting people at work as well as their reliance on past experiences to make current decisions. It is a model of both intuition (the intuitive pattern matching part of the process also referred to as System 1 processing) and analysis (the deliberative mental stimulation part of the process, also called as System 2 processing) (Epstein, 1994;Kahneman, 2003& Sadler Smith, 2023. ...
Postgraduate researchers who teach (Graduate Teaching Assistants) always navigate their academic spaces among several psychological factors in their routines from both inside and outside. They can often be observed attending to students, advising them on their problems and sometimes even relying on their seniors for various topics. In such situations, practitioner intuition remains a well-known and relied-upon source of GTA's decision-making skills but also an underexplored area of investigation, especially in mentoring and language teaching literature (Ushioda, 2023; Burns & Williams, 2023 & Kumar, 2024). Based on this premise, this reflective paper aims to simplify and understand the GTA's pedagogic intuition towards success and failures in PG thesis writing contexts from peer-mentoring perspectives. The initial sections of the paper, imagining GTA's as mentors and their learners as mentees, establish what GTA intuition can be thought of, how it is related to Vygotsky's ZPD (Zone of Proximal Development) and the potential operations based on an intuitive decision-making model. The latter part of the paper offers detailed practical insights about these theoretical connections through my own workings of intuition while scaffolding the PG mentees to plan, execute and write their theses. Detailed reflections of both the GTA/mentor and the mentees elicited through think-aloud and discursive puzzling measures are reported extensively. Lastly, the paper advocates for more work towards exploring GTA's intuition in mentoring scenarios (and otherwise), getting more awareness from their cognitions and becoming more intuitive practitioners.
... The rational information processing system is slow, deliberative, rule-governed, and analytical. On the other hand, the experiential system is considered fast, operating automatically and holistically [41,42,93]. ...
The study aims to identify relationships among selected behavioral characteristics of decision-makers (DMs), i.e., experience in making complex decisions, decision-making style, and ability to use various multiple criteria decision-aiding (MCDA) methods coherently, and their impact on the evaluation of the latter functionality and recommendations for future use. The relationships were verified using experimental data through a structural equation model (SEM) and cluster analysis for three MCDA methods, i.e., AHP, SMART, and TOPSIS. One of the strongest effects identified by SEM was observed between coherence in methods’ use and the DM’s opinion on their functionality. DM’s satisfaction and future willingness to use MCDA tools are related to the positive experience gained from using these tools in advance. Decision-making styles shape method selection, with TOPSIS favored by highly experienced DMs, SMART by highly rational, and AHP by those with low experience and a rational approach
... Recently this distinction that depends upon fundamental distinction is proposed by number of authors in decision making domain (Sloman, 1996), that is distinction in system 1 and system 2. System 1 (Stanovich & West, 2000) also called intuitive, experiential (Slovic, Finucane, Peters, & MacGregor, 2002), impression-based (Kahneman, 2003) is fast and unintentionally triggered with rigid functioning beyond indivisual control normally operating without effort based association. System 2 also labelled analytical (Slovic et al., 2002), judgment-based (Kahneman, 2003), deliberative (Hogarth, 2001) and rational (Epstein, 1994) that performs purposely, steadily, intentionally and supremely on the basis of logical rules and abstract representations. This system is not changed emotionally but fails to work properly because of requirement of high cognitive load and high amount of energy and effort for its activation. ...
... Ako pak konceptualizujemo duplo mišljenje kao "razbarušeni" kognitivni stil mišljenja koji predstavlja tendenciju da se kontradiktornosti tolerišu, on bi podrazumevao jedan površniji pristup obradi informacija, i kao takav bi trebalo da bude blizak stilu mišljenja koji se prevashodno oslanja na brzo zaključivanje, emocije i intuiciju, a da bude u negativnoj vezi sa tendencijom da se sporo i analitično pristupa proceni informacija (Epstein, 1994). Podaci na to i ukazujusklonost ka duplom mišljenju je negativno povezana sa potrebom za saznanjem (engl. ...
... Podejście Epsteina opiera się na założeniu głębokich powiązań między systemami podejmowania decyzji. Naukowiec uważa, że System 1 nie jest charakterystyczny tylko dla człowieka, ale ogólnie dla wszystkich naczelnych [Epstein, 1994]. W ramach Systemu 1 operacje umysłowe są zautomatyzowane, nieświadome, często nie posiadają reprezentacji werbalnej, nie angażują wkładu zasobów poznawczych (oszczędne, wręcz minimalnie angażujące). ...
