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The Effect of Perceived Challenges and Skills on the Quality of Subjective Experience
Abstract
This article investigates the effects that perceived challenges and skills in activities have on the quality of everyday life experience. Based on flow theory it was predicted that quality of daily experience would depend on the challenge experienced and skill required in specific situations, as well as on the balance between challenge and skill. The Experience Sampling Method (ESM) was used on a sample of 208 talented adolescents to measure daily variations in four dimensions of experience (concentration, wish to do the activity, involvement, and happiness) in four contexts (in school, with relatives, with friends, and in solitude). The four dimensions of experience were regressed on the predictors challenges, skills, and their absolute difference expressing the balance/imbalance of challenges and skills. Hierarchical linear modeling, explained in detail herein, was conducted on a 1-week sample of experiences. Findings confirm the prediction of flow theory that the balance of challenges and skills has a positive and independent effect on the quality of experience. Yet some differences of parameter estimates were found between dimensions of experience and between social contexts. These heterogeneities call for a further improvement of the flow model.
... To explore this further, researchers have turned to regression analysis as a tool for modeling the relationship between the challenge-skill balance and the intensity of the flow experience. One early approach to analyzing this relationship is the additive model (Moneta & Csikszentmihalyi, 1996Pfister, 2002) (Eq. 1), which posits that the flow experience depends on challenges and skills as independent predictors. ...
... If all three regression coefficients are positive, it indicates that challenges, skills, and their interaction have a positive effect on the flow experience. The framework of the absolute difference model allows for the investigation of how the imbalance between challenges and skills influences the flow experience (Moneta & Csikszentmihalyi, 1996) ...
... For example, concerning the temporal dimension, findings from Ceja and Navarro (2012) related to work activities pose challenges when applied to single, brief, and dynamic activities due to limited temporal sampling density of the ESM (Tian et al., 2023). Regarding the nature of tasks, activities aimed at achieving specific outcomes (Moneta & Csikszentmihalyi, 1996), such as board games, may generate higher motivation to succeed compared to more expressive activities like painting. Thus, the flow state experienced during board game play may be influenced by different equilibrium systems between challenge and skills compared to other activities (Andrade & Pontes, 2017;Jennett et al., 2008;Khang et al., 2013;Michailidis et al., 2018;Nordin et al., 2013;Reichenbach, 2017). ...
In research on flow as a constitutive trait, alongside appropriate levels of attention and motivation, the balance between task challenges and individual skills is emphasized. However, accurately determining the optimal balance to maximize the intensity of the flow state remains a complex task. It is evident that both variables, task challenge and individual skills, are interrelated. Nevertheless, how to precisely express the degree of matching between these variables in explaining the flow state remains an open question. One of the recent proposals for analyzing the (mis)matching of predictor variables explaining outcomes is Response Surface Analysis (RSA). In this study, we employed RSA to verify whether the skill-challenge balance could indeed occur in a configuration that best explains the flow state. We measured flow using the Flow Short Scale, which consists of two subscales: fluency and absorption. The study included 528 participants who were online board game players and were asked to assess their perceived skill levels and the current challenge of the game. RSA revealed two intriguing phenomena concerning both the fluency scale and absorption: firstly, flow is higher when the perceived level of skills exceeds task challenge compared to situations where perceived skills are lower than task challenge; secondly, flow is higher when both perceived skill levels and task challenge are higher compared to when they are at low levels. These findings shed light on a crucial aspect of the occurrence of flow, related to perceived skill levels and subjective task challenge.
... Refinements of this model suggest that flow occurs only when skills and demands are perceived as above the average level (Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 1988;Massimini & Carli, 1988;Massimini et al., 1987). However, it has been found that people who report a demandskill balance do not always experience flow (Abuhamdeh & Csikszentmihalyi, 2012;Baumann et al., 2016;Moneta & Csikszentmihalyi, 1996;Pfister, 2002). ...
... Therefore, the present research is the first to show that the congruence of implicit and explicit power motives promotes the experience of flow. The results extend previous flow research that has focused particularly on the achievement domain, and they show that flow is not only applicable to the achievement domain as stated by Moneta and Csikszentmihalyi (1996). Examining our results together with results on implicit/explicit achievement (Rheinberg et al., 2005;Schüler, 2010;Schattke et al., 2014;Steiner, 2006) and the agentic motive congruence , they confirm the assumptions of Rheinberg (2008) and Kehr (2004bKehr ( , 2020) that the congruence of implicit and explicit motives in general leads to higher levels of flow experience. ...
Traditional flow models such as the flow channel model suggested that flow can be particularly applied to situations with strong achievement content. However, more recent approaches propose that the congruence of implicit and explicit motives would promote the experience of flow and thus, other motives such as the implicit and explicit power motives may foster flow. The present research tested whether flow can be experienced in power-related situations, particularly when there is congruence between implicit and explicit power motives. Implicit power motivation was assessed through content, coding of imaginative stories. Explicit power motivation and flow were measured using questionnaires. In Study 1 (N = 58) implicit and explicit power motive congruence predicted flow in a dominance contest. In Study 2 (N = 94), a persuasive group discussion, the relation between power motive congruence and flow was additionally moderated by activity inhibition. Hence, power motive congruence only fostered flow for individuals high in activity inhibition. These findings broaden the scope of the application of flow research beyond the achievement domain, demonstrating that power-related contexts can also facilitate flow under specific motivational conditions.
... Flow is a psychological state in which a person simultaneously feels cognitively efficient, motivated, and happy [139,140]. It is considered a valid metric to measure user experience in online and virtual worlds, and a determinant of user acceptance and intention to use virtual worlds [141]. ...
... In particular, PEOU is recognized as an antecedent of flow [142], which also resulted significantly higher in the EC. This would confirm a more cognitively demanding experience in SL, as flow is connected to perceived cognitive fluency and positive emotional experience [139,140], and cognitive load has been related to lower levels of flow in virtual environments [177]. Finally, the SL condition led to significantly higher values of perceived cognitive effort (CES), confirming the interpretation of neurophysiological results. ...
The growing interest in consumer behavior in the digital environment is leading scholars and companies to focus on consumer behavior and choices on digital platforms, such as the metaverse. On this immersive digital shopping platform, consumer neuroscience provides an optimal opportunity to explore consumers’ emotions and cognitions. In this study, neuroscience techniques (EEG, SC, BVP) were used to compare emotional and cognitive aspects of shopping between metaverse and traditional e-commerce platforms. Participants were asked to purchase the same product once on a metaverse platform (Second Life, SL) and once via an e-commerce website (EC). After each task, questionnaires were administered to measure perceived enjoyment, informativeness, ease of use, cognitive effort, and flow. Statistical analyses were conducted to examine differences between SL and EC at the neurophysiological and self-report levels, as well as between different stages of the purchase process. The results show that SL elicits greater cognitive engagement than EC, but it is also more mentally demanding, with a higher workload and more memorization, and fails to elicit a strong positive emotional response, leading to a poorer shopping experience. These findings provide insights not only for digital-related consumer research but also for companies to improve their metaverse shopping experience. Before investing in the platform or creating a digital retail space, companies should thoroughly analyze it, focusing on how to enhance users’ cognition and emotions, ultimately promoting a better consumer experience. Despite its limitations, this pilot study sheds light on the emotional and cognitive aspects of metaverse shopping and suggests potential for further research with a consumer neuroscience approach in the metaverse field.
