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Gender differences in sexuality: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 29-51
Abstract
This meta-analysis surveyed 177 usable sources that reported data on gender differences on 21 different measures of sexual attitudes and behaviors. The largest gender difference was in incidence of masturbation: Men had the greater incidence (d = .96). There was also a large gender difference in attitudes toward casual sex: Males had considerably more permissive attitudes (d = .81). There were no gender differences in attitudes toward homosexuality or in sexual satisfaction. Most other gender differences were in the small-to-moderate range. Gender differences narrowed from the 1960s to the 1980s for many variables. Chodorow's neoanalytic theory, sociobiology, social learning theory, social role theory, and script theory are discussed in relation to these findings.
... para mulheres, o sexo é concebido mais facilmente dentro de um relacionamento com caráter de comprometimento, como namoro, noivado ou casamento. Já para os homens, o caráter de permissividade, casualidade e ausência de compromisso é concebido e aceito socialmente de forma mais fácil (Oliver;hYde, 1993). Ainda segundo green e faulkner (2005), no que concerne às características comportamentais e ao grau de satisfação com envolvimento no relacionamento, a habilidade de comunicação para tratar de assuntos dentro da esfera do relacionamento (como desejo sexual, métodos contraceptivos, histórico de passado sexual) é um aspecto importante para qualidade sexual do relacionamento e, consequentemente, um preditor da satisfação global do indivíduo. ...
... para mulheres, o sexo é concebido mais facilmente dentro de um relacionamento com caráter de comprometimento, como namoro, noivado ou casamento. Já para os homens, o caráter de permissividade, casualidade e ausência de compromisso é concebido e aceito socialmente de forma mais fácil (Oliver;hYde, 1993). Ainda segundo green e faulkner (2005), no que concerne às características comportamentais e ao grau de satisfação com envolvimento no relacionamento, a habilidade de comunicação para tratar de assuntos dentro da esfera do relacionamento (como desejo sexual, métodos contraceptivos, histórico de passado sexual) é um aspecto importante para qualidade sexual do relacionamento e, consequentemente, um preditor da satisfação global do indivíduo. ...
This research describes the data of a model to predict the global satisfaction with romantic relationships from a set of variables related to love feeling, sexual relationship and satisfaction with life. Data regarding the validity and reliability of a measure of sexual satisfaction for the Brazilian culture are also presented. In total, 344 participants from two Brazilian cities took part in the survey, including 195 (57%) males. The average age of participants was 29.1 years (SD = 9.2 years). The measure validated in this study presented two resulting dimensions arising from the analysis of principal components and exploratory factor analysis: sexual satisfaction in relationships (SSR) and sexual dissatisfaction in relationships (ISR), with levels of Cronbachs alpha reliability of 0.89 and 0.86 respectively. Finally, a multiple regression analysis was carried out to assess the relationship between the investigated dimensions of variables and a measure of global satisfaction in the relationship. The resulting model explained 50.9% of the variance in satisfaction with the relationship
... Their greater acceptability of premarital sex may be due to their greater freedom to be involved in such relations than women, in the Iranian context. Gender differences in sexual attitudes and behaviours have also been shown to be true in other societies to some degree [2,25,53,66]. For instance, a study in the United States, which is among the most religious societies in the industrial world, and at the same time, is among the most secular countries [52], reported that women were more conservative in sexual attitudes than men. ...
... Hence, men believe they could be sexually experienced before marriage but their marriage partners should be virgins [40]. This might be biased reporting by men but is in line with findings from other studies [2,12,25,51,53,66]. ...
Background
The purpose of this study is to assess attitudes toward premarital dating and sexual encounters in individuals aged 15–49 years in Tehran. Methods
Utilizing the attitudes section of an original cross-sectional study (n = 755) aimed at assessing sexual health needs of adults, this paper examined personal attitudes towards premarital dating, non-sexual relationships and sexual encounters in both male and female adults aged between 15–49 years. Multi-stage cluster random sampling and a validated/reliable questionnaire were used. Descriptive, bivariate and multivariate analyses were conducted using statistical software. ResultsThe results indicated that the majority of the participants were supportive of dating. Almost three-fourths of the males were more positively inclined towards non-sexual, yet tactile, affectionate interactions between unmarried males and females as opposed to only half of the females (70 % vs. 50.5 %). Also, males held significantly more liberal attitudes than females in their acceptance of premarital sex. On preserving virginity prior to marriage, 43 % of the males felt that it was important for a female to be a virgin, whereas only 26 % felt it was important for males to remain a virgin. Interestingly, more females (61 %) supported the importance of a female’s virginity compared with the importance of males’ virginity (48 %). This study showed that, being a male, of a younger age, single, and being less religious or being secular were important determinants of a liberal sexual attitude. Conclusion
These results might reflect a socio-cultural transition in the sexual attitudes of different age groups of participants - a phenomenon that will need empirical studies to unpack in the Iranian socio-cultural context.
... Differences, however, still existed. Oliver and Hyde (1993) reported that college men still had a more permissive attitude toward casual sex while college women appeared to have a more conservative attitude in discussing condom use. In addition, college men had a more negative attitude regarding homosexuality than women did and were more likely to believe that sexual intimidation was justifiable (Feltey, Ainslie, & Geib, 1991;Kite & Whitley, 1996). ...
... The findings in this study were similar to Kite and Whitley's (1996) result that males tended to have a more negative attitude toward homosexuality than females. Oliver and Hyde (1993) reported in their study that males were more permissive than females toward causal sex. The researchers received mixed results, depending on the attitude statement. ...
... Conversely, prior research suggests that women report higher levels of commitment (e.g., Stanley, Whitton, & Markman, 2004). Furthermore, men are more likely to lamBert et al. hold more permissive attitudes regarding premarital, casual, and extradyadic sex (Oliver & Hyde, 1993). Women are also less likely to: engage in intercourse; have multiple sexual partners (Oliver & Hyde, 1993); and hook up as compared to men (e.g., Lambert, Kahn, & Apple, 2003; Paul, McManus, & Hayes, 2000). ...
... Furthermore, men are more likely to lamBert et al. hold more permissive attitudes regarding premarital, casual, and extradyadic sex (Oliver & Hyde, 1993). Women are also less likely to: engage in intercourse; have multiple sexual partners (Oliver & Hyde, 1993); and hook up as compared to men (e.g., Lambert, Kahn, & Apple, 2003; Paul, McManus, & Hayes, 2000). Given the potential for gender differences, we examined for interactions by gender and controlled for gender in all analyses. ...