Celem artykułu jest przedstawienie behawioralnego wymiaru podejmowania decyzji. By zrozumieć, w jaki sposób dochodzi do selekcji informacji, następnie ustalenia preferencji, a finalnie do podjęcia decyzji, konieczna jest weryfikacja czynników, które wpływają na ten proces. Kluczowym staje się koncept dualnej inżynierii przetwarzania informacji w ludzkim mózgu określany mianem kognitywnej refleksji. Artykuł wprowadza w tematykę podejmowania decyzji ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem takich czynników jak: emocje, percepcja, dyspozycja wyboru trybu przetwarzania informacji w mózgu decydenta. W tekście autorzy odwołali się zarówno do klasyki ekonomii behawioralnej, jak i do współczesnych badań korzystających z dyscyplin pokrewnych, jak psychologia i neurobiologia. W pracy podano przykłady ukazujące konsekwencje dualnego przetwarzania informacji przez decydentów na rynkach finansowych. Wykorzystane metody badawcze to: analiza krytyczna literatury oraz dedukcja jako sposób wnioskowania teoretycznego.
Studies indicate that cognitive biases, especially regret-aversion bias, which represents "making a decision to avoid making the same mistake for fear of facing the same loss," cause negative reactions from peers, especially new students. This phenomenon often leads to academically backward students withdrawing socially from the school environment. The study aimed to identify regret-aversion bias among academically backward students in high school, and the significance of differences in regret avoidance according to the variable of gender (males/females) and specialization (scientific/literary).
The objective of this study is to ascertain the extent to which rational and intuitive decision-making styles are predictive of the academic achievement of Turkish pre-service physical education teachers. The study group consisted of 567 students enrolled in physical education teacher education programs at universities in Turkey. Data were collected via a personal information form and a scale designed to assess rational and intuitive decision-making styles. The findings of the study indicate a positive correlation between the rational and intuitive decision-making styles of pre-service physical education teachers and their academic achievement. The results of the hierarchical regression analysis indicated that the rational decision-making style was responsible for explaining 43% of the variance in academic achievement, while the combination of this style with the intuitive decision-making style resulted in an explanation of 51%. The standardized relative importance values indicate that the rational decision-making style accounts for 62% of the variance in academic achievement, while the intuitive decision-making style accounts for 38%. It can be concluded that both rational and intuitive decision-making styles contribute to the academic achievement of pre-service physical education teachers. In addition to other factors considered in academic achievement, it is thought that students' rational and intuitive decision-making roles should not be discarded as potential explanatory variables.
Mindfulness meditation has become increasingly popular and research shows that it has many positive effects on psychological health. However, recent research indicates that mindfulness meditation may not benefit everybody. Specifically, short mindfulness meditation has been found to alienate poor self-regulators from their self. Our research aimed at replicating the alienating effect of mindfulness meditation among poor self-regulators (replication hypothesis) and expanding previous findings by testing whether adding social support to the mindfulness exercise would buffer the alienating effect (buffer hypothesis). According to the theory of Personality Systems Interactions (PSI), the self is defined as an extended network of implicit representations of own needs, goals, and preferences. We focused on preferences and measured the consistency in repeated preference judgements. Higher consistency indicates reliable access to own preferences, whereas lower consistency indicates alienation from own preferences and the self. In two studies (NStudy1 = 238; NStudy2 = 300), we replicated that mindfulness alienated poor self-regulators (i.e., state-oriented individuals) from their self as indicated by significantly reduced consistency after a 5-minute mindfulness exercise compared to the control condition (5-minute text reading). Consistent with our buffer hypothesis, priming social support before the mindfulness exercise buffered the alienating effect as indicated by significantly increased consistency in the social mindfulness compared to the mindfulness condition. Thus, mindfulness meditation alienated poor self-regulators in its classical form but could be easily adapted to prevent alienation by priming social support. We discuss our findings within the framework of PSI theory.
Sağlık örgütlerinde yöneticiler açısından en önemli nokta, sağlık hizmeti sunumunda örgüt
çalışanlarını insan sağlığına yönelik en iyi performansı göstermeye yöneltmektir. Özellikle
sağlık örgütleri gibi karmaşık organizasyon yapısına sahip olan iş örgütlerinde herhangi bir
eylemde bulunmadan önce bireyler muhakeme yeteneklerini kullanırlar. İş akışlarının hızlı
gerçekleştiği ve en ufak hataya yer olmayan hizmet ortamında görev yapan bireylerin ortaya
çıkan problemlerin bertaraf edilip işe devam edilebilmesi için oldukça hızlı çözüm bulması
gerekmektedir. Bu noktada, problem çözümünde gerekli olan yaratıcılığın kullanımı kadar
yaratıcı düşünmeye teşvik eden düşünme stillerinin keşfi de önem arz etmektedir. Dolayısıyla
bu çalışma örneklemini, Sağlık Yönetimi Bölümü öğrencileri oluşturmakta ve genç bireylerin
sektöre atıldıktan sonra kullanacakları düşünme stilleri ve halihazırdaki yaratıcılık özellikleri
arasındaki ilişkinin belirlenmesi amaçlanmaktadır. Araştırmanın 223 kişiden oluşan örneklemi,
raslantısal örnekleme ile sağlanmıştır. Çalışmada nicel araştırma yöntemlerinden biri olan
ilişkisel tarama modeli ve veri toplamak üzere anket yöntemi tercih edilmiştir. Düşünme
stillerinin yaratıcı düşünme yeteneği ile ilişkisini ölçmek üzere Khatena-Torrance Yaratıcı
Düşünme Envanteri ile Mantıksal ve Deneyimsel Düşünme Ölçeği kullanılmıştır.