... Upholding Manacha's (2020) ideologies about leadership development, the authors emphasise the need to be self-aware and thrive to attain the optimal understanding of one's inner consciousness for higher emotional stability as an employee. Self-awareness allows one to express themselves creatively, have healthier social relationships and perform better at work (Moneta & Csikszentmihalyi, 1996), allowing them to rationalise their experiences meaningfully and perform optimally. Various psycho-therapeutic techniques such as meditation, self-introspection, self-reflection and cognitive restructuring may help employees understand better and relate to their roles. ...
This study investigates the role of an employee’s age on the development of PsyCap through moderated mediation analysis. It extends by exploring various work characteristics, such as job resource (transformational leadership) and cognitive resource (meaningful work), in the motivational process of the job demand–resource model of psychological capital (PsyCap) at work. The sample of 350 IT/ITeS employees recruited using a purposive sampling technique belonged to major IT hubs in India. The results disconfirm the moderated mediation of an employee’s age on PsyCap; however, it emerges as a statistically significant moderator influencing perceptions of transformational leadership at work culminating into PsyCap. Cognitive resource of meaningful work also emerges as a crucial mediator in the relationship between transformational leadership and PsyCap. The novelty of the finding is attributed to the fact that an increase in age may not always promise increased maturity and ability to draw meaningful inferences, yet it may radically shift perceptions of various job resources and, consequently, hopefulness, optimism, resilience and efficacy related to their organisation. It broadens the scope of organisational literature by conjecturing the developmental perspective to the shift in the importance of different resources over time.
... SDT (Deci and Ryan, 2000) further supports this perspective, suggesting that in contexts where intrinsic motivation is high, external resources may have a limited impact on performance outcomes. This observation reinforces the evidence documented in Moneta and Csikszentmihalyi, (1996) research who found that when individuals experience deep immersion, external factors such as POS become less significant to their creative output. ...
Purpose -While employee behaviors related to work vary, few hospitality researchers have explored the link between workaholism and organizationally valued outcomes. This article scrutinizes the associations among different facets of workaholism-"low enjoyment," "drive" and "involvement"-and their impact on hotel frontline employees' innovation behavior. Additionally, it examines the mediating effect of perceived organizational support (POS).
Design/methodology/approach -Self-administered questionnaires were used to collect data. The study adopts partial least squares-structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) to examine the data with the final sample of 259 hotel frontline employees in Jordan.
Findings -Our findings revealed that while the "involvement" facet of workaholism significantly correlates with innovative behavior, "low enjoyment" and "drive" do not directly influence innovation. However, when POS is introduced as a mediator, both "low enjoyment" and "drive" exhibit significant indirect effects on innovation, with POS enhancing the positive impact of "drive" and mitigating the negative influence of "low enjoyment" on innovation.
Practical implications -Hospitality managers should foster supportive work environments that enhance the positive aspects of employee dedication while mitigating potential negative effects. The findings highlight the importance of POS in promoting innovative behaviors and sustaining employee well-being. By cultivating a culture of recognition, collaboration and balanced workloads, organizations can harness employee commitment to drive innovation and improve overall performance, creating a sustainable and productive workplace.
Originality/value -This study offers a groundbreaking perspective by dissecting workaholism into its three facets-low enjoyment, drive and involvement-and exploring their distinct impacts on employee innovation in the hospitality industry. By integrating the mediating role of POS, it highlights how organizational environments can transform workaholism's challenges into drivers of innovation. This novel approach addresses key gaps in the literature, providing actionable insights for fostering innovation while safeguarding employee well-being in high-pressure hospitality settings.
... In other words, consumers' AR expertise, through the knowledge they develop about AR, acts as a trigger that influences their inspiration (Alba and Hutchinson, 1987). Expertise, defined as a necessary condition for creativity (Moneta and Csikszentmihalyi, 1996), has been confirmed to enhance consumer satisfaction in these technological applications where AR is used (Javornik, 2016;Hinsch et al., 2020). By improving product presentation, AR technology enriches user experiences. ...
Purpose
This study aims to examine the impact of augmented reality (AR) expertise and augmentation quality on consumer inspiration and the subsequent effect of consumer inspiration on experience extension. This study sets out to investigate the mediating role of application/brand (app/brand) congruence between consumer inspiration and experience extension.
Design/methodology/approach
The research sample consisted of consumers who used the AR application of the “Atasun Optik” brand, which allowed them to experience products using AR technology. Data analysis was conducted using the Smart PLS (Partial Least Squares) statistical software.
Findings
According to the structural equation modeling analysis results, AR quality and AR expertise positively affected consumer inspiration. In addition, inspiration positively affected app/brand congruence. However, no effect of inspiration on direct experience extension was found. The results revealed that app/brand congruence had a full mediation effect between consumer inspiration and experience extension.
Originality/value
This study contributes to the growing body of AR marketing knowledge by revealing consumer inspiration’s indirect role in the experience extension. Unlike previous studies that primarily associate inspiration with direct behavioral outcomes, the findings demonstrate that app/brand congruence fully mediates the relationship between inspiration and experience extension. Additionally, this study provides novel empirical evidence on the impact of AR expertise and augmentation quality on consumer inspiration, addressing a gap in the literature. By highlighting the mediating role of app/brand congruence, this research advances the understanding of how AR experiences shape consumer behavior beyond immediate purchase intentions.
... It tries to describe an experience of the overarching feeling of being holistically immersed in an action (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975). In this state or experience, people feel simultaneously motivated, effective cognitively, and content (Moneta & Csikszentmihalyi, 1996). This happiness emerges when people not only fulfil their expectations and needs but also exceed and achieve something that seems unexpected. ...
This study adopts Schmitz’s new phenomenological approach to investigate tourists’ experiences of immersion in forest bathing. Immersion is a complex phenomenon with relevance in various domains e.g. tourism, sports, and religion. Focusing on the Flow experience, this study aims to uncover diverse aspects of immersion. Through interviews with six participant groups, three themes were identified as central to the immersive experience in forest bathing. The study suggests that managers should consider creating diverse trails to accommodate different immersion preferences, allowing visitors to engage in a variety of immersive experiences and promoting a broader range of well-being outcomes. Furthermore, the study highlights the importance of capturing immersive experiences dynamically and from a descriptive perspective, rather than adopting a static framework.
... As such, the LP-based approach fits well with the "optimal challenge" assumption that is frequently used in research areas such as psychological flow, curiosity, and effort allocation. Studies highlight that aligning task difficulty with personal skill levels is key to achieving deep engagement (i.e., the classical inverted U-shaped function of engagement and difficulty; Aston-Jones and Cohen, 2005;Lu et al., 2023;Moneta and Csikszentmihalyi, 1996;Ulrich et al., 2014Ulrich et al., , 2016. Building on the link between LP and intermediate difficulty, recent research suggests that learning progress may be the foundation of this optimal challenge, driving engagement (Lu et al., 2024b;Sayalı et al., 2023). ...