We examined whether the consumption of pornography affects romantic relationships, with the expectation that higher levels of pornography consumption would correspond to weakened commitment in young adult romantic relationships. Study 1 (n = 367) found that higher pornography consumption was related to lower commitment, and Study 2 (n = 34) replicated this finding using observational data. Study 3 (n = 20) participants were randomly assigned to either refrain from viewing pornography or to a self-control task. Those who continued using pornography reported lower levels of commitment than control participants. In Study 4 (n = 67), participants consuming higher levels of pornography flirted more with an extradyadic partner during an online chat. Study 5 (n = 240) found that pornography consumption was positively related to infidelity and this association was mediated by commitment. Overall, a consistent pattern of results was found using a variety of approaches including cross-sectional (Study 1), observational (Study 2), experimental (Study 3), and behavioral (Studies 4 and 5) data.
... Masturbation is prevalent in countries around the world including Australia, China, Croatia, Denmark, Finland, Germany, the UK, and the USA (Baćak & Štulhofer, 2011;Burri & Carvalheira, 2019;Das et al., 2009;Gerressu et al., 2008;Haavio-Mannila et al., 2003;Hald, 2006;Herbenick et al., 2010;Lindau et al., 2018;Richters et al., 2014). More men than women report lifetime masturbation and recent masturbation; also, men report more frequent masturbation as compared to women (Gerressu et al., 2008;Herbenick et al., 2010;Oliver & Hyde, 1993;Petersen & Hyde, 2011). In the 2009 National Survey of Sexual Health Behavior (NSSHB), a U.S. nationally representative survey of 5865 men and women ages 14-94, 28% of men ages 70 + , 43% of men ages 14-15 and 60-69, and more than half of men ages 16-59 reported having engaged in solo masturbation in the prior month (Herbenick et al., 2010). ...
Despite well-documented individual, relational, and health benefits, masturbation has been stigmatized and is understudied compared to partnered sex. In a US nationally representative survey of adults, we aimed to: (1) assess the prevalence and frequency of participants’ prior-year masturbation, (2) describe reasons people give for not masturbating, (3) describe reasons people give for masturbating, and (4) examine the association between masturbation frequency and actual/desired partnered sex frequency in the prior year. Significantly more men than women reported lifetime masturbation, past month masturbation, and greater masturbation frequency. The most frequently endorsed reasons for masturbating related to pleasure, feeling “horny,” stress relief, and relaxation. The most frequently endorsed reasons for not masturbating were lack of interest, being in a committed relationship, conflict with morals or values, or being against one’s religion. Among women, those who desired partnered sex much more often and a little more often were 3.89 times (95% CI: 2.98, 5.08) and 2.07 times (95% CI: 1.63, 2.62), respectively, more likely to report higher frequencies of past-year masturbation than those who desired no change in their partnered sex frequency. Among men, those who desired partnered sex much more often and a little more often were 4.40 times (95% CI: 3.41, 5.68) and 2.37 times (95% CI: 1.84, 3.06), respectively, more likely to report higher frequencies of past-year masturbation activity than those who reported that they desired no change in their current partnered sex frequency. Findings provide contemporary U.S. population-level data on patterns of adult masturbation.
... In addition, consistent with previous research demonstrating that partners exhibit positive mean-level bias for negative interaction traits (Fletcher & Kerr, 2010), our second hypothesis was that individuals would overestimate the degree to which they were being sexually rejected by their partner. Given the salience of gender in shaping sexual cognitions, attitudes, and behaviors (Haselton & Buss, 2000;Oliver & Hyde, 1993), we additionally explored potential gender differences in perceptual accuracy for sexual rejection. Prior studies have shown that men tend to underperceive their partner's sexual interest in established relationships (Dobson et al., 2018;Muise et al., 2016b), suggesting the proposed overestimation bias of partner's sexual rejection behaviors may be stronger in men than in women. ...
In the current research, we investigated perceptual accuracy in romantic partners’ detection of sexual rejection. In two daily diary studies of predominantly cisgender heterosexual couples, we examined patterns of accuracy and bias concerning both the degree of sexual disinterest (Study 1; N = 98 couples) and occurrence of sexual rejection (Study 2; N = 115 couples), as well as how these perceptions were associated with satisfaction. Using a multi-method approach to capture both continuous and categorical operationalizations of sexual rejection (Study 1: truth and bias; Study 2: quasi-signal detection), we found that people were both accurate and biased in their perceptions of partner rejection. Across studies, results showed that people demonstrated general tracking accuracy in detecting a partner’s sexual rejection, but they also overestimated the degree and occurrence of this rejection. Additionally, this overestimation bias was associated with lower daily relationship and sexual satisfaction. Overall, our findings highlight the importance of dyadic perceptions of sexual rejection in shaping daily relationship and sexual functioning.
... Conventional dating is often arranged by parents and friends, marriage for love is seen as the ideal ( Coontz, 2006 ), with marriage being the pinnacle of the relationship experience (Buckingham-Hatfield, 2000) and divorce ending those relationships, about 50% of the time (CDC, 2014, for information on how divorce rates depend on demographics see Shellenbarger, 2004). To bolster the heteronormative script of intimate relationships, research often finds gender differences with men being sexually promiscuous and women being more sexually reserved ( Oliver & Hyde, 1993 ). The not so uncommon issues of intimate relationships: infidelity, abuse, sexual issues, betrayal, obsession, and hate are often treated as the "pandora's box" of relationships: if we just don't open (or think about) it, then nothing can go wrong. ...
Social psychology has made great advancements in understanding how our romantic relationships function and to some extent, dissolve. However, the social and behavioral sciences in much of western scholarship often focus exclusively on the more positive aspects of intimate relationships--and less so on more controversial or unconventional aspects. The goal of this volume is to explore and illuminate some of these underrepresented aspects: aspects such as non-monogamy, female orgasm, sadism, and hate, that often function alongside love in intimate relationships. Ultimately, by looking at intimate relationships in this way, the volume contributes to and advocates for a more holistic and comprehensive view of intimate relationships.
Throughout the volume, contributors from social, clinical, and evolutionary psychology cover love, lust, and hate from a variety of (sometimes opposing) perspectives. First, section 1 covers love and the changing landscape of romantic relationships. Its chapters review the current literature of the interaction between love, sex, and relationships, including the impact of technology on relationships. Then, the second section explores hate and how hate can operate in romantic relationships--for example, the appearance of sadistic behavior and lack of satisfaction. The volume concludes, however, by looking at ways in which the appearance of hate in relationships can be dealt with and overcome successfully. Taken together, these two sections reflect the full variety of experiences within intimate relationships. With the aim of exploring how love and hate can-and frequently do-work together, The Psychology of Love and Hate in Intimate Relationships is a fascinating psychological exploration of intimate relationships in modern time. It is an invaluable resource to academics and students specializing in psychology, gender, and sociology, clinicians and therapists, and all those interested in increasing our knowledge of intimate relationships.
... But, in the recent studies gender differences are becoming less apparent than in the earlier studies (Gao, 2001;Ha et al., 2010) are no longer concrete. Oliver & Hyde (1993), attribute the decrease in gender differences due to the decreasing differences in the society where equality is being promoted, but this supposition is not verified. ...