Analizler kapsamında veri setine önce faktör analizi uygulanmış ve asıl çalışmalardan farklı
olarak “mantıksal düşünmeden kaçınma, mantıksal ve sezgisel düşünmeyi birlikte kullanma,
sezgilere güvenme, sezgisel düşünmeden kaçınma, sezgisel düşünmeyi olumlama” şeklinde
isimlendirilen beş faktör elde edilmiştir. Düşünme stilleri ile yaratıcılık ilişkisine yönelik
yapılan korelasyon analizi neticesinde katılımcıların yaratıcılık düzeylerini en iyi yordayan
düşünme stilinin mantıksal düşünmeden kaçınma olarak isimlendirilmiş olan ilk faktör olduğu
ve aralarında zayıf ve negatif yönlü bir ilişki bulunduğu belirlenmiştir. Bunun sebebinin ise bu
faktörde mantıksal düşünmeye yönelik ifadelerin yer almasının literatürde olduğu gibi
yaratıcılıkla pek bir etkileşimi olmaması olduğu düşünülmektedir.
In the real world, environmental and social risks coexist, and the interactions among these multiple risks necessitate research on risk perception in a multi-risk context. This study aims to explore how the public perceives multiple risks and to investigate perception differences based on sociodemographic factors. Based on the classification of the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, 14 risks were investigated through a web-based survey of 1,035 individuals from South Korea. We employed a latent class model (LCA) to identify confounding sources among risk perceptions and utilized multinomial logistic regression to examine factors influencing risk perception dimensions. Cognitive and affective risk perceptions were found to be higher for climate change and global warming, air pollution, destruction of biodiversity and the environment, economic crisis, recession, low fertility, aging of society, and depopulation. Women, residents of Gwangju, Jeolla, and Jeju, and college-educated participants were more sensitive to cognitive risk perception. Those aged 30 to 39 and of lower economic status were more sensitive to affective risk perception, whereas men were less sensitive. Cognitive and affective risk perceptions were distinct but correlated. These findings provide insights for improving decision-making in crisis situations by informing the government and policymakers about public priorities. Specifically, by identifying demographically sensitive subgroups, the study can contribute to enhance risk communication strategies.
Corporate reputation is an important predictor of stock investors’ decisions. The aim of this study was to investigate whether corporate reputation remains a significant factor in investment decisions in the event of a price shock contrary to investors' expectations. A vignette study was designed to simulate a stock exchange. We also controlled for selected behavioural characteristics. The induced perception of collective corporate reputation was found to be important for investment decisions.
However, the findings indicated that after a price shock, this factor became insignificant. Furthermore, most of the participants decreased their propensity to invest. Hence, the observation was split into two cases. In the case of a good corporate reputation and a decrease in stock prices, relatively fewer investors decided to decrease their propensity to invest. Nevertheless, male investors and those with a greater need for cognition were more likely to exhibit the same or higher propensity to invest after the shock price. In the case of a poor corporate reputation and an increase in stock prices, more investors decided to decrease their propensity to invest. However, the changes in propensity to invest were driven only by the initial amount of money invested.