People often strive for deep engagement in activities, a state typically associated with feelings of flow - full task absorption accompanied by a sense of control and enjoyment. The intrinsic factors driving such engagement and facilitating subjective feelings of flow remain unclear. Building on computational theories of intrinsic motivation, this study examines how learning progress predicts engagement and directs cognitive control. Results showed that task engagement, indicated by feelings of flow and low distractibility, is a function of learning progress. Electroencephalography data further revealed that learning progress is associated with enhanced proactive preparation (e.g., reduced pre-stimulus contingent negativity variance and parietal alpha desynchronization) and improved feedback processing (e.g., increased P3b amplitude and parietal alpha desynchronization). The impact of learning progress on cognitive control is observed at the task-block and goal-episode levels, but not at the trial level. This suggests that learning progress shapes cognitive control over extended periods as progress accumulates. These findings highlight the critical role of learning progress in sustaining engagement and cognitive control in goal-directed behavior.
... Yim et al. (2017) also proposed that AR interactivity significantly enhances consumers' sense of immersion and evokes enjoyment value, including the pleasure felt by consumers when using the product (Yoo et al., 2010). Immersion is a psychological state in which a person becomes deeply engaged in an activity and experiences great joy and enjoyment (Moneta & Csikszentmihalyi, 1996). Following the results of the above studies, this study proposes Hypotheses H1a -H1c in an AIR experience: ...
Online shopping generally presents the pain point of not being able to try on products. Therefore, various industries are gradually developing and applying augmented reality (AR) to improve the online product experience. The purpose of this study is to explore the impact of AR in assisting the online presentation of cosmetics on consumers and, based on the S-O-R model, to examine how AR features affect consumers’ perceived value. In this study, AR features are categorized into interactivity, vividness, system quality, and product informativeness. Consumers’ perceived value after using AR makeup tools is divided into three dimensions: perceived emotional value, perceived cognitive value, and perceived social value. The study also examines how these perceived values influence consumers’ attitudes toward AR technology, which, in turn, affect their willingness to use AR makeup tools. Perceived social benefits and intention to use determine whether they will patronize brand websites. A research model was tested through an empirical survey of 81 valid participants. The PLS analysis results show that consumers’ perceived cognitive value is significantly affected by the interactivity, vividness, system quality, and product informativeness provided by AR. Perceived social value is significantly influenced by AR’s presence effect, while perceived emotional value is influenced by AR’s interactivity and vividness. The study also suggests that consumers’ perceived value affects their attitude toward AR technology, which, in turn, significantly influences their willingness to use AR makeup tools and patronize brand websites. The findings of this study provide the cosmetics industry with optimization suggestions for the application of AR makeup tools and contribute to research on AR technology.
... The game should not be too easy or too difficult. They must consider the cognitive skills of the target audience and implement a progression system (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990;Moneta & Csikszentmihalyi, 1996) and feedback loops. Using too many game elements and over-stimulation is another temptation to avoid. ...
This chapter explores the transformative potential of integrated Game-Based Learning (GBL) and interdisciplinary educational strategies to address the multifaceted challenges of the Anthropocene. It begins by identifying the limitations of traditional academic disciplines in preparing individuals for the complexities of the modern world and highlights the urgent need for innovative paradigms that can promote the development of adaptive critical thinking. Game-based integrated learning is presented as a comprehensive approach that crosses disciplinary boundaries and develops various skills such as critical thinking, collaboration and adaptability. Students are encouraged to solve problems, make informed decisions and observe the consequences of their actions, increasing engagement and motivation. This chapter also advocates interdisciplinary educational strategies that integrate project-based, experiential-based and community-based learning to develop a deep understanding of issues related to the Anthropocene. Despite technological barriers, access and equity issues, and assessment challenges, there is consensus about the transformative power of GBL when implemented effectively. It also highlights the important role of teachers in integrating GBL into their teaching practices and the importance of comprehensive educational programmes and ongoing support. As we move beyond education in the Anthropocene, GBL will become a beacon of innovation, preparing students to tackle complex real-world challenges with curiosity, adaptability, determination and in a changing world. You will become more resilient.
... Furthermore, Moneta and Csikszentmihalyi introduced the experience fluctuation model, a flow dimension framework based on the difficulty levels of learning challenges and individual skills [10]. This model identifies eight distinct emotional states, including apathy, boredom, worry, anxiety, relaxation, control, arousal, and flow [11]. ...
This study examined the effectiveness of interactive electronic picture (IEP) books during immersive reading, impact on mental health education, and integrating gaming elements in educational settings. The mixed-methods experiment combined quantitative data from surveys with qualitative insights from in-depth interviews. The findings revealed that males have higher levels of immersion during interactive reading. This study contributes to digital learning by providing empirical evidence on the benefits of integrating interactive technology into education as well as emphasizing IEP books’ potential to revolutionize mental health education and the importance of considering gender differences when designing educational tools.
... The identification of flow antecedents has intrigued researchers, starting from the seminal model of experience fluctuation (Massimini, Csikszentmihalyi & Carli, 1987;Moneta & Running Head Flow at work moderation model 6 Csikszentmihalyi, 1996), providing evidence of the central role of perceived challenge/skill balance in fostering flow onset (Kawabata & Mallett, 2011;Keller et al., 2011). Other psychological aspects of the interaction with an activity, such as perceiving clear goals and unambiguous feedback, emerged as potential antecedents of flow (Hektner, Schmidt & Csikszentmihalyi, 2007). ...
The dynamics of flow occurrence – an experience of absorbed attention and joyful engagement in ongoing activity - over time needs further exploration, especially in educational settings. To this purpose, data were collected across three years among school staff (baseline N= 327) in New South Wales, Australia, with the aim to test perceived strengths use, strengths knowledge, and positive climate as predictors of flow at work, and positive climate as a moderator of the relationship between strengths use/ knowledge and flow. Findings showed that strengths use/ knowledge and positive climate consistently predicted more flow at work, but the moderation effect was non-significant. We suggest that while perceived positive climate reflects the macro-contextual conditions helpful for flow to occur, individual level contextual factors that might synergistically interact with strengths use/knowledge are yet to be identified. Future research should include both macro and micro contextual factors that impact upon the flow experience.
... To be consistent with the ESM measurement for the individual°ow experience, the team°ow items were captured using 10-point scales with values ranging from \not at all" (0) to \very" (9). In order to model and validate TFLOW consistently with°ow theory, we also included the second-order constructs of individual°ow corridor (IFLOWCORR) and individual°o w feeling (IFLOWFEEL) in our measurements [Moneta and Csikszentmihalyi (1996)]. ...
During Design Thinking (DT) processes, team flow is a vital indicator and driving force behind feeling and performing at peak. In a quasi-experimental, segmented time series study, we examined team flow levels over time using high-resolution, real-time measurements during two multi-day DT workshops with flow-inducing exercises (in short: flow inducers). Two key insights emerged: (1) a second wind effect, where teams naturally increased flow after the initial engagement phase; and (2) a preservation capacity, where teams with greater creative outputs maintained higher flow levels despite interruptions (in short: flow reducers). The careful management of flow-inducing exercises and workshop duration should give teams the flexibility needed to dynamically adjust and stay in the zone. These findings inform the development of a framework for sustaining team flow in multi-day workshops, the core contribution of this study. The framework offers practical recommendations to manage team flow in stages, emphasizing key points of intervention and optimal timing of flow inducers. It is adaptable for various co-creative settings, guiding facilitators in maximizing creative persistence and output.
