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Utility of Predicting Group Membership and the Role of Spatial Visualization in Becoming an Engineer, Physical Scientist, or Artist
Abstract
This article has two themes: First, we explicate how the prediction of group membership can augment test validation designs restricted to prediction of individual differences in criterion performance. Second, we illustrate the utility of this methodology by documenting the importance of spatial visualization for becoming an engineer, physical scientist, or artist. This involved various longitudinal analyses on a sample of 400,000 high school students tracked after 11 years following their high school graduation. The predictive validities of Spatial-Math and Verbal-Math ability composites were established by successfully differentiating a variety of educational and occupational groups. One implication of our findings is that physical science and engineering disciplines appear to be losing many talented persons by restricting assessment to conventional mathematical and verbal abilities, such as those of the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and the Graduate Record Examination (GRE).
... In the area of cognitive abilities, different profile shapes also result in disparate outcomes. Specifically, individuals with dominant verbal abilities, or "verbal tilt", are more likely to have aesthetic values (Bernstein et al. 2019) and literary-linguistic interests (Humphreys et al. 1993), prefer classes in the humanities and social sciences, and enter occupations in these areas (Wai et al. 2009). Individuals with a spatial or mathematical tilt, on the other hand, tend to have theoretical values and physical science interests, prefer classes in math and science, and enter occupations in these fields. ...
... This grouping of traits is also supported by Holland's vocational theory, which posits that individuals with Investigative interests tend to have scientific and mathematical abilities (1997). Furthermore, research on ability profiles has demonstrated relations between spatial tilt and physical science interests, which correspond to Realistic and Investigative interests (Humphreys et al. 1993). Extending this to interestability profiles, we propose the following: Hypothesis 1a. ...
... This grouping of traits is supported by Holland's (1997) theory, which posits that individuals with Artistic interests tend to have some ability in writing and speaking. Furthermore, research on profiles of abilities has demonstrated substantial relations between verbal tilt and literary-linguistic interests, which correspond to Artistic interests (Humphreys et al. 1993). Thus, we propose the following: Hypothesis 1b. ...
Cognitive abilities and interests both play an important role in guiding knowledge acquisition, but most previous studies have examined them separately. The current study used a large and representative dataset to integrate interests and abilities using a person-centered approach that examines how distinct profiles of interests and abilities relate to individual strengths and weaknesses in knowledge. Two key findings emerged. First, eight interest–ability profiles were generated from Latent Profile Analysis (LPA), which replicated and extended the interrelations of interests and abilities found in previous studies using variable-centered approaches. Second, each profile’s strongest knowledge scores corresponded to their strongest abilities and interests, highlighting the importance of interest–ability profiles for guiding the development of knowledge. Importantly, in some domains, the lower ability profiles were actually more knowledgeable than higher ability profiles. Overall, these findings suggest that people learn best when given opportunities to acquire knowledge relevant to both their interests and abilities. We discuss how interest–ability profiles inform integrative theories of psychological development and present implications for education and career development.
... An interesting corollary from this longitudinal study was that spatial ability has a lower correlation with socio-economic status (SES), relative to both mathematical and verbal reasoning abilities. More spatially intelligent individuals from lower SES levels could therefore be identified through the use of spatial ability measures (Humphreys, Lubinski & Yao, 1993). Furthermore, a recent meta-analysis of 217 research studies established that spatial ability can reliably be improved through training. ...
... These forms of Grade 12 qualifications may also have afforded the applicants with exposure to a spatially enriched education as described in the research by Hsi et al. (1997), Stieff et al. (2013) and Uttal et al. (2013a). This conclusion is in line with previous research which established that enhanced spatial ability is significantly associated with accomplishment in STEM domains (Humphreys et al., 1993;Kell & Lubinski, 2013;Shea et al., 2001). ...
The relationship between type of secondary education and subject choice with technically oriented aptitudes for automotive operators
... Indeed, broad occupational interests appear to correlate with prenatal exposure to androgens [18]. This does not necessarily mean that the sex differences in interests in specific occupations are biologically influenced but rather sex differences in occupation-relevant abilities (e.g., mechanical reasoning or spatial ability [46,47]) or broader factors, such as sensitivity to people or the physical properties of objects, might lead to differences in interest in the occupations available in any social or historical context [44,45,47,48]. ...