Resumen Los médicos y médicas presentan en sus consultas corazonadas de dos tipos: de alarma y de seguridad. Las corazonadas de alarma significan que el MF tiene la sensación de que algo va mal en su paciente, aunque no tenga datos objetivos para pensar tal cosa. La corazonada de seguridad significa que todo encaja y el MF está seguro de la evolución posterior de su paciente. Ambas son pronósticas, no diagnósticas, y dinámicas. Las corazonadas sirven al MF para mantener o modificar sobre la marcha el sistema de toma de decisiones que utiliza en cada momento. Las corazonadas son extremadamente frecuentes. Las de alarma llevan al MF a actuar solicitando pruebas y derivaciones para conocer más sobre el estado del paciente. Las corazonadas de alarma han demostrado tener un valor predictivo positivo para el diagnóstico de enfermedades graves y cáncer en AP, comparable al de otros síntomas y signos habitualmente considerados de alarma, aumentando con su presencia de forma significativa la probabilidad de un diagnóstico de ese tipo. La existencia de las corazonadas debe ser expresada y comunicada explícitamente a los y las MF en formación. Para que las corazonadas tengan una utilidad mayor, conviene favorecer las actividades que aumentan nuestra capacidad de observación, potenciar la reflexión sobre las decisiones tomadas, asegurarse una retroalimentación correcta y oportuna sobre las consecuencias y la evolución de nuestras acciones en la consulta, proporcionársela especialmente a las y los MF en formación y crear entornos formativos amables.
Air pollution stands as a primary environmental factor influencing mortality globally. Despite its significance, individuals frequently struggle to assess the risks associated with polluted environments. This paper delves into the psychological mechanisms that contribute to the discrepancy between public perception of air quality and objective measurements. Through an extensive literature review spanning several decades, six fundamental heuristics that underpin misperceptions of air quality are identified and examined. The article further explores the theoretical and practical implications of acknowledging these biases in the development of urban environmental policies. By addressing judgmental biases, urban planners can improve the communication of risk information among lay people and ensure that environmental improvements are acknowledged and valued by all members of the community.
This study explores the relationship between humor, creativity, rationality, intuitiveness, and decision-making quality, all of which are vital in organizational management and success. Despite the importance attached to decision-making, prior research has not fully addressed how humor and creativity interact with rationality. Drawing from psychology, cognitive science, and management studies, we investigate how humor and creativity jointly influence cognitive reflection and decision quality. Using a sample of 998 participants and employing a mediating-moderation PROCESS model, our findings indicate that rational individuals tend to make higher-quality decisions, with affiliative humor mediating this relationship. Furthermore, we observed that employees’ creativity levels moderated this relationship, especially among rational employees with high creativity, who made higher-quality decisions. These findings highlight the interconnectedness of humor, creativity, and rationality in decision-making processes, offering practical implications for organizational behavior and management practices. Understanding this interplay can provide a nuanced approach to enhancing decision-making processes in management, emphasizing the value of humor in organizational contexts.
Desde la psicología legal, se han adelantado varios estudios que analizan la incidencia y el impacto del sesgo de retrospectiva en las decisiones judiciales, puntualmente, en aquellas tomadas por los jurados y los jueces unipersonales. Por medio de diferentes experimentos, se ha evaluado cómo la presencia de dicho sesgo puede afectar la valoración que estos agentes hacen de diferentes conceptos jurídicos, como la culpa, por ejemplo. Sin embargo, los estudios se han centrado en el proceso de toma de decisiones individuales, dejando a un lado los procesos de toma de decisiones colectivos que están presentes en diferentes estructuras de poder judicial de gran relevancia, como los tribunales y las cortes. Estos órganos judiciales colegiados deciden mediante procesos deliberativos que podrían verse afectados por el sesgo de retrospectiva de diferentes formas. Por medio de este artículo, se plantearán algunas reflexiones sobre el alcance y las dimensiones del sesgo de retrospectiva en las decisiones tomadas en grupo, particularmente, en aquellas tomadas por órganos judiciales colegiados.
According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (2022), over half the Australian population (51.5%) now includes 1st and 2nd-generation ethnic consumers. Hence, new research is needed to
understand the needs and behaviours of this large group of ethnic consumers. In particular, understanding the ethnic consumers’ identity after moving to a new country and how this may influence their buying behaviour has become a priority for many stakeholders, including marketers, and forms the focus of this thesis.
Over the past few decades, scholars have shown great interest in understanding the way consumer purchasing behaviour develops, studying several influential factors such as country image – i.e.,
descriptive, inferential and informational beliefs consumers have about a particular country, often including cognitive as well as affective components (Han, 1989; Jin et al., 2018; Li et al., 2014;
Nagashima, 1970; Wang et al., 2012; Roth & Diamantopoulos, 2009). Yet, to date, little is known about the impact of the image of the home country and the host country on the identity of ethnic
consumers who have relocated to a host country. Accordingly, this thesis has two overarching research objectives: i) to examine how home and host country image factors (cognitive and affective) influence ethnic consumer identity, and ii) to ascertain whether these factors affect the purchasing behaviour of different ethnic groups within a multicultural country. To attain these aims,
this thesis discusses the theoretical factors likely to determine ethnic consumer identity (ethnic, i.e., linked to the country of origin; or national, i.e., developed in the host country), while considering whether identity is transferred across generations. The thesis then describes the empirical approach undertaken to evaluate whether consumers’ identities impact the image of products/services from the home vs. host country, and their intention to purchase these. Finally, this thesis presents an
empirical quantitative study based on online survey data (N=261), collected in Australia from four ethnic groups (Latvian, Iranian, Vietnamese, and Italian), examined through structural equation
modelling.