Adolescent romantic relationships are marked by feelings, thoughts, or behaviors within a
relationship and have been found to be associated with intimacy, passion, commitment, sexual
attitudes, trust, dependence and communication. The present research is based on studying the
relationship between love and relationship satisfaction of adolescents. For this purpose,
Sternberg's Triangular Love Scale and Relationship Assessment Scale were administered on a
sample of 100 adolescents (age=18-22 years). Correlation was applied which showed that a
significant positive correlation exists between the types of love and relationship satisfaction. The
t-test revealed that no gender differences were found in their types of love and in their
relationship satisfaction. The thematic analysis done using a semi-structured interview revealed
that gender differences exist between intimacy and passion of adolescents.
... For each study, the average interpersonal trust score, sample size, and publication year were recorded for cross-temporal meta-analysis. Furthermore, the year of data collection, which can indicate participants' birth cohort, was coded as 2 years prior to publication unless another date was reported in the article (e.g.,Oliver & Hyde, 1993;Twenge & Campbell, 2001;Xin et al., 2010). It is possible that samples in each study may differ in gender ratio, region, and publication class in a way that confounds them with birth cohorts. ...
Although previous literature has revealed the predictive effect of trust on economic development, whether the level of China’s market economy development predicts changes in trust across birth cohorts remains unknown. Study 1, a cross-temporal meta-analysis of 82 studies (N = 34,151), indicated that Chinese college students’ scores on the Interpersonal Trust Scale (ITS) decreased significantly from 1998 to 2011, and that the decline in interpersonal trust across birth cohorts was negatively associated with and predicated by the marketization index. Study 2 found that the levels of marketization of different provinces in China were negatively associated with the levels of trust in these provinces. The present research first proposed that the marketization process in China may predict or correlate with a trend of declining trust, and then demonstrated the validity of the proposal based on both longitudinal and cross-sectional evidence.
... The only regions more consistently triggering sexual arousal by self-stimulation versus stimulation by partner were the genitals and male anus (but see Schober, Meyer-Bahlburg, & Dolezal, 2009 for opposite findings). Masturbation occurs frequently in both human and nonhuman primates even when opportunities for copulation exist (Ford & Beach, 1951;Oliver & Hyde, 1993) and male masturbation (leading to ejaculation and wasting of sperm) across a variety of species has been proposed to increase sperm fit without increasing the number of sperm in the female tract (Baker & Bellis, 1993). Against this background, different goals of masturbation versus having sex with the partner could explain this difference: Stimulation of the sexually most sensitive regions during masturbation would be an effective way of obtaining sexual release, as no excess energy is wasted on stimulating the sexually less sensitive regions. ...
Touching is a powerful means for eliciting sexual arousal. Here, we establish the topographical organization of bodily regions triggering sexual arousal in humans. A total of 704 participants were shown images of same and opposite sex bodies and asked to color the bodily regions whose touching they or members of the opposite sex would experience as sexually arousing while masturbating or having sex with a partner. Resulting erogenous zone maps (EZMs) revealed that the whole body was sensitive to sexual touching, with erogenous hotspots consisting of genitals, breasts, and anus. The EZM area was larger while having sex with a partner versus while masturbating, and was also dependent on sexual desire and heterosexual and homosexual interest levels. We conclude that tactile stimulation of practically all bodily regions may trigger sexual arousal. Extension of the erogenous zones while having sex with a partner may reflect the role of touching in maintenance of reproductive pair bonds.
... One possible reason is that such pictures simply fail to produce a spatial attention effect in women. It is reported that women tend to have lower interest in sex than men do (e.g., Alexander & Fisher, 2003; Dewitte, 2015; Oliver & Hyde, 1993) and this might be reflected in less automatic attention to sexual stimuli. Hence, both the male and the female stimuli might have failed to reach a threshold whereby spatial attention was summoned. ...
Abundant research has shown that men's sexual attractions are more category-specific in relation to gender than women's are. We tested whether the early automatic allocation of spatial attention reflects these sexual attractions. The dot-probe task was used to assess whether spatial attention was attracted to images of either male or female models that were naked or partially clothed. In Experiment 1, men were faster if the target appeared after the female stimulus, whereas women were equally quick to respond to targets after male or female stimuli. In Experiment 2, neutral cues were introduced. Men were again faster to female images in comparison to male or neutral images, but showed no bias on the male versus neutral test. Women were faster to both male and female pictures in comparison to neutral pictures. However, in this experiment they were also faster to female pictures than to male pictures. The results suggest that early attentional processes reveal category-specific interest to the preferred sexual category for heterosexual men, and suggest that heterosexual women do not have category-specific guidance of attentional mechanisms. The technique may have promise in measuring sexual interest in other situations where participants may not be able, or may not be willing, to report upon their sexual interests (e.g., assessment of paedophilic interest).
... For this reason, men are more able than women to pursue short-term mating and invest less in parenting, at least initially. Numerous studies have confirmed that men are more inclined to pursue short-term mating opportunities than women (for a meta-analysis, see Oliver & Hyde, 1993). In addition, while maternal care was virtually a necessity for young children to survive throughout evolutionary history, paternal care may have been more auxiliary, with its incremental value depending on factors within the micro and macro environment (see Geary, 2000; Quinlan, 2007). ...
Life history theory suggests that individual differences in parenting are partially rooted in environmental conditions experienced early in life. Whereas certain conditions should promote increased investment in parenting, unpredictable and/or harsh environments should promote decreased investment in parenting, especially in men. We tested this hypothesis in 3 studies. In Study 1a, we conducted analyses on 112 parents taking part in the Minnesota Longitudinal Study of Risk and Adaptation (MLSRA), all of whom have been continuously studied starting before they were born. Parenting orientations were assessed at age 32 via an interview. Findings showed that experiencing more unpredictability at ages 0-4 (i.e., frequent changes in parental employment status, cohabitation status, and residence) prospectively forecasted more negative parenting orientations among men, but not women. This effect was serially mediated by lower early maternal supportive presence measured at ages 0-4 and insecure attachment assessed at ages 19 and 26. In Study 1b, we replicated these findings on 96 parents from the MLSRA using behavioral observations of their parental supportive presence. In Study 2, we replicated the effect of early-life unpredictability on men's parenting orientations with a sample of 435 parents. This effect was mediated by adult attachment anxiety and avoidance. Across all studies, greater early-life harshness (low socioeconomic status [SES]) did not predict adult parenting outcomes. These findings suggest that greater early-life unpredictability may be conveyed to children through less supportive parenting, which results in insecure attachment representations in adulthood. Among men, this process culminates in less positive adult parenting orientations and less supportive parenting. (PsycINFO Database Record
... However, there might be some reason to expect the sexes to differ in some ways. While the sexes are more alike than they are different , sexual behavior and attitudes remain one context in which they continue to differ in meaningful degrees (Oliver & Hyde, 1993; Petersen & Hyde, 2010). Women may be more motivated to bond and commune than men are (Buhrke & Fuqua, 1987; Jonason, Webster, & Lindsey, 2008) and, therefore, may be more interested in erotic talk centered around intimacy and bonding. ...