... Alternatively, it is possible that many women studying for things-oriented occupations use their knowledge and skills in the educational sector (e.g., teaching physics), which would then count as a people-oriented occupation. It is also possible that women who train for and enter these occupations do not stay in them (c.f., [48,49]). Finally, it is possible that there have been recent changes in students' aspirations that explain these generational differences. ...
We investigated sex differences in 473,260 adolescents' aspirations to work in things-oriented (e.g., mechanic), people-oriented (e.g., nurse), and STEM (e.g., mathematician) careers across 80 countries and economic regions using the 2018 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). We analyzed student career aspirations in combination with student achievement in mathematics, reading, and science, as well as parental occupations and family wealth. In each country and region, more boys than girls aspired to a things-oriented or STEM occupation and more girls than boys to a people-oriented occupation. These sex differences were larger in countries with a higher level of women's empowerment. We explain this counter-intuitive finding through the indirect effect of wealth. Women's empowerment is associated with relatively high levels of national wealth and this wealth allows more students to aspire to occupations they are intrinsically interested in. Implications for better understanding the sources of sex differences in career aspirations and associated policy are discussed.
... The traditional way of teaching based on verbal information, present most often in the USA, but also in Croatia, is the least suitable one for those students. With the potential to become engineers, architects or innovators, many of them stay undereducated and underemployed (Humphreys et al., 1993). Those students will progress if an interdisciplinary approach to teaching is used which will allow them to relate how changes in one area affect another area. ...
Gifted children with disabilities, or twice-exceptional students, differ from both gifted children and children with disabilities. Twice-exceptional students are students who show the potential for high achievement or creative productivity in one or more areas, and manifest one or more difficulties. The access to education and support that this group of children needs differs significantly from the approach and support that others need. This paper presents the results of research related to the characteristics, recognition and support for gifted students with learning disabilities, ADHD, and autism spectrum disorder.
... A relation between students' spatial abilities and their mathematical performance has been well documented, as has a relation between adults' spatial abilities and their accomplishments in certain science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields (Hawes & Ansari, 2020;Humphreys et al., 1993;Kell et al., 2013;Mix, 2019). A relation between spatial abilities and mathematics has been found in preschool (Lauer & Lourenco, 2016;Verdine et al., 2017), kindergarten (Geary & Burlingham-Dubree, 1989), and the early elementary school years (Cheng & Mix, 2014;Cheung et al., 2019). ...
Adolescents' (n = 342, 169 boys) general algebra and algebra word problems performance were assessed in 9th grade as were intelligence, academic achievement, working memory, and spatial abilities in prior grades. The adolescents reported on their academic attitudes and anxiety and their teachers reported on their in-class attentive behavior in 7th to 9th grade. There were no sex differences on the general algebra measure or for mathematics achievement, but boys had an advantage on the algebra word problems measure (d = .51) and for spatial abilities (ds = .29 to .58). Boys had higher mathematics self-efficacy (d = .24 to .33), lower mathematics anxiety (ds = -.31 to -.53) and were less attentive in classrooms (ds = -.28 to -.37). A series of structural equation models revealed the sex difference for algebra word problems was mediated by spatial abilities and mathematics anxiety, controlling myriad confounds. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
... The general relation between spatial abilities and mathematics outcomes emerges during the preschool years (Verdine et al., 2017) and continues through high school (Casey et al., 1997;Cheung et al., 2019;Geary & Burlingham-Dubree, 1989;Geary et al., 2021;Kyttälä & Lehto, 2008;Mix et al., 2016) and into adulthood. The latter includes spatial contributions to the pursuit of and accomplishment in certain science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields (Humphreys et al., 1993;Gohm et al., 1998;Kell et al., 2013;Wai et al., 2009). Sex differences, favoring boys, in various components of spatial abilities are well documented, including visuospatial working memory (Voyer et al., 2017), visuospatial attention (Collaer et al., 2007), mental rotation (Voyer et al., 1995), and various indices of navigational skills (Matthews, 1992;Nazareth et al., 2019). ...
The study tested the hypothesis that there are sex differences in the pathways to mathematical development. Three hundred forty-two adolescents (169 boys) were assessed in various mathematics areas from arithmetic fluency to algebra across 6th to 9th grade, inclusive, and completed a battery of working memory, spatial, and intelligence measures in middle school. Their middle school and 9th grade teachers reported on their in-class attentive behavior. There were no sex differences in overall mathematics performance, but boys had advantages on all spatial measures (ds = .29 to .58) and girls were more attentive in classroom settings (ds = -.28 to -.37). A series of structural equation models indicated that 6th- to 9th-grade mathematical competence was influenced by a combination of general cognitive ability, spatial abilities, and in-class attention. General cognitive ability was important for both sexes but the spatial pathway to mathematical competence was relatively more important for boys and the in-class attention pathway for girls.