The results indicate that positive emotions toward the home country and the host country have a positive and significant effect on the identity of ethnic consumers, while cognitive and negative
emotions do not seem to affect consumers' identity. Positive feelings toward the home country have the most significant influence on the purchase of their home country products; in contrast, negative emotions toward the host country affect the purchase of products of the host country. Results also
show that ethnic consumer identity leads to a strong purchase intention for the home country's products and mediates the positive country image of the home country and the purchase intention of the home country's products. Comparing the first- and second-generation respondents, results show that the factor affecting the identity of the first and second generations is consistently positive country image.
This thesis makes the following significant contributions. Theoretically, it explains the link between the components of country image and the consumers’ identities and confirms that key concepts such as home and host positive country image and home cognitive country image act as the force behind national vs. ethnic identities. Doing so, the thesis advances marketing knowledge thanks to linking country image research and consumer identity research. From a managerial point of view, this thesis provides valuable insights that can be turned into marketing strategies to successfully target and meet the needs of ethnic consumers. For instance, marketers can leverage positive emotions of home country products and services using strategies such point-of-sale cues in selected distribution outlets, and positive country image-oriented packaging and communication.
The chapter discusses the role of the manner of attitude formation. It focuses on the development of an attitude through direct behavioral experience with the attitude object and examines whether such attitudes better predict subsequent behavior than attitudes formed without behavioral experience. The chapter provides an overview of the attitude-behavior consistency problem and describes the effect of the manner of attitude formation through the “housing” study, the “puzzle” experiment, and the “subject pool” study. The prior-to-later behavior relation is also discussed in the chapter, wherein it has described the self-perception of past religious behaviors, attitudes and self-reports of subsequent behavior, an individual difference perspective, and a partial correlation analysis. The chapter discusses attitudinal qualities—namely, confidence and clarity, the persistence of the attitude, and resistance to attack. The reasons for the differential strength are also explored in the chapter—namely, the amount of information available, information processing, and attitude accessibility. The chapter briefly describes the attitude-behavior relationship, personality traits, and behavior.
Attitudes formed through direct behavioral experience with an attitude object have been found to better predict later behavior than attitudes formed through indirect experience. An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that an information processing difference exists between direct and indirect experience. Subjects watched a videotape of an individual working examples of a variety of puzzles under instructions to empathize with that person or not. Taking the perspective of the person having the direct experience led Empathy subjects to behave more consistently with their own reported attitudes toward those puzzles than Control subjects. The results suggest that direct experience affects the attitude formation process by altering the way in which the available information is processed.
Investigated information processing in situations in which there was insufficient evidence to make a judgment and no possibility of avoiding a judgment. The research was inspired by the question-answering model of S. Glucksberg and M. McCloskey (see record
1982-07068-001), which states that if it is important to find an answer to a question, then the failure of a preliminary memory search to find any relevant information leads to additional attempts that may employ gradually looser criteria of relevance than that used originally. It was hypothesized that the criterion of relevance could become loose enough to include a memory representation of a single and not salient instance. The hypothesis was tested in 3 experiments in which 160 college and 70 high school students participated. In Exp I the experience of a single instance was provided to the Ss by means of subliminally exposed words, and the dependent measure was Ss' choice of "better fitting" words. In Exps II and III, Ss were provided with single instances by means of a quasi-natural interaction with a person who was similar to 1 of 2 other persons to whom the Ss were subsequently exposed. The dependent measure was Ss' choice of one of those persons as more friendly, and the choice was made again under quasi-natural conditions. All 3 experiments confirmed the model and indicated that Ss based their judgments on the single instance to which they were exposed. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Perhaps the simplest and the most basic qualitative law of probability is the conjunction rule: The probability of a conjunction,
P(A&B), cannot exceed the probabilities of its constituents,
P(A) and
P(B), because the extension (or the possibility set) of the conjunction is included in the extension of its constituents. Judgments under uncertainty, however, are often mediated by intuitive heuristics that are not bound by the conjunction rule. A conjunction can be more representative that one of its constituents, and instances of a specific category can be easier to imagine or to retrieve than instances of a more inclusive category. The representativeness and availability heuristics therefore can make a conjunction appear more probable than one of its constituents. This phenomenon is demonstrated in a variety of contexts, including estimation of word frequency, personality judgment, medical prognosis, decision under risk, suspicion of criminal acts, and political forecasting. Systematic violations of the conjunction rule are observed in judgments of lay people and of experts in both between- and within-Ss comparisons. Alternative interpretations of the conjunction fallacy are discussed, and attempts to combat it are explored. (48 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Tested the 2-process theory of detection, search, and attention presented by the current authors (1977) in a series of experiments. The studies (a) demonstrate the qualitative difference between 2 modes of