... The flow dynamics. Based on the classical channel model of flow, a series of mathematical models that quantitatively describe the impact of challenge and skill balance on flow were raised [46] [47]. These models were initially linear and static. ...
Flow, an optimal mental state merging action and awareness, significantly impacts our emotion, performance, and well-being. However, capturing its swift transitions on a fine timescale is challenging due to the sparsity of the existing flow detecting tools. Here we present a fine fingertip force control (F3C) task to induce flow, wherein the task challenge is set at a compatible level with personal skill, and to quantitatively track the flow state variations from synchronous motor control performance. We select eight performance metrics from fingertip force sequence and reveal their significant differences under distinct self-reported flow states. Further, we built a machine learning-based decoder that aims to predict the continuous flow intensity during the user experiment through the performance metrics, taking the self-reported flow as the label. Cross-validation shows that the predicted flow intensity reaches significant correlation with the self-reported flow intensity (r = 0.81). Based on the decoding results, we can capture the flow fluctuations during the intervals between sparse self-reporting probes. This study showcases the feasibility of tracking intrinsic flow variations with high temporal resolution using task performance measures and may serve as foundation for future work aiming to take advantage of flow's dynamics to enhance performance and positive emotions.
... Perceived enjoyment is a key component of the flow theory (FT) which posits that individuals are most motivated when they experience a state of flow, characterized by intense concentration and absolute pleasure. This state of flow leads to a desire for continual experiences that provide a sense of fulfillment and enjoyment (Moneta & Csikszentmihalyi, 1996). This could be related to functional food consumption because individuals may find the functional food in their diet an enjoyable experience that may tempt them to repeat it (Steptoe et al., 1995). ...
... In addition, what the respondents regard as challenges is what the adventurous client with disabilities would seek. Such assertion is rooted in Moneta and Csikszentmihalyi (1996), who found that violations of the flow model can result from differences based on the degree of inherent challenge (achievement preferences vs. casual-social). In addition to the challenge-skill game, risk perception (as a challenge) balanced with perceived competence has been theorised to promote optimal experiences during various stages of outdoor adventures (Martin & Priest, 1986). ...
Implementing the universal accessibility concept in white water adventure tourism requires more in low-resource settings than in destinations in developed countries. The literature points to misconceptions of access-need population groups and concern for safety among water-based sports. A case study of Victoria Falls-Zimbabwe was employed to explore the challenges when implementing universal accessibility in white water-based adventure tourism. Snowball and convenience sampling techniques were employed. In-depth interviews were administered among adventure tourism operators and guides, informants whose views have been missing in existing debates. Data was analysed using the thematic analysis framework. The key findings revealed eight challenges, which include limited universal accessibility equipment, costs of adapting the facilities, challenges of hiking up and down the gorges, an absence of a harmonised policy framework for facilitating universal access, exclusively priced adventure products, an over-emphasis on the perception of risk and the under the marketing of white water-based adventure tourism services to access-need market segments.
... In addition, what the respondents regard as challenges is what the adventurous client with disabilities would seek. Such assertion is rooted in Moneta and Csikszentmihalyi (1996), who found that violations of the flow model can result from differences based on the degree of inherent challenge (achievement preferences vs. casual-social). In addition to the challenge-skill game, risk perception (as a challenge) balanced with perceived competence has been theorised to promote optimal experiences during various stages of outdoor adventures (Martin & Priest, 1986). ...
... In addition, other studies have suggested that creativity is more likely to be induced in users in immersive VR. Similarly, Moneta and Csikszentmihalyi (1996) and Yamamoto and Nakakoji (2005) articulated the importance of creativity, especially in immersive virtual reality (IVR), where flow and usage load as part of the user experience affects the user creativity. While a subset of scholars have discussed the creativity of IVR, generally these discussions have been based on different contexts, such as engineering teaching (Yang et al., 2018), and thus have led to disparate conclusions. ...
... As such, the LPbased approach fits with the "optimal challenge" assumption, that is frequently used in research areas such as psychological flow, curiosity, and effort allocation. Studies highlight that aligning task difficulty with personal skill levels is key to achieving deep engagement (i.e., the classical inverted U-shaped function of engagement and difficulty) [31][32][33][34][35] . Building on the link between LP and intermediate difficulty, recent research suggests that learning progress may be the foundation of this optimal challenge, driving engagement 36,37 . ...
People often strive for deep engagement in activities which is usually associated with feelings of flow: a state of full task absorption accompanied by a sense of control and fulfillment. The intrinsic factors driving such engagement and facilitating subjective feelings of flow remain unclear. Building on computational theories of intrinsic motivation, this study examines how learning progress predicts engagement and directs cognitive control. Results showed that task engagement, indicated by feelings of flow and distractibility, is a function of learning progress. Electroencephalography data further revealed that learning progress is associated with enhanced proactive preparation (e.g., reduced pre-stimulus contingent negativity variance and parietal alpha desynchronization) and improved feedback processing (e.g., increased P3b amplitude and parietal alpha desynchronization). The impact of learning progress on cognitive control is observed at the task-block and goal-episode levels, but not at the trial level. This suggests that learning progress shapes cognitive control over extended periods as progress accumulates. These findings highlight the critical role of learning progress in sustaining engagement and cognitive control in goal-directed behavior.
... As mentioned above, emotional states significantly impact individuals, and in this context, they also have important effects on the creativity of artists. For example, according to Csikszentmihalyi's Flow theory, positive emotional states are believed to enhance creativity and allow for deeper connections in artistic production (Moneta and Csikszentmihalyi, 1996). ...
Art and artistic creation serve as a means for artists to communicate with their environment, society, and the external world. However, the protection of artistic creations, as forms of communication, is not only a right for artists but also serves as a crucial safeguard that nurtures them during the creative process. Beyond the traditional issues of copyright, the significant advancements in Artificial Intelligence (AI) in today’s digital world have introduced a new debate regarding the ownership of copyright in artistic creations generated by AI. The question arises whether copyright belongs to the AI itself or to the individuals who guide the creative process behind it. In this study, based on the concepts of art, artistic creation, and emotional states, copyright issues will be examined. Data obtained from semi-structured in-depth interviews with artists and academic experts (eight artists, two communication experts, two law experts, and eight psychology experts) in the field will be analysed through content analysis to explore their perspectives regarding the discussion on emotional states, AI, and copyrights. The research highlights the variability of emotional states and their significant effects on individuals. Addressing the increasing trend of copyright issues, particularly within the framework of digitalization and inadequate legal regulations, it was found that artists’ emotional states are negatively impacted by these problems. This negative influence can adversely affect artists’ creativity and desire to produce. On the other hand, it was also identified that in artworks produced especially through AI, if artists’ rights are not protected, there is a possibility of negative emotional states arising. In conclusion, suggestions are as follows: Emphasising the importance of awareness-raising educational activities nationally and internationally, national copyright law (in Northern Cyprus) needs to be revised to protect traditional copyright and be expanded to include digital copyright, especially for works produced through AI. On an international level, emphasising the need to revise international agreements to include regulations for works produced through AI or to create a new agreement based on the importance of this issue.