An abundance of empirical evidence indicates that spatial ability is significantly correlated with educational performance in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. Previous studies have explored the relationship between spatial ability and science achievement in adults. However, the relationship between spatial ability and science achievement in children at different stages of learning remains unclear. This study examined how the relationship between spatial ability and science achievement differed by grade. A total of 29, 524 students, including 17, 378 fourth graders (boys = 9022, girls = 8365, mean age = 9.78) and 12, 137 eighth graders (boys =6294, girls = 5843, mean age =13.73), were selected from the Qingdao Basic Education Quality Assessment database using cluster random sampling. Participants were recruited to complete two basic cognitive processing tasks (three-dimensional mental rotation and nonverbal matrix reasoning), two self-report scales (multiple intelligence and learning persistence), and a curriculum-based science achievement assessment. The study demonstrated that spatial ability and science achievement are closely related in Chinese children. That this relationship was evident in every instance tested shows a certain stability. The relationship was stronger in eighth-grade students than in fourth-grade students, even after controlling for reasoning ability (measured via non-verbal matrix reasoning) and learning persistence. The relationship between spatial ability and science achievement over time depends on how spatial ability is assessed, either through self-reports or cognitive-based tests. This indicates that in children, as they advance in grade and science courses become more difficult, spatial abilities play an increasingly important role in science learning.
Executive functioning (EF) is a set of high-level cognitive skills, including planning, organizing, prioritizing, logical and contextual thinking, understanding, working memory, and self-monitoring. Though these skills are critical for academic success across fields, engineering education may be especially demanding for those with poor EF. One potential resource that may help to buffer against the negative effects of poor EF on academic achievement is divergent thinking. This study examined the role of divergent thinking as a moderating variable in the relationship between EF and academic achievement in engineering education. Undergraduate engineering students completed a self-report scale of EF and tests assessing figural and verbal divergent thinking, across multiple study sessions. Participants’ GPA was obtained from the university registrar's office. Participant data (N = 199) were analyzed using correlational analysis and a multiple moderation model. Results showed that EF scores and engineering GPA were significantly negatively correlated, and that figural (yet not verbal) divergent thinking moderated the association. A greater frequency of behaviors reflecting problems with overall daily EF was associated with lower GPA for those with relatively lower figural divergent thinking ability. Thus, figural divergent thinking may be one personal resource that can be leveraged to enhance academic achievement in engineering students with poor EF.
El procesamiento visoespacial es clave para lograr, entre otros, un rendimiento óptimo en actividades académicas. En el ámbito de la cognición espacial se ha encontrado que la práctica con tareas espaciales puede reducir la brecha de género en este tipo de razonamiento. Sin embargo, no siempre un aumento de las puntuaciones espaciales llega a compensar las diferencias que existen entre participantes con mayores y menores habilidades espaciales. De acuerdo con estudios previos sobre diferencias individuales y maleabilidad en cognición espacial, se necesitan estudios comparables en niños, niñas y adolescentes utilizando el mismo método de evaluación y entrenamiento. En este trabajo se analiza, en 39 estudiantes de Educación Primaria (estudio 1: 17 niños y 22 niñas) y en 21 de Educación Secundaria (estudio 2: 11 chicos y 10 chicas), el perfil de evolución a través de las diferentes sesiones de un entrenamiento en rotación mental (RM), así como el grado de mejora producido en función de su capacidad espacial de partida, analizando el factor género. En ambos grupos, se aplicó un entrenamiento espacial (Programa de Entrenamiento en Rotación Mental) durante tres sesiones consecutivas con una duración promedio de 35 minutos por sesión. Para ambos grupos de edad, los participantes con bajo nivel espacial se beneficiaron en una proporción similar que aquellos participantes con más recursos espaciales. Este resultado se replicó para ambos sexos. Esta investigación servirá como punto de partida para promover e implementar entrenamientos adaptativos y personalizados, y así poder ayudar a los que menos capacidades espaciales tienen. Este tipo de intervenciones ganarían en eficacia y podrían maximizar el potencial educativo en los grupos más desfavorecidos.
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