information processing: automatic detection and controlled search; (b) trace the course of the learning of automatic detection, of categories, and of automatic-attention responses; and (c) show the dependence of automatic detection on attending responses and demonstrate how such responses interrupt controlled processing and interfere with the focusing of attention. The learning of categories is shown to improve controlled search performance. A general framework for human information processing is proposed. The framework emphasizes the roles of automatic and controlled processing. The theory is compared to and contrasted with extant models of search and attention. (31/2 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Repeated attempts have been made in the past 35 years to obtain self-report measures of motives originally identified in associative thought. Measures of the same motive obtained in these two ways seldom correlate significantly with each other and relate to different classes of behavior. Recent evidence is summarized showing that implicit motives, derived from stories written to pictures, combine generally with activity incentives to affect behavior, whereas self-attributed motives, derived from self-reports, combine generally with social incentives to affect behavior. Hence, implicit motives generally sustain spontaneous behavioral trends over time because of the pleasure derived from the activity itself, whereas the self-attributed motives predict immediate responses to structured situations because of the social incentives present in structuring the situation. Implicit motives represent a more primitive motivational system derived from affective experiences, whereas self-attributed motives are based on more cognitively elaborated constructs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A 2-process theory of human information processing is proposed and applied to detection, search, and attention phenomena. Automatic processing is activation of a learned sequence of elements in long-term memory that is initiated by appropriate inputs and then proceeds automatically--without S control, without stressing the capacity limitations of the system, and without necessarily demanding attention. Controlled processing is a temporary activation of a sequence of elements that can be set up quickly and easily but requires attention, is capacity-limited (usually serial in nature), and is controlled by the S. A series of studies, with approximately 8 Ss, using both reaction time and accuracy measures is presented, which traces these concepts in the form of automatic detection and controlled search through the areas of detection, search, and attention. Results in these areas are shown to arise from common mechanisms. Automatic detection is shown to develop following consistent mapping of stimuli to responses over trials. Controlled search was utilized in varied-mapping paradigms, and in the present studies, it took the form of serial, terminating search. (60 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Presents a theory that describes motivation and emotion as different aspects of a single process in which emotion involves the readout of motivational potential inherent in hierarchically organized primary motivational/emotional systems (primes). This theory involves an integrated way of thinking about emotion and motivation in their various physiological, expressive, and cognitive aspects. The most basic readout, Emotion I, involves adaptive-homeostatic functions. In species where communication about the state of certain primes became important, Emotion II, involving their outward expression, evolved. With cognition, a 3rd type of readout evolved, Emotion III, involving the direct experience of certain primes. A model of the interaction between primes and cognition is presented, and the unique role of language in human motivation-emotion is discussed. (4½ p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Proposes a framework for skill acquisition that includes 2 major stages in the development of a cognitive skill: (1) a declarative stage in which facts about the skill domain are interpreted and (2) a procedural stage in which the domain knowledge is directly embodied in procedures for performing the skill. This general framework has been instantiated in the ACT system in which facts are encoded in a propositional network and procedures are encoded as productions. Knowledge compilation is the process by which the skill transits from the declarative stage to the procedural stage. It consists of the subprocesses of composition, which collapses sequences of productions into single productions, and proceduralization, which embeds factual knowledge into productions. Once proceduralized, further learning processes operate on the skill to make the productions more selective in their range of applications. These processes include generalization, discrimination, and strengthening of productions. Comparisons are made to similar concepts from previous learning theories. How these learning mechanisms apply to produce the power law speedup in processing time with practice is discussed. (62 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Preface PART 1: TWO NATURAL KINDS 1. Approaching the Literary 2. Two Modes of Thought 3. Possible Castles PART 2: LANGUAGE AND REALITY 4. The Transactional Self 5. The Inspiration of Vygotsky 6. Psychological Reality 7. Nelson Goodman's Worlds 8. Thought and Emotion PART 3: ACTING IN CONSTRUCTED WORLDS 9. The Language of Education 10. Developmental Theory as Culture Afterword Appendix: A Reader's Retelling of "Clay" by James Joyce Notes Credits Index
Traditionally, the emotions have been viewed from a biological perspective; that is, the emotions have been seen as genetically determined and relatively invariable responses. The present chapter, by contrast, views the emotions as social constructions. More precisely, the emotions are here defined as socially constituted syndromes or transitory social roles. A role-conception does not deny the contribution of biological systems to emotional syndromes; it does, however, imply that the functional significance of emotional responses is to be found largely within the sociocultural system. With regard to subjective experience, a person interprets his own behavior as emotional in much the same way that an actor interprets a role“with feeling.” This involves not only the monitoring of behavior (including feedback from physiological arousal, facial expressions, etc.), but also an understanding of how the emotional role fits into a larger“drama” written by society. Some of the biological, personal, and situational factors that influence emotional behavior are also discussed.