... The foundational underpinning of flow theory resonates as an integral element within the potential benefits offered by gamification. The theory proposes that individuals can achieve a state of profound immersion and engagement when absorbed in tasks [55]. This concept is evident in various contexts, from artists immersed in their creative process to athletes pushing their physical boundaries [56]. ...
... This dynamic ensures that activities remain engaging over time by offering escalating challenges that evolve in complexity in line with the individual's skill development (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2009). Contrasting with theories that suggest remaining within comfort zones or reaching the highest challenge possible, flow theory promotes a continuous adjustment of activities to sustain interest and development (Moneta & Csikszentmihalyi, 1996). ...
Deep work, the ability to focus without distraction on cognitively demanding tasks, is essential for professionals in Estonia's rapidly growing tech sector. However, the evolving work environment and increasing demands on technical experts raise questions about the effectiveness of current management techniques in supporting deep work. This thesis critically evaluates the management techniques and practices employed by Estonian tech companies to facilitate a culture of deep work among their technical professionals. Utilising qualitative research methods, including interviews with Estonian tech leaders and tech professionals, it examines how these practices support or hinder deep work and flow. It also identifies the challenges and barriers these experts face in achieving deep work immersion within the Estonian tech realm. The primary barriers highlighted include frequent interruptions and work fragmentation, a lack of structured and deliberate enhancement of flow, and the absence of consistent and proactive leadership approaches to fostering deep work environments. A notable disconnect between leaders' theoretical understanding and practical application of flow principles further complicates these challenges.
Based on these insights, the thesis proposes refined management strategies aimed at enhancing the support mechanisms for deep work and flow. These strategies focus on minimizing disruptions, implementing structured approaches to encourage flow, and fostering a culture that prioritizes deep work.
The findings reveal that while there is a general recognition among leaders of the importance of deep work, the practical implementation varies significantly, often lacking in structure and proactivity. This research underscores the need for Estonian tech companies to adopt more systematic, proactive management practices to better facilitate deep work. The implications of this study suggest that improving these practices could significantly enhance productivity and job satisfaction, contributing to the sector's overall efficacy and innovation.
This thesis not only provides a critical evaluation of current management techniques but also offers actionable recommendations for fostering an environment where technical experts can thrive, thus supporting the growth and innovation of the tech sector in Estonia.
Keywords: deep work, flow, leadership, management techniques, tech sector
... It is important to highlight that everyone's own perception of their skills in comparison to the challenges present in a situation is more important than their objective skillset. If an individual perceives there to be a match between their skills and the activity, then this is more important than any objective matching in terms of experiencing flow [80]. ...
In societies that rely on the economic framework of consumer capitalism, materialistic values, whereby individuals place high importance on acquiring money and material goods to improve well-being and status, tend to be rife. Materialistic values, however, negatively impact human health and well-being. One way in which they do this is by facilitating environmental degradation. Psychological research demonstrates that strong materialistic values can directly lead to lower levels of physical and mental health. In contrast to the problems presented by materialistic values and lifestyles, flow experiences, whereby people are completely immersed in an activity, may offer a means of limiting environmental violence and enhancing human well-being. The benefits of flow for well-being are well documented within the field of positive psychology. Further, research is beginning to show that flow may be able to support sustainable outcomes by occurring in activities with low environmental costs and encouraging stronger self-transcendent values. This chapter reviews the evidence to show that materialistic values support environmental violence before considering how flow experiences can offer an antidote that would allow us to reduce environmental violence and to live better and more sustainably. In doing so, practical recommendations are made for how to encourage flow experiences across society.
... This research work differentiates itself from existing efforts [23][24][25][26] in (a) the consideration of a flow theoretical model (directly approaching flow via its composing dimensions instead of via engagement, deep-concentration, or positive-emotion), (b) the application of flow measurement and characterization instruments specific to online learning contexts, (c) the application of the logit function additionally of the linear function, and (d) the use of a 2-year long input dataset issued from a MOOC. ...
Flow is a human psychological state positively correlated to self-efficacy, motivation, engagement, and academic achievement. In a MOOC, flow detection and prediction would potentially allow for learners’ content personalization, fostering engagement and increasing already-low completion rates. In this study, we propose a Machine Learning flow-predicting model by pairing the results of the EduFlow-2 and Flow-Q measure instruments issued to participants of a MOOC (n = 1589, 2-year data collection). The resulting flow-predicting-model detects flow in an automatic, asynchronous fashion by applying only the EduFlow-2 measurement instrument. Our model proposal predicts flow presence with greater precision than it detects flow absence.
... Kişi, etkinliğin çekici ve zevkli olduğu durumlarda etkinliğe kendini kaptırır ve zaman algısı dönüşüme uğrar (Arnould ve Price, 1993;Csikszentmihalyi, 1996;Nakamura ve Csikszentmihalyi, 2002). Bu duruma yamaç paraşütündeki uçuş süresinin sporcu tarafından gerçekte olandan daha kısa olarak algılanması örnek olarak gösterilebilir. ...
Bu araştırmanın amacı, ekstrem sporcularda rekreasyonel akış deneyiminin algılanan
esenlik üzerindeki etkisini tespit etmektir. Nicel araştırma yönteminden yararlanılarak
tasarlanmış bu çalışmada ilişkisel tarama modeli kullanılmıştır. Araştırma grubunun
seçiminde gönüllülük esasına dayalı olarak olasılığa dayalı olmayan örnekleme
çeşitlerinden kolayda örnekleme tekniğinden yararlanılmıştır. Araştırma grubunu hava,
kara ve suda yapılan ekstrem spor branşlarından en az birini yapan 532 kişi
oluşturmaktadır. Araştırma verileri çevrim içi anket tekniğinden yararlanılarak elde
edilmiştir. Veri toplama aracı olarak araştırmacı tarafından geliştirilen “Kişisel Bilgi
Formu”, Alpullu ve Ak (2020a) tarafından geliştirilen “Alpak Akış Ölçeği” ve Adams ve
diğ. (1997) tarafından geliştirilen ve Memnun (2006) tarafından güvenilirlik ve geçerlilik
çalışması yapılarak Türkçeye uyarlanan “Algılanan Esenlik Ölçeği (Perceived Wellness
Scale)” kullanılmıştır. Elde edilen veriler SPSS 24.0 paket programından yararlanılarak
analiz edilmiştir. Katılımcıların demografik özelliklerini belirlemek amacıyla betimsel
istatistiklerden yararlanılmıştır. Araştırmada kullanılan ölçeklerin güvenilirliğini test
etmek için cronbach’s alfa katsayıları hesaplanmıştır. Yapılan normallik analizi
sonucunda araştırma verilerinin normal dağıldığı tespit edilmiş ve verilerin analizinde
parametrik analiz tekniklerinden yararlanılmıştır. Akış deneyimi ve esenlik algısı
arasındaki ilişkinin tespit edilmesi için Pearson Korelasyon analizi uygulanmıştır.