Using a mixed-methods study, we provided the first systematic documentation and exploration of erotic talk. In Study 1 (N = 95), participants provided 569 erotic talk statements in an anonymous online survey, which we classified, using a modified thematic analysis, as being representative of eight themes. In Study 2 (N = 238), we quantified individual differences in these themes, subjected them to factor analysis, and examined the nomological network surrounding them with measures of relationship and sexual satisfaction, sociosexuality, and personality. The eight initial categories represented two higher order factors, which we call individualist talk and mutualistic talk. These factors were orthogonal in factor analysis and distinct in their nomological network. While the majority of people reported using erotic talk, we found few sex differences in its use.
How does economic inequality relate to prosocial behaviour? Existing theories and empirical studies from multiple disciplines have produced mixed results. Here we conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis to systematically synthesize empirical studies. Results from 192 effect sizes and over 2.5 million observations in 100 studies show that the relationship varies from being negative to positive depending upon the study (95% prediction interval −0.450 to 0.343). However, on average, there is a small, negative relationship between economic inequality and prosocial behaviour (r = −0.064, P = 0.004, 95% confidence interval −0.106 to −0.021). There is generally no evidence that results depend upon characteristics of the studies, participants, the way prosocial behaviour and inequality were assessed, and the publication discipline. Given the prevalence of economic inequality and the importance of prosocial behaviour, this systematic review and meta-analysis provides a timely study on the relationship between economic inequality and prosocial behaviour.
Introduction
The COVID-19 pandemic had numerous consequences for general, mental and sexual health. As gender differences in sexual compulsivity (SC) have been reported in the past and SC has been connected to adverse events and psychological distress, the current study aims at investigating associations between these factors in the context of contact restrictions in the course of the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany.
Methods
We collected data for five time points in four retrospective measurement points in an online convenience sample ( n T0 = 399, n T4 = 77). We investigated the influence of gender, several pandemic-related psychosocial circumstances, sensation seeking (Brief Sensation Seeking Scale), and psychological distress (Patient-Health-Questionnaire-4) on the change of SC (measured with an adapted version of the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale) between T0 and T1 ( n = 292) in a linear regression analysis. Additionally, the course of SC over the time of the pandemic was explored with a linear mixed model.
Results
Male gender was associated with higher SC compared to female gender over all measurement points. An older age, being in a relationship, having a place to retreat was associated with a change to lower SC during the first time of the pandemic. Psychological distress was associated with SC in men, but not in women. Men, who reported an increase of psychological distress were also more likely to report an increase of SC.
Discussion
The results demonstrate that psychological distress seems to correlate with SC differently for men and women. This could be due to different excitatory and inhibitory influences on men and women during the pandemic. Furthermore, the results demonstrate the impact of pandemic related psychosocial circumstances in the times of contact restrictions.
Military personnel live in operating environments in which poor sleep is common. In this cross-temporal meta-analysis (CTMA), 100 studies (144 data sets, N = 75,998) were identified to examine changes in sleep quality among Chinese active service personnel from 2003 to 2019. Participants were divided into three groups: the navy, the non-navy, and the unknown service. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) was used as the measure of sleep quality; it contains a global score and seven component scores, with higher scores indicative of poorer sleep. Among all active military personnel, the PSQI global and seven component scores decreased from 2003 to 2019. In examining the results by military type, the PSQI global and seven component scores increased in the navy group. Conversely, both the non-navy and unknown-service groups showed decreased PSQI global scores over time. Similarly, all PSQI component scores decreased over time for both the non-navy and unknown service groups, except for the use of sleeping medication (USM), which increased in the non-navy group. In conclusion, the sleep quality of Chinese active service personnel showed a positive trend. Further research should focus on improving the navy’s sleep quality.
This paper aims to study the determinants of subjective happiness among working females with a focus on female managers. Drawn on a large social survey data set (N = 10470) in China, this paper constructs gender development index at sub-national levels to study how institutional settings are related to female managers’ happiness. We find that female managers report higher levels of happiness than non-managerial employees. However, the promoting effect is contingent on individual characteristics and social-economic settings. The full sample regression suggests that female managers behaving in a masculine way generally report a high level of happiness. Meanwhile, female managers who refuse to support gender equality report low happiness levels. Sub-sample analysis reveals that these causalities are conditioned on regional culture. Masculine behavior and gender role orientation significantly predict subjective happiness only in gender-egalitarian regions. This study is one of the first to consider both internal (individual traits) and external (social-economic environment) factors when investigating how female managers’ happiness is impacted. Also, this study challenges the traditional wisdom on the relationship between female managers’ job satisfaction and work-home conflict. This study extends the literature by investigating the impacts of female managers’ masculine behavior on their happiness. This study is useful for promoting female managers’ leadership effectiveness and happiness.
This research aimed to study queen bee syndrome in China. Results from a nationwide survey (Chinese General Social Survey) revealed that female managers are less likely to defend the existing gender hierarchy. We also found that female managers are analogous to men in many other aspects, such as hobbies and values. Female managers adopt a mixed strategy to deal with social identity threats. Individual characteristics, such as educational attainments and the speed of career development, are significant predictors of queen bee traits. The results refute the claim that queen bees syndrome is common in the workplace. It is also important to note that different dimensions of queen bee syndrome are not always interrelated.
The inclusion of Compulsive Sexual Behavior Disorder (CSBD) in the ICD-11 has sparked research interest on this topic in recent years. This review aims to investigate gender differences in Compulsive Sexual Behavior (CBD) and persons with CSBD. While impulsivity and psychiatric comorbidity play a role in persons with CSBD regardless of gender, some gender differences can be identified. CSBD is more prevalent in men, with a higher rate of reported sexual behaviors and higher scores on questionnaires measuring CSBD related symptoms. Neuroticism and stress vulnerability seem to play a more important role in the symptomatology of CSBD in women. While it seems plausible that childhood adversities play a role in the development of CSB, the manner with respect to how these adversities affect men and women differently is still to be explored. More clinical studies including the female CSBD population are required to infer clinical implications.