Many decisions are based on beliefs concerning the likelihood of uncertain events such as the outcome of an election, the guilt of a defendant, or the future value of the dollar. Occasionally, beliefs concerning uncertain events are expressed in numerical form as odds or subjective probabilities. In general, the heuristics are quite useful, but sometimes they lead to severe and systematic errors. The subjective assessment of probability resembles the subjective assessment of physical quantities such as distance or size. These judgments are all based on data of limited validity, which are processed according to heuristic rules. However, the reliance on this rule leads to systematic errors in the estimation of distance. This chapter describes three heuristics that are employed in making judgments under uncertainty. The first is representativeness, which is usually employed when people are asked to judge the probability that an object or event belongs to a class or event. The second is the availability of instances or scenarios, which is often employed when people are asked to assess the frequency of a class or the plausibility of a particular development, and the third is adjustment from an anchor, which is usually employed in numerical prediction when a relevant value is available.
It is no accident that mental illnesses are also referred to as emotional disorders. Laypeople and professionals alike recognize that emotions lie at the heart of many disorders in living. It is noteworthy, in this respect, that the three primary negative emotions (in the sense that they are observable in nonhuman animals), fear, sadness, and anger, have their counterparts in major classes of psychological disorders, namely, anxiety disorders, depression, and anger-hostility-related disorders, including paranoia and antisocial personality.
Wisdom is such an elusive psychological construct that few people have considered it a viable field, though many are fascinated by the topic. Well-known psychologist Robert J. Sternberg of Yale University, perceiving the growth of interest in wisdom as a field, saw a need to document the progress that has been made in the field since the early '80s and to point the way for future theory and research. The resulting comprehensive and authoritative book, Wisdom: Its Nature, Origins and Development, is a well-rounded collection of psychological views on wisdom. It introduces this concept of wisdom, considers philosophical issues and developmental approaches, and covers as well folk conceptions of the topic. In the final section, Professor Sternberg provides an integration of the fascinating and comprehensive material.
Clinicians have gained considerable knowledge about psychopathology and treatment but this knowledge is poorly systematized and hard to transmit. One way to organize clinical knowledge is to circumscribe a limited area and describe within it the interactions between personality dispositions, states of disorder, and treatment techniques.
This report models such an approach by limiting disorder to stress response syndromes, personality to obsessional and hysterical neurotic styles, and treatment to focal dynamic psychotherapy. Within this domain, an information processing approach to working through conflicted ideas and feeling is developed. The result is a series of assertions about observable behavior and nuances of technique. Since these assertions are localized conceptually, they can be checked, revised, refuted, compared, or extended into other disorders, dispositions, and treatments.
The material in this book represents a year's lectures at the People's Institute of Vienna. It is an attempt to acquaint the general public with the fundamentals of individual psychology and to present the technique of understanding human conduct in terms comprehensible to the intelligent adult. The experiments of individual psychology have been able to do what intelligence tests have failed to accomplish—namely, to forecast an individual's future with some degree of accuracy. Since the important determinants of the structure of the soul life are generated in childhood, and join with later phenomena in one continuous pattern, to discover this fundamental behavior pattern the investigator directs his attention to the character traits and psychic movements of the patient's early childhood. (The research incidentally leads into the field of pedagogy.) Psychic life is furthermore determined by one's goal, the knowledge of which is essential to any understanding of behavior. The goal is usually that of superiority. Character traits are not inherited, but are acquired for the purpose of maintaining a particular habitus in life. The new positional or contextual psychology will presently prove that organic inferiorities need not force the development of a peculiar psychic structure. The latter is entirely conditioned by social influences. A human being may be judged by measuring his distance from the solution of the three great problems of life, which are: the question of his social responsibilities; the relationship between the "I" and the "you"; and the question whether he has fostered or hindered contact between himself and his fellows. Several illustrative cases are described. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Narratives are generally conceived as accounts of events which involve some temporal and/or causal coherence. This minimal definition is usually amended with criteria according to which storiness requires some goal-directed action of living or impersonated actors taking place in time. A full-blown narrative involves an initial steady state which implies the legitimate order of things including the characters' normal wishes and beliefs, a trouble which disturbs this state, efforts for re-establishing the normal state, a new, often transformed state, and a concluding evaluation, which draws the moral of the story.