Rekreasyonel akış deneyiminin esenlik algısı üzerindeki etkisini belirlemek amacıyla
Çoklu Doğrusal Regresyon analizi uygulanmıştır. AAÖ ve AEÖ değişkenlerinin gruplar
arası farklılık gösterip göstermediğini tespit etmek amacıyla Bağımsız Örneklem T-Testi
ve Tek Yönlü Varyans Analizi (One-Way ANOVA) yapılmıştır. Araştırma bulgularına
göre, aktivite esnasındaki kaygı ve sıkılma alt boyutunun algılanan esenlik alt boyutları
ile negatif, tanışma ve akış boyutunun algılanan esenlik alt boyutları ile pozitif bir ilişki
içerisinde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Regresyon analizi sonuçlarına göre sıkılma alt
boyutunun algılanan esenlik alt boyutları üzerinde anlamlı bir etkisinin bulunmadığı
tespit edilmiştir. Tanışma alt boyutunun psikolojik, duygusal, fiziksel ve entelektüel
esenlik algısı üzerinde pozitif, kaygı boyutunun algılanan esenliğin tüm boyutları
üzerinde negatif etkisi olduğu belirlenmiştir. Ayrıca akış alt boyutunun algılanan
esenliğin tüm boyutları üzerinde pozitif yönde anlamlı bir etkisi olduğu tespit edilmiştir.
Sonuç olarak ekstrem spor esnasında yaşanılan kaygı durumunun esenlik algısını olumsuz
yönde, aktiviteye yönelik tanışma durumundaki tutum ile rekreasyonel akış deneyiminin
esenlik algısını olumlu yönde etkileyeceği tespit edilmiştir.
... Hence, it can be known that the flow experience is not easy to obtain, as it can only be achieved when relevant conditions are ripe. Moneta and Csikszentmihalyi [21] summed up the characteristics of flow experience to illustrate this kind of special leisure experience. First, the function generated from the pleasurable experience depends on subjective experience variables, including challenges and skills. ...
This study explored the subjective well-being of hospital volunteers during the COVID-19 pandemic from a mental health perspective using a health care system sustainability perspective, and adopted the purposive sampling method to conduct a questionnaire survey. A total of 520 questionnaires were distributed, and 500 questionnaires were recovered, with a recovery rate of 96.1%. Of the recovered questionnaires, 43 invalid questionnaires were eliminated, and 457 valid questionnaires were collected, for a valid recovery rate of 91.4%. The data analysis method explored the variable path analysis through descriptive analysis and structural equation modeling. In addition, new data analysis methods have been added to explore the variable path analysis, such as descriptive analysis, discriminant validity, mediation effects, and structural equation modeling. The results show that: (1) the work resources of the hospital volunteers exerted a significant impact on their subjective well-being; (2) the work resources of the hospital volunteers exerted no significant impact on their flow experience; (3) the work resources of the hospital volunteers exerted a significant impact on their leisure involvement; (4) the leisure involvement of the hospital volunteers exerted no significant impact on their subjective well-being; (5) the leisure involvement of the hospital volunteers exerted a significant impact on their flow experience; (6) the flow experience of the hospital volunteers exerted no significant impact on their subjective well-being; and (7) the leisure involvement of the hospital volunteers exerted a mediating effect between work resources and flow experience.
Purpose
Artificial intelligence (AI)-enabled chatbots are considered one of the most intelligent applications with a high degree of anthropomorphism as they can make interactions and conversations with customers more human-like. Therefore, this study aims to discover how AI applications with high anthropomorphism shape different aspects of the online customer experience and reactions, such as emotional brand attachment and brand loyalty.
Design/methodology/approach
This study adopted the flow experience model as a theoretical base. The current study model was also extended by considering AI service agents service quality (AISAQUAL). A quantitative approach was adopted to validate the current research model and test the main hypotheses. Therefore, an online survey questionnaire was conducted with 500 customers with experience using AI-enabled chatbots in Jordan.
Findings
Statistical results supported a strong significant impact of AISAQUAL and anthropomorphism on online customer flow experience, which in turn significantly predicted both emotional brand attachment and brand loyalty.
Research limitations/implications
This conceptual model considers two main factors – AISAQUAL and anthropomorphism – as key drivers of online customer flow experience. In this regard, considering the R ² value of 60% recorded in the online flow experience with AI-enabled chatbots, other factors may contribute to influencing customers’ online experience with AI-enabled chatbots. Some of the most important factors to be considered by future studies include emotional intelligence capabilities (Urbani et al. , 2024), cultural differences (Shams et al. , 2024), perceived credibility (Shin, 2022) and reciprocity (Adam and Benlian, 2023).
Practical implications
This study provides valuable guidelines for service providers, practitioners and designers. These guidelines can help build more successful AI-enabled chatbots that enhance customer interactions and create more attractive and unique user experiences.
Originality/value
The comprehensive model proposed offers a holistic understanding of how different psychological, personal and environmental factors contribute to the overall customer experience. From a methodological perspective, this study successfully used statistically and empirically validated metrics to measure the proposed model, particularly in the context of the Middle East (Jordan). Future studies can apply these robustly validated metrics to evaluate the effectiveness of anthropomorphic AI interactions in similar contexts. This study provides valuable guidelines for service providers, practitioners and designers. These guidelines can help build more successful AI-enabled chatbots that enhance customer interactions and create more attractive and unique user experiences.
Language testing research has suggested that placement accuracy can be an important factor in the consequences of placement decision-making. However, previous studies primarily have used a one-shot teacher judgment of placement accuracy, suffering from a lack of students’ perspectives of their time-varying experiences. The present study aimed to understand the experiences of nine Japanese students who were placed in (in)appropriate levels of English as a foreign language (EFL) speaking course by measuring flow experiences and their fluctuation over time. A flow questionnaire was administered four times during the speaking course, followed by semi-structured interviews at the end of the course. The findings empirically supported the discrepancy between students’ flow experiences and the one-short teacher judgment of placement accuracy. The in-depth investigation of students’ experiences also suggested two main factors affecting flow experiences: environmental factors and students’ attempts to find meaningfulness in their courses. Based on these findings, this study emphasizes the applicability of flow theory to the understanding of test consequences from students’ perspectives.
This indispensable collection provides extensive, yet accessible, coverage of conceptual and practical issues in research design in personality and social psychology. Using numerous examples and clear guidelines, especially for conducting complex statistical analysis, leading experts address specific methods and areas of research to capture a definitive overview of contemporary practice. Updated and expanded, this third edition engages with the most important methodological innovations over the past decade, offering a timely perspective on research practice in the field. To reflect such rapid advances, this volume includes commentary on particularly timely areas of development such as social neuroscience, mobile sensing methods, and innovative statistical applications. Seasoned and early-career researchers alike will find a range of tools, methods, and practices that will help improve their research and develop new conceptual and methodological possibilities. Supplementary online materials are available on Cambridge Core.
This study explores the impact of reading and video instruction on the flow states of Intermediate Data Programming (IDP) students at North Creek High School (NCHS). Flow states represent a psychological condition characterized by deep immersion and concentrated motivation during an activity. The research aims to determine which learning method is more conducive to inducing these states, text-based or video-based. Utilizing a flow scale questionnaire, the study collected from students who participated in either text or video chapters for their lessons. The analysis involved summary statistics and an unpaired T-test to assess the flow state scales linked to each instructional method. The findings revealed no significant difference in flow states between reading and video instruction, implying that both methods are equally effective in promoting an optimal learning state. The study concludes by discussing the implications for educational strategies and suggesting directions for future research.