Solitary sexual activity is a free, safe, and accessible way to experience sexual pleasure. Despite these advantages, research on masturbation in later life is highly understudied. Using data from a cross-sectional probability-based survey of 3,816 European adults (mean age 67 years; range 60-75 years), we explored several sociodemographic, health, attitudinal, and sexual behavioral factors associated with reported masturbation frequency. Across all countries, between 41% and 65% of men and 27% and 40% of women reported any masturbation in the preceding month. Satisfaction with sexual activity and attitudes related to disapproval of sex without love were significant predictors of reported masturbation in almost all countries and in both genders. Age, education, self-perceived health, and depression were for the most part predictive of men’s reported masturbation, but not women’s. Generally, those believing sex is beneficial to older people were more likely to masturbate, while less permissive attitudes decreased the likelihood of reporting masturbation. To improve healthy sexual aging, misinformation about masturbation and sexual attitudes in older people need to be addressed. <br/
Psychological-psychiatric factors have a different effect on sexual functioning in men and women. This research aimed to examine the association between psychopathological dimensions and dimensions of sexual functioning in Spanish young adults in two studies. Study 1 examined sexual functioning and psychopathological dimensions in 700 women and 516 men. Study 2 conducted an experimental laboratory task to evaluate subjective sexual arousal and genital sensations when watching visual sexual stimuli in a subsample of participants from Study 1 (143 women and 123 men). As a result, the first study showed that depression and anxiety-related symptoms had a negative effect, both in men and women, and having a partner had a positive influence on the dimensions of sexual functioning. The second study showed that anxiety symptoms were positively associated with subjective sexual arousal in both men and women, and anxiety was associated with the assessment of genital sensations in men. The differences between the results of anxiety may be explained because sexual arousal was evaluated in general terms in Study 1, whereas it was evaluated as a state in Study 2. These findings confirm that the presence of psychopathological symptoms contributes to sexual functioning, as well as the necessity of strengthening mental illness prevention programs that include sexual health components.
Behavioral processes underlying sexual behavior are important for understanding normal human functioning and risk behavior leading to sexually transmitted infections (STIs). This systematic review examines delay and probability discounting in human sexual behavior through synthesis of 50 peer-reviewed, original research articles. Sixteen studies focusing exclusively on monetary delay discounting found small effect size positive correlations with sexual risk behaviors. Eleven studies examined delay or probability discounting of sexual behavior itself using tasks that varied duration, frequency, or quality of sex to determine value. Results show delay and uncertainty of sex causes systematic decreases in value. These studies also show consistent medium effect size relationships between sexual discounting measures and sexual health and substance use, supporting utility above and beyond monetary discounting. Twenty-three studies have modeled clinically relevant decision-making, examining effects of delay until condom availability and STI contraction probability on condom use. Observational and experimental designs found condom-use discounting is elevated in high-risk substance use populations, is sensitive to context (e.g., partner desirability), and is more robustly related to sexual risk compared with monetary discounting or condom use decisions when no delay/uncertainty was involved. Administering cocaine, alcohol, and, for some participants, methamphetamine increased condom-use discounting with minimal effect on monetary discounting or condom use when no delay/uncertainty was involved. Reviewed studies robustly support that sexual behavior is highly dependent on delay and probability discounting, and that these processes strongly contribute to sexual risk. Future research should exploit these systematic relationships to design behavioral and pharmacological approaches to decrease sexual risk behavior.
Evidence suggests that psychosexuality in humans is modulated by both organizational effects of prenatal and peripubertal sex steroid hormones, and by activational effects of circulating hormones in adulthood. Experimental work in male rodents indicates that sensitivity to androgen-driven organization of sexual motivation decreases across the pubertal window, such that earlier puberty leads to greater sex-typicality. We test this hypothesis in typically developing men (n = 231) and women (n = 648), and in men (n = 72) and women (n = 32) with isolated GnRH deficiency (IGD), in whom the precise timing of peripubertal hormone exposure can be ascertained via the age at which hormone replacement therapy (HRT) was initiated. Psychosexuality was measured with the Sexual Desire Inventory-2 (SDI-2) and Sociosexual Orientation Inventory-Revised (SOI-R). In both sexes, earlier recalled absolute pubertal timing predicted higher psychosexuality in adulthood, although the magnitude of these associations varied with psychosexuality type and group (i.e., typically developing and IGD). Results were robust when controlling for circulating steroid hormones in typically developing participants. Age of initiation of HRT in men with IGD negatively predicted SOI-R. We discuss the clinical implications of our findings for conditions in which pubertal timing is medically altered.
Hypothetical purchase tasks allow for rapid assessment of behavioral economic demand for numerous commodities and are useful in evaluating reinforcer pathologies, such as substance and behavioral addiction. Currently, there is not a task for evaluating demand for sex without requiring implicit engagement in sex work. The current study used a novel purchase task with hotel rooms for sex as the hypothetical commodity to assess demand for sex in individuals with disordered cocaine use, a population that frequently engages in risky sexual behavior. Adults meeting criteria for cocaine abuse or dependence (13 males, ten females) and noncocaine-using controls (eight males, three females) chose hypothetical sexual partners from a series of photographs and endorsed two partners with whom they would most and least like to have sex. Participants then completed the hotel purchase task for both partners, wherein they reported how many nights at a hotel room, at prices from $10 to $1280 per night, they would purchase in a year. Demand intensity was significantly greater and demand elasticity was significantly lower for the most preferred relative to the less preferred partner. Males demonstrated significantly greater intensity and lesser elasticity for sex than females. Demand metrics did not differ between the cocaine and control group. This task may serve as a useful measure of demand for sex without requiring implicit hypothetical engagement in sex work. Future studies exploring the relation between task performance and other characteristics such as sexual dysfunction, in addition to acute substance administration effects, may further determine the task’s clinical utility.
(Hetero)sexual double standards (SDS) entail that different sexual behaviors are appropriate for men and women. This meta-analysis ( k = 99; N = 123,343) tested predictions of evolutionary and biosocial theories regarding the existence of SDS in social cognitions. Databases were searched for studies examining attitudes or stereotypes regarding the sexual behaviors of men versus women. Studies assessing differences in evaluations, or expectations, of men’s and women’s sexual behavior yielded evidence for traditional SDS ( d = 0.25). For men, frequent sexual activity was more expected, and evaluated more positively, than for women. Studies using Likert-type-scale questionnaires did not yield evidence of SDS (combined M = −0.09). Effects were moderated by level of gender equality in the country in which the study was conducted, SDS-operationalization (attitudes vs. stereotypes), questionnaire type, and sexual behavior type. Results are consistent with a hybrid model incorporating both evolutionary and sociocultural factors contributing to SDS.
Research suggests that humans can communicate emotional states (e.g., fear, sadness) via chemosignals. However, thus far little is known about whether sexual arousal can also be conveyed through chemosignals and how these signals might influence the receiver. In three experiments, and a subsequent mini meta-analysis, support was found for the hypothesis that men can process the scent of sexually aroused women and that exposure to these sexual chemosignals affect the subsequent perceptions and sexual motivation of men. Specifically, Experiment 1 revealed that men evaluate the axillary sweat of sexually aroused women as more attractive, compared to the scent of the same women when not sexually aroused. In addition, Experiment 2 showed that exposure to sexual chemosignals increased the men’s sexual arousal. Experiment 3 found support for the thesis that exposure to sexual chemosignals would increase sexual motivation. As predicted, men devoted greater attention to and showed greater interest in mating with women who displayed sexual cues (e.g., scantily dressed, in seductive poses). By contrast, exposure to the sexual chemosignals did not alter males’ attention and mating interest toward women who displayed no sexual cues. It is discussed how sexual chemosignals may function as an additional channel in the communication of sexual interest and how contextual factors can influence the dynamics of human sexual communication.