The chapter presents the two very different basic processes that link attitudes and behavior, along with variants that amount to a mixture of the essentials of each process. Conditions that promote one process or the other also are discussed in the chapter. This discussion of mixed models illustrates the complexity of the role of spontaneous and deliberative processing to understand the manner in which attitudes influence behavior. The basic difference between the two types of models of the attitude-behavior process centers on the extent to which deciding on a particular course of action involves conscious deliberation about a spontaneous reaction to one's perception of the immediate situation. An individual may analyze the costs and benefits of a particular behavior and, in so doing, deliberately reflect on the attitudes relevant to the behavioral decision. These attitudes may serve as one of possibly many dimensions that are considered in arriving at a behavior plan, which may then be enacted.
impression formation processes are assumed to be bottom-up, or data-driven, with an integrated representation of the individual person as the final product / challenges this prevailing view of the person perception process by proposing an alternative model of social cognition that incorporates top down processing as well as data-driven constructions
differences between these two modes of impression formation are elaborated
implications for how and when social cognition differs from object perception are discussed
comparison of processing stages
identification / automatic processing
typing / structure and format of person categories
person types / words or images
impression formation as category matching
individuation / intracategory differentiation
personalization / formation of person-based impressions (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
postformal researchers have suggested . . . that mature adulthood brings a reorganization of thinking
in this chapter I expand on that theme and propose that these contributions signal a new definition of what we are to mean by the structure of the mature mind / since that structure, in a mode of backward causation, defines our thinking about development I . . . suggest that the notion of postformal thought implies a novel and uniquely integrative view of psychological and cultural adaptation
argued that a new view of reason and a new model of development can be discerned if we reject the schismatic view of reason and instead substitute a view that is built on a dialectic between these two modes of knowing / proposed to call those modes mythos and logos / proposed that schismatic development is normal for the early part of the life span where logos structures are too simple yet to give an adequate representation of different aspects of reality / mature adulthood, in turn, brings a reuniting of those aspects as logos structures further increase in complexity
vertical organization / vertical mind (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reviews the book,
An object-relations theory of the personality by W. Ronald D. Fairbairn (see record
1955-00532-000). In a series of lectures delivered in the 1940's, the author developed what for him was a renovation of Freud's libido theory and Abraham's "developmental phase" theory. It is these lectures which appear in the first portion of this book; in succeeding sections there appear three case histories which are used to illustrate the author's resynthesis, and a group of miscellaneous papers. For many classical psychoanalysts, the author will probably represent a particularly repugnant type of heresy in his disavowal of "accepted" basic principles. To the neo-Freudian, his dynamics may appear too far removed from the social world to be considered practicable. Finally, for those who demand of a conceptualization that the referents be clear, and that labels and names not be treated as entities, there will be little incentive to read beyond the first chapter. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Traces the development of the cognitive approach to psychopathology and psy hotherapy from common-sense observations and folk wisdom, to a more sophisticated understanding of the emotional disorders, and finally to the application of rational techniques to correct the misconceptions and conceptual distortions that form the matrix of the neuroses. The importance of engaging the patient in exploration of his inner world and of obtaining a sharp delineation of specific thoughts and underlying assumptions is emphasized. (91/4 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
a summary of a personality theory was presented in which it was assumed that all individuals have personal theories of reality that are composed of self-theories, world theories, and beliefs about the relationship between the two
it was demonstrated that, in addition to explaining the symptoms that Freud attributed to the repetition-compulsion in the traumatic neurosis, the demonic fate theme, and the transference neurosis, the theory that was presented can elucidate a number of other conditions, such as fear of success, acute schizophrenic disorganization, paranoid delusions, and the regulation of self-esteem
self-acceptance, or self-esteem, is one of the most basic postulates in an individual's self-theory
a hypothesis with important implications for psychotherapy is that reflected appraisals from significant others represent an important means for changing self-esteem (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Discusses controversial issues concerning emotions, including the definition of emotion, the role of biological relative to social factors, the role of cognition in emotion, the instigation of emotions, whether there are 1 or more arousal states, implications of emotions and moods for self-knowledge, and the therapeutic value of catharsis. The discussion is provided within a framework of cognitive self-theory. (52 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The first group of essays centers on the use of the narrative as an integral feature in the scientific enterprise. The three papers in Part II address various problems connected with the acquisition of story making and story comprehension. The third section contains essays that describe themes that give body to stories in which self is protagonist. The final section looks at the use of narrative in psychoanalysis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)