Scientific idea generation has been extensively studied in creativity theory and computational creativity research, providing valuable frameworks for understanding and implementing creative processes. However, recent work using Large Language Models (LLMs) for research idea generation often overlooks these theoretical foundations. We present a framework that explicitly implements combinatorial creativity theory using LLMs, featuring a generalization-level retrieval system for cross-domain knowledge discovery and a structured combinatorial process for idea generation. The retrieval system maps concepts across different abstraction levels to enable meaningful connections between disparate domains, while the combinatorial process systematically analyzes and recombines components to generate novel solutions. Experiments on the OAG-Bench dataset demonstrate our framework's effectiveness, consistently outperforming baseline approaches in generating ideas that align with real research developments (improving similarity scores by 7\%-10\% across multiple metrics). Our results provide strong evidence that LLMs can effectively realize combinatorial creativity when guided by appropriate theoretical frameworks, contributing both to practical advancement of AI-assisted research and theoretical understanding of machine creativity.
The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between perceived authenticity, flow experience, memorable tourism experience and intention to recommend within the framework of the perceptions of local tourists attending Şanlıurfa Sıra Gecesi. The main population of the research consists of cultural tourists and the study population consists of domestic tourists participating in Şanlıurfa Sıra Gecesi. Quota sampling technique according to gender and age was used in the study. Questionnaire was used as a data collection tool and 657 usable questionnaires were obtained for analysis. Findings revealed that domestic tourists perceive Sıra Gecesi as authentic and they experience flow during Sıra Gecesi. Besides, perceived authenticity positively affects flow experience and memorable tourism experience, however perceived authenticity has no direct significant effect on intention to recommend. Though it was found that perceived authenticity positively affects the intention to recommend through flow experience and the memorable tourism experience. In addition, flow experience positively affected memorable tourism experience and intention to recommend while the memorable tourism experience positively affected the intention to recommend. Finally, a perceived authenticity scale with proven validity and reliability that can be used especially in local or ethnic restaurants was developed.
Algorithmic evaluations are becoming increasingly common among app‐workers. However, there is limited research on how app‐workers' perceptions of these evaluations (perceived algorithmic evaluation, or PAE) affect service performance. Our study addresses this gap in three ways: first, we introduce a new method to measure PAE among app‐workers. Second, building on flow theory, we explore how app‐workers' flow experience mediates the relationship between PAE and service performance. Third, by integrating the conservation of resources theory and flow theory, we examine how viability challenges might reduce the positive impact of PAE on app‐workers' flow experience. Using both interviews and surveys, our research reveals that PAE positively influences app‐workers' flow experience and, in turn, their service performance. Notably, we find that when workers face more viability challenges, the positive effects of PAE on their flow experience and service performance decrease. Our findings highlight the importance of algorithmic evaluation in shaping app‐workers' work experiences and outcomes in the gig economy and have significant theoretical and practical implications.
This study aims to explore extreme sports from the
perspective of recreational flow experience and well-being within the
recreational paradigm. To align with the study's objective, a
comprehensive compilation of books, theses, and articles on flow
experience and well-being perception in extreme sports has been
undertaken.
Background
Flow or fascination is a state of mind in which a person performs a specific activity with peak interest and mental engagement. Researchers have confirmed the existence of flow experience during artistic, sports and work activities. However, due to the limitations of existing studies, the present study was conducted with the aim of investigating the average index of work-related flow in professors and residents of Shiraz University of Medical Sciences.
Methods
This cross-sectional study was conducted on clinical residents and professors at Shiraz University of Medical Sciences. Participants were selected using a weight-stratified sampling method from a population of 1200 individuals, which included 400 professors and 800 residents. Work-related flow was assessed using the Work-related Flow Inventory (WOLF), a 13-item scale rated on a 5-point Likert scale, where higher scores indicate greater work enthusiasm (total scores range from 13 to 65).
Results
In total, 104 professors and 230 residents were included into the study. The average of the total psychological index of work-related flow in professors and residents of medical sciences in Shiraz was equal to 43.31 ± 9.7. The age of the participants had a significant positive correlation with their average score (p < 0.001). The mean score for work-related flow was significantly higher in men than in women, higher in married compared to single ones, and also higher in professors than in residents. Specialized field could influence the work-related flow score that the highest and the lowest score was specified to general surgery and gynecology respectively.
Conclusion
Work-related fascination in clinical residents and professors of Shiraz University of Medical Sciences is different and is affected by their gender, age and specialized field.
The flow state is a mental state in which a person is fully immersed in an activity and experiences a sense of energized focus, full involvement, and enjoyment. It is a highly desirable state for learning, as it allows students to be more engaged and productive. However, achieving the flow state can be challenging, and there is no single method guaranteed to achieve all the conditions of this state. Additionally, this study argues that achieving the flow state is advantageous in STEAM education because it has the potential to increase student engagement and motivation, improve learning outcomes, promote creativity and problem-solving skills, and develop 21st-century skills such as collaboration and critical thinking. Therefore, this study aims to develop a new framework for achieving the flow state in STEAM education by investigating the implementation of a combined approach using impactful technology (ITU) and gamification (IGU). The framework combines impactful technology use (ITU) and impactful gamification use (IGU) to create activities that are challenging, have clear goals, provide immediate feedback, and promote action-awareness merging. A concurrent triangulation mixed-methodology research design was used, with data collected from teachers, students, and parents through questionnaires, interviews, and observations. The researcher used purposive sampling to determine the sample, which consisted of eighty-nine teachers, ten students, ten parents, and ten lesson observations. The study is significant because it is the first to propose a new model for achieving the flow state in STEAM education. The findings were used to develop the New Combined Flow Framework (NCFF), which supports achieving the conditions for the flow state in STEAM learning through the combined use of ITU and IGU. This new framework can be used by education professionals to practically achieve the flow state in STEAM classes. By understanding how to achieve the flow state, educators can create more engaging and effective learning experiences for their students, potentially revolutionizing STEAM education and making it more accessible to all students. Abstrak Keadaan aliran ialah keadaan mental di mana seseorang terlibat sepenuhnya dalam aktiviti dan mengalami rasa fokus bertenaga, penglibatan penuh dan keseronokan. Ia adalah keadaan yang sangat diingini untuk pembelajaran kerana ia membolehkan pelajar menjadi lebih terlibat dan produktif. Walau bagaimanapun, mencapai keadaan aliran boleh menjadi mencabar dan tiada kaedah tunggal yang dijamin untuk mencapai semua syarat keadaan ini. Di samping itu, kajian ini berpendapat bahawa mencapai keadaan aliran adalah berfaedah dalam pendidikan STEAM kerana ia berpotensi untuk meningkatkan penglibatan dan motivasi pelajar, meningkatkan hasil pembelajaran, menggalakkan kreativiti dan kemahiran menyelesaikan masalah serta membangunkan kemahiran abad ke-21 seperti kolaborasi dan pemikiran kritis. Oleh itu, kajian ini bertujuan untuk membangunkan kerangka baharu untuk mencapai keadaan aliran dalam pendidikan STEAM dengan mengkaji pelaksanaan pendekatan gabungan menggunakan teknologi berimpak (ITU) dan gamifikasi (IGU). Kerangka ini menggabungkan penggunaan teknologi berkesan (ITU) dan penggunaan gamifikasi berimpak (IGU) untuk mencipta aktiviti yang mencabar, mempunyai matlamat yang jelas, memberikan maklum balas segera dan menggalakkan penggabungan kesedaran tindakan. Reka bentuk penyelidikan metodologi campuran triangulasi serentak telah digunakan dengan data dikumpul daripada guru, pelajar dan ibu bapa melalui soal selidik, temu bual dan pemerhatian. Pengkaji menggunakan persampelan bertujuan untuk menentukan sampel yang terdiri daripada lapan puluh sembilan orang guru, sepuluh orang murid, sepuluh orang ibu bapa dan sepuluh pemerhatian pengajaran. Kajian ini penting kerana kajian ini adalah yang pertama mencadangkan kerangka baharu untuk mencapai keadaan aliran dalam pendidikan STEAM. Penemuan ini digunakan untuk membangunkan Kerangka Aliran Gabungan Baharu (NCFF), yang menyokong pencapaian syarat untuk keadaan aliran dalam pembelajaran STEAM melalui gabungan ITU dan IGU. Kerangka baharu ini boleh digunakan oleh profesional pendidikan untuk mencapai keadaan aliran secara praktikal dalam kelas STEAM. Dengan memahami cara untuk mencapai keadaan aliran, pendidik boleh mencipta pengalaman pembelajaran yang lebih menarik dan berkesan untuk pelajar mereka yang berpotensi merevolusikan pendidikan STEAM dan menjadikannya lebih mudah diakses oleh semua pelajar.