Mental-illness-related stigma not only exists in the public but also in healthcare systems. Healthcare providers (HCPs) who have stigmatizing attitudes or behaviors might be thought of as a key barrier to mental health service use, and influence the quality of healthcare. Although cumulative projects have been conducted to reduce stigma related to mental illness among HCPs around the world, little is known about whether the attitudes of HCPs toward mental illness have changed over time. Research on this topic is mixed with respect to whether attitudes of HCPs toward mental illness have become more or less positive. The aim of the current study was to help clarify this issue using a cross-temporal meta-analysis of scores on the Social Distance Scale (SDS), Opinions about Mental Illness (OMI), and Community Attitudes towards Mental Illness (CAMI) measures among health care professionals and students (N = 15,653) from 1966 to 2016. Our results indicated that both social distance (β = −0.32, p < 0.001) and attitudes (β = 0.43, p = 0.007) of HCPs toward mental illness have become increasingly positive over time. These findings provide empirical evidence to support that the anti-stigma programs and courses have positive effects on HCPs and can inform future anti-stigma programs focusing on improving the attitudes of HCPs toward mental illness, thereby improving the quality of healthcare provided.
Extreme occupational environments influence the military personnel's psychological functions. This study aims to investigate Chinese plateau soldiers' mental health, its changes over time and its correlation with social indicators. A cross-temporal meta-analysis of Symptom Checklist-90 (SCL-90) was employed to resolve these problems. Forty-six valid data with 23,481 samples at high altitude were screened from 34 journal articles between 1993 and 2017. The mental health of Chinese plateau soldiers showed significant improvement. The eight factor scores of SCL-90 showed a significantly negative correlation with years. The scores of Chinese plateau soldiers presented several peaks in the years 2000, 2008, and 2017, suggesting that the mental health may be influenced by momentous military events. The current-year ratio of defense budget to gross domestic product and divorce rate showed a significant correlation with mental health. The improvement of consumption level index could better explain the improvement of mental health in plateau soldiers. Also, the mental health level of soldiers might affect the 5-year-later consumption level index. The influence of social changes on mental health cannot be neglected. The characteristics of military mental health should be considered when designing the prevention, intervention, and treatment programs, and preparing policies to care military service members.
In 2003, Nigeria enacted the Trafficking in Person (Prohibition) Law and Enforcement Act as the primary tool for the control of prostitution. It was amended in 2015 with tougher penalties for offenders. Currently enforced by the National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons (NAPTIP), the Act has not only inspired a lot of popular and policy responses towards sex work in Nigeria, it has underscored the state’s anti-prostitution stance. This paper examines the dynamics of sex work in a changing legislative and advocacy context. Using a historical view, it explores the relationship between sex work and the Nigerian state and offers reflections on the future of prostitution in the country.
Facial attractiveness captures and binds visual attention, thus affecting visual exploration of our environment. It is often argued that this effect on attention has evolutionary functions related to mating. Although plausible, such perspectives have been challenged by recent behavioral and eye-tracking studies, which have shown that the effect on attention is moderated by various sex- and goal-related variables such as sexual orientation. In the present study, we examined how relationship status and sociosexual orientation moderate the link between attractiveness and visual attention. We hypothesized that attractiveness leads to longer looks and that being single as well as being more sociosexually unrestricted, enhances the effect of attractiveness. Using an eye-tracking free-viewing paradigm, we tested 150 heterosexual men and women looking at images of urban real-world scenes depicting two people differing in facial attractiveness. Participants additionally provided attractiveness ratings of all stimuli. We analyzed the correlations between how long faces were looked at and participants’ ratings of attractiveness and found that more attractive faces—especially of the other sex—were looked at longer. We also found that more sociosexually unrestricted participants who were single had the highest attractiveness-attention correlation. Our results show that evolutionary predictions cannot fully explain the attractiveness-attention correlation; perceiver characteristics and motives moderate this relationship.
In general, the Attitudes toward Sexual Behaviors (ASB) or Sexual Attitudes measures have not been focused in the conjoint measurement of persons and items in the same construct, and have not reflected the new sexual behaviors neither the context where sexual behaviors take place. The purpose of this study was to provide evidence of the validity of a theoretical model for the measurement of ASB using the person-item map provided by a Rasch model. The theoretical model explicitly defines the ASB construct and makes a proposal where the items are intensity-ordered. It also considers the context in which sexual behaviors take place and their new ways of expression. ASB measurement was applied to two samples of 300 and 584 young people aged 18 to 30. Content of the ASB test administered includes the operative definition proposed. The results showed a good fit of the data to the model, and adequate measurement accuracy. The person-item maps showed that the items are distributed according to the theoretical model proposed in both samples. The easiest items for participants to endorse are those reflecting frequent dyadic sexual behaviors with a steady partner, and the hardest items for participants to endorse are those reflecting sexual behaviors via Information and Communication Technologies. The obtained results permit to conclude that there is favorable validity evidence for the theoretical model proposed for measuring ASB in heterosexual young people.
Models of sexual response posit that attentional processing of sexual cues is requisite for sexual responding. Despite hypothesized similarities in the underlying processes resulting in sexual response, gender differences in sexual arousal patterns are abundant. One such gender difference relates to the stimulus features (e.g. gender cues, sexual activity cues) that elicit a response in men and women. In this study, we examined how stimulus modality (static visual images versus dynamic audiovisual films) and stimulus features (gender, sexual activity and nonsexual contextual cues) influences attentional (i.e. gaze) and elaborative (i.e. self-reported attraction (SRA), self-reported arousal) processing of sexual stimuli. Men’s initial and controlled attention was consistently gender-specific (i.e. greater attention towards female targets), and this was not influenced by stimulus modality or the presence of sexual activity cues. By contrast, gender-specificity of women’s attention patterns differed as a function of attentional stage, stimulus modality and the features within the stimulus. Degree of specificity was positively predictive of SRA in both genders; however, it was not significantly predictive of self-reported arousal. These findings are discussed in the context of gendered processing of visual sexual information, including a discussion of implications for research designs.
Das Thema der psychologischen Geschlechtsunterschiede ist noch immer stark emotional und ideologisch besetzt. Hier geht es um eine nüchterne, wissenschaftliche Betrachtung dieser Geschlechtsunterschiede: Wie groß sind Geschlechtsunterschiede in welchen Persönlichkeitsmerkmalen in welchem Alter in welchen Kulturen, wie entwickeln sich diese Unterschiede und wie ist ihre Entwicklung zu erklären? Im Gegensatz zu den vorangegangenen Kapiteln wird also die interkulturelle Perspektive mit einbezogen. Es zeigt sich, dass lerntheoretische, kognitive, kulturpsychologische und evolutionspsychologische Erklärungen sich keineswegs ausschließen, sondern sich in ein Rahmenmodell der Entwicklung von Geschlechtsunterschieden integrieren lassen, das mit den vorliegenden empirischen Befunden zu Geschlechtsunterschieden gut vereinbar ist.
This study explores the experiences of lesbian couples as they move through the different stages of pregnancy and re-enter the workforce after maternity leave. The study draws on semi-structured in-depth interviews conducted at three points in time: middle and late pregnancy and after the return to work. The findings suggest that the transition to motherhood is a complex process for lesbian women and that this experience differs for the birth versus the non-birth mother depending on whether there is a positive or negative diversity climate in their workplace. Our analysis revealed that the birth mother is better equipped to 'claim' her maternal identity and feels 'validated' as she discloses her pregnancy, transitions to motherhood, and returns to work, whereas the non-birth mother experiences greater difficulty. We also found that the ability to disclose and feel validated as a new mother freely at work was tied to the level of 'outness' at work and thus, experiences differed depending on how the interviewees perceived the diversity climate in their organization.
This review analyzed longitudinal studies examining the effects of sexually explicit material on adolescents' attitudes, beliefs and behaviors. The review also aimed to provide an analysis of the limitations of the existing studies, as well as recommendations for future research. To be included, publications had to employ repeated measurements, include a measure of sexually explicit material use and participants aged 18 years or under. A total of 20 papers from nine different research projects were reviewed. The results show that sexually explicit material is associated with sexual behavior, sexual norms and attitudes, gender attitudes, self-esteem, sexual satisfaction, uncertainty and preoccupancy. In addition, the studies reported developmental effects on adolescents' behavioral, cognitive and emotional well-being. Because experimental studies among adolescents are not feasible, more methodologically rigorous longitudinal studies—followed by a meta-analysis—are needed to further our understanding of the effects of sexually explicit material in this population.
Adolescent sexuality is a multidimensional concept involving sexual behavior as well as aspects of youth's sexual self-concept and sexual socialization. The current study used latent class analysis (LCA) to examine patterns of adolescent sexuality, with data from a nationally representative sample of youth (Add Health; n = 13,447), incorporating information on behavioral and psychosocial dimensions of adolescent sexual experiences. LCA results highlighted that youth may exhibit similar sexual behaviors but vary on psychosocial dimensions, including sexual self-efficacy, knowledge, and views about sex. Sociodemographic characteristics, family factors, mental health, and substance use emerged as predictors of membership into different latent classes of sexuality. Given persistent racial differences in sexual outcomes and sexually transmitted infection (STI) rates, the current study also examined how adolescent patterns of sexuality may help mediate racial differences in sexual outcomes by young adulthood. Results suggested that racial differences in adolescent patterns of sexuality help mediate racial differences in the number of sexual partners by young adulthood but not differences in STI diagnosis. Findings highlight the need for research on multiple aspects of adolescent sexuality to understand linkages with later outcomes and group differences.
Hormones orchestrate and coordinate human female sexual development, sexuality, and reproduction in relation to three types of phenotypic changes: life history transitions such as puberty and childbirth, responses to contextual factors such as caloric intake and stress, and cyclical patterns such as the ovulatory cycle. Here, we review the endocrinology underlying women's reproductive phenotypes, including sexual orientation and gender identity, mate preferences, competition for mates, sex drive, and maternal behavior. We highlight distinctive aspects of women's sexuality such as the possession of sexual ornaments, relatively cryptic fertile windows, extended sexual behavior across the ovulatory cycle, and a period of midlife reproductive senescence-and we focus on how hormonal mechanisms were shaped by selection to produce adaptive outcomes. We conclude with suggestions for future research to elucidate how hormonal mechanisms subserve women's reproductive phenotypes.
Unlike other life domains, sexual quality of life (SQoL) has a negative relationship with age. This study disentangled the effect of age in this relationship from confounding sociocultural influences (e.g., the period of time in which data were collected, and cohort differences) and aimed to understand the roles of other sexual domains (i.e., frequency, perceived control, thought and effort invested in sex, and number of sexual partners). We analyzed data from the longitudinal Midlife in the United States study (n = 6,278; age range 20-93), which were collected between 1995 and 2013. Repeated measures linear mixed-effects models showed that age was the most robust time-related predictor of declining SQoL. However, after the sexual domains were included in the model, age had a positive relationship with SQoL and older adults' SQoL was differentially influenced by the quality-not quantity-of sex. When partnership characteristics were included in the model, age was no longer related to SQoL. These findings suggest that aging may be associated with the acquisition of skills and strategies that can buffer age-related declines in SQoL, particularly in the context of a positive relationship. We summarize these findings as sexual wisdom.
Since China adopted its reform and opening-up policy, the state of society has changed dramatically. Correspondingly, Chinese college students' scores of the Experiences in Close Relationships scale are expected to have changed from 2003 to 2015. A cross-temporal meta-analysis found that Chinese college students' scores of the attachment anxiety subscale increased by 0.2 standard deviations in the past 13 years. With a turning point in 2009, the scores of the attachment avoidance subscale increased by 0.58 standard deviations from 2003 to 2009 and decreased by 0.57 standard deviations from 2009 to 2015. Five social indicators including divorce rate, C-section rate, household size, Consumer Price Index, and Gini coefficient showed significant correlation with attachment anxiety. The results from a second meta-analysis showed that there was no gender difference or cohort effect in gender difference in Chinese college students' adult attachment scores. Finally, the explanations and implications of these changes and the insignificant gender difference are discussed.
The sexual double standard influences men’s and women’s sexual attitudes and behavior, leading men and women to consider distinct sexual motives, or reasons whether or not to engage in sexual intercourse. The goal of the present paper was to document how the sexual double standard shapes perceptions of peers’ sexual motives. We build on past research by using open-ended questions and measuring perceptions of both same-gender and other-gender peers. The sample included 154 heterosexual college students (50 % female, 49 % European American, 25 % Latino American, 26 % African American) recruited via probability sampling. When we compared perceptions of men’s and women’s sexual motives, we found that participants seemed to rely on the sexual double standard. Participants were more likely to attribute a female-stereotyped motive (e.g., romantic relationship characteristics, feeling “ready”, emotional investment) and less likely to attribute a male-stereotyped motive (“easy”, arousal, physical appearance) to female peers than to male peers. However, when we compared participants’ own motives to perceptions of their peers’ motives, participants overestimated male-stereotyped motives and underestimated female-stereotyped motives in peers, regardless of peer gender, possibly in congruence with stereotypes of hookup culture. These findings demonstrate that, although individuals sometimes rely on the sexual double standard to attribute sexual motives to others, misperceptions of peers’ sexual motives may also be influenced by stereotypes of hookup culture. These misperceptions contribute to pluralistic ignorance that may influence college students’ sexual behaviors.
This research examines the impact of humans' mating motivation on their attitudes toward and recall of advertising that contains words with sexual connotations (e.g., “Sexton Plumbing” and “We Sell Boxes”). Due to gender differences based on evolution-based and socialization-based approaches, this research predicts differential evaluations between men and women for advertising that contains words with sexual connotations. The results of two empirical studies reveal that men in a mating mindset condition show more positive attitudes toward advertisements containing words with sexual connotations than do men in the control condition. In contrast, a different pattern is evident for women. Women in a mating mindset show similar attitudes toward such advertisements compared to women in the control condition. A similar pattern was also found for the recall of advertisements.
Youth sexuality has been primarily studied with a focus on its potential public health issues, such as sexually transmitted infections and unwanted pregnancies, and its comorbidity with other risky behaviors. More recently, it has been studied as a normative step in romantic partnerships, either pre- or post-marital, as well as outside the context of romantic involvement. In this paper, we review the extensive literature on sexuality in adolescence and early adulthood both within and outside romantic relationships (i.e., casual sexual relationships and experiences; CSREs). Furthermore, the recent recognition of youth sexuality as a developmental task has led to a renewed interest from scholars in youth who abstain from sexual encounters, whether deliberately or not. A brief overview of the literature on cultural differences in sexuality, and sexual-minority youth sexual development is also provided. This paper concludes by suggesting future directions to bring the field of youth sexuality and romantic relationships forward.
Many scholars have called for an increased focus on positive aspects of sexual health and sexuality. Using a longitudinal design with two assessments, we investigated patterns of entitlement to sexual partner pleasure and self-efficacy to achieve sexual pleasure among 295 young men and women aged 17-25 years attending one Australian university. We also tested whether entitlement and efficacy differed by gender, and hypothesized that entitlement and efficacy would be higher in older participants and those with more sexual experience. A sense of entitlement to sexual partner pleasure increased significantly over the year of the study, whereas, on average, there was no change in self-efficacy over time. At Time 1 (T1), young women reported more entitlement than young men. Age was positively associated with T1 entitlement, and experience with a wider range of partnered sexual behaviors was concurrently associated with more entitlement and efficacy and was also associated with increased entitlement to partner pleasure and increased self-efficacy in achieving sexual pleasure at T2 relative to T1. A group with the least amount of sexual experience was particularly low in entitlement and efficacy when compared to groups with a history of coital experience. There was no evidence that any association differed between young men and young women. Limitations of the study include a sample of predominantly middle class, Caucasian students at one university and the possibility that students more interested in sex and relationships, and with more sexual experience, chose to participate.
Sex and eating may have behavioral and psychological relationships and have cortical regions in common. This research investigated the general relationship between sex and eating from a reward perspective among the general population. Two-hundred and sixty-one Chinese participants were recruited via the internet (136 males, 125 females, mean age 30.46 years) to fill in questionnaires about wanting and liking for sex and eating. The results revealed that first, there was a positive correlation between wanting for sex and wanting to eat only for males. Second, the relationship between liking for sex and eating was also positive for males and not significant in females. Third, the correlation between sociosexual orientation and wanting to eat was significant only in females, and there was no significant correlation between sociosexual orientation and liking for eating. Fourth, emotional sex cravings (or emotional sexual activity) was positively correlated with emotional food cravings (or emotional eating behavior), with a higher magnitude correlation in males than females. Finally, analysis of wanting (liking) models of sex and eating for males and females revealed three models for wanting among females: high wanting, low wanting for eating, and low wanting for sex; and two models for wanting among males: high wanting and low wanting. Liking for sex and eating among females consisted of two types of model: high liking and low liking; whereas three type models existed for males: high liking for sex, high liking for eating, and low liking. In general, our research revealed that, as with other natural reward, sex and eating have considerable commonality and are related in numerous ways.
The paper analyzes the structure and dynamics of sexual satisfaction in a random sample of over seven hundred metropolitan women and men aged 20-60. We test several hypotheses, informed by both evolutionary and social constructivist theory, about the influence of gender and age on sexual satisfaction. The results point out the considerable overlap between the correlates of male and female sexual satisfaction with partner's satisfaction being the strongest predictor. In spite of the predicted decline in sexual interest, sexual satisfaction does not seem to be diminishing with age. In the concluding section, the authors discuss the findings in regard to the sexual dynamics within long-term intimate relationships.
Four meta-analyses were conducted to examine gender differences in personality in the literature (1958-1992) and in normative data for well-known personality inventories (1940-1992). Males were found to be more assertive and had slightly higher self-esteem than females. Females were higher than males in extraversion, anxiety, trust, and, especially, tender-mindedness (e.g., nurturance). There were no noteworthy sex differences in social anxiety, impulsiveness, activity, ideas (e.g., reflectiveness), locus of control, and orderliness. Gender differences in personality traits were generally constant across ages, years of data collection, educational levels, and nations.
From an evolutionary psychology perspective, it is likely our species comes equipped with specialized psychological adaptations that influence the differing ways men and women pursue mating strategies. When short-term mating, men seem to preferentially desire easy sexual access and relax their mate preference desires so as to obtain large numbers of sexual partners. When women pursue short-term mates, they appear to increase their selectivity in mate choice and desire men who possess cues to “good genes.” In long-term mating, men preferentially emphasize fertility-related cues such as youth and physical attractiveness, whereas women desire a long-term mate who is able and willing to devote resources to her and their offspring. Overall, the empirical validity of most mate preference adaptations postulated by Sexual Strategies Theory (Psychological Review 100:204–232, 1993) is strong to moderate in evidentiary depth and breadth.
Conclusion:
This is the first study to demonstrate that online communication predicts the initiation of offline sexual and romantic activity as early as adolescence. Practitioners and parents need to consider the role of online communication in adolescents' developing sexuality. What is Known: • Adolescents increasingly communicate online with peers. • Online communication predicts romantic and sexual activity among college students. What is New: • Online communication predicts adolescents' offline romantic activity over time. • Online communication predicts adolescents' offline sexual activity over time.
This study utilizes data from 18,392 respondents (aged 12-19) in Wave 1 of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) to provide a detailed descriptive analysis of U.S. adolescents' desired behaviors in their ideal romantic relationships. Age, gender, and ethnic group differences in the desire for-and preferred sequence of-a set of activities that could occur in a hypothetical romantic relationship were explored within subsets of heterosexual (n = 17,274) and sexual minority adolescents (n = 1118). Non-sexual behaviors were more commonly desired compared to sexual behaviors. The typical desired behavioral sequence was: holding hands, going out alone, telling others they were a couple, kissing, saying "I love you," sexual touching, and finally having sex. Overall, more similarities than differences emerged across groups, with some notable differences in the percentages who desired sexual behaviors. Results provide a nuanced picture of adolescent relationship scripts, with implications for education and prevention.
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