Background
The proportion of older people increases globally, which calls for sustainable interventions promoting healthy aging. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the potential of Football Fitness as a sustainable model to promote quality of life, mental health, and physical function for older adult.
Methods
The study was conducted in collaboration with a municipality, a football club, and a university, and was designed as a randomized controlled trial. A total of 66 people (34 women, 32 men) older than 60 years were randomly assigned (60/40) to a Football Fitness (FOT) (n = 38, 20 women, 18 men) and a control group (CON) (n = 28, 14 women, 14 men). FOT participated in Football Fitness for 12 weeks. Quality of life (QoL) and mental wellbeing were determined pre-and post-intervention. Physical loading and Flow experience were measured in one representative training session. Blood pressure (BP), Yo–Yo Intermittent endurance test level 1 (Yo–Yo IE1), sprint performance, postural balance, and body composition were also performed pre-and post-intervention.
Results
An improvement in mental wellbeing was observed for both groups from pre- to post-intervention (p values <0.001) with no between-group differences. Regarding QoL, the environment domain improved in FOT compared to CON (p = 0.02). Mean Flow (M = 5.69; SD = 1.07) and perceived importance (M = 4.20; SD = 1.42) and average experienced difficulty was M = 5.23 (SD = 2.67), perceived skill (M = 5.23; SD = 2.56), and perceived balance (M = 5.64; SD = 1.56). These levels of flow can be characterized as being high. A between-group effect (p = 0.02) existed for systolic BP, which decreased (p < 0.01) by −5% [−8; −1%] in CON and remained unchanged in FOT. Both groups improved the Yo–Yo IE1 to a similar extent, with 28% [11; 44%] (p = 0.001) in FOT and 27% [9; 46%] in CON (p = 0.005). Postural balance improved (p = 0.004) by 38% [13; 63%] in FOT only, resulting in a superior (p = 0.01) balance score in FOT compared to CON post-intervention (p = 0.004).
Conclusion
Football Fitness improved the environmental quality of life domain and postural balance in older adults. Additionally, it appears to be a feasible group activity for older adults that promotes high flow and physical loading during training.
يتمثل الهدف الرئيس لهذا البحث في إستكشاف علاقة التأثير بين متغيرين رئيسيين هما: (الشخصية المتعلمة ذاتياً وسلوكيات الهزيمة الذاتية)، وذلك عبر إستطلاع آراء عدد من طلبة الدراسات العليا في كلية الإدارة والإقتصاد/جامعة الكوفة، ومن أجل ضمان تمثيل المجتمع قيد البحث الذي بلغ (89)طالب تمثيلاً دقيقاً، إستخدم الباحثان أسلوب العينة العشوائية البسيطة ووزعا الإستبانة على جميع أفراد المجتمع، وبعد فرز الإستبانات وتدقيقها بلغ عدد الإستبانات الصالحة للتحليل الإحصائي (82) إستبانة، من عدد الإستبانات المسترجعة البالغ عددها (84) إستبانة. وإن التحليل الإحصائي للبيانات، التي تم جمعها جرى بإستعمال برنامجSPSS v.24. ولقد أظهرت النتائج وجود تأثير مباشر ومعنوي لأبعاد الشخصية المتعلمة ذاتياً في سلوكيات الهزيمة الذاتية. وإن النتائج التي توصل لها البحث الحالي تُعد وعلى حد علم الباحثين محاولة أولى في سياق تقليص أو ردم الفجوة المعرفية بين متغيري الشخصية المتعلمة ذاتياً وسلوكيات الهزيمة الذاتية، كما إنهما يدعوان الباحثين إلى إجراء المزيد من الدراسات والبحوث من ضمن نطاق المتغيرات آنفة الذكر في البيئة التنظيميَّة العراقية أو بيئات تنظيمية في دول أخرى.
This indispensable sourcebook covers conceptual and practical issues in research design in the field of social and personality psychology. Key experts address specific methods and areas of research, contributing to a comprehensive overview of contemporary practice. This updated and expanded second edition offers current commentary on social and personality psychology, reflecting the rapid development of this dynamic area of research over the past decade. With the help of this up-to-date text, both seasoned and beginning social psychologists will be able to explore the various tools and methods available to them in their research as they craft experiments and imagine new methodological possibilities.
This indispensable sourcebook covers conceptual and practical issues in research design in the field of social and personality psychology. Key experts address specific methods and areas of research, contributing to a comprehensive overview of contemporary practice. This updated and expanded second edition offers current commentary on social and personality psychology, reflecting the rapid development of this dynamic area of research over the past decade. With the help of this up-to-date text, both seasoned and beginning social psychologists will be able to explore the various tools and methods available to them in their research as they craft experiments and imagine new methodological possibilities.
This indispensable sourcebook covers conceptual and practical issues in research design in the field of social and personality psychology. Key experts address specific methods and areas of research, contributing to a comprehensive overview of contemporary practice. This updated and expanded second edition offers current commentary on social and personality psychology, reflecting the rapid development of this dynamic area of research over the past decade. With the help of this up-to-date text, both seasoned and beginning social psychologists will be able to explore the various tools and methods available to them in their research as they craft experiments and imagine new methodological possibilities.
The aim of this study is to examine the role of job satisfaction and positive psychological capital in predicting school counselors' workflow experiences. The research was conducted with a total of 219 school counselors working in state schools in Izmir province, consisting of 155 females and 64 males. In the study, the Flow at Work Scale was used to measure the workflow experiences of school counselors, the Minnesota Job Satisfaction Scale was employed to measure their job satisfaction, and the Positive Psychological Capital Scale was utilized to measure their positive psychological capital. The Personal Information Form was utilized to obtain data related to participants' socio-demographic information. Stepwise regression analysis was conducted with the obtained data. The study results revealed that the job satisfaction and positive psychological capital of school counselors significantly predicted their workflow experiences. The findings are discussed in line with the literature. Finally, recommendations have been provided to researchers and school counselors regarding workflow experience.
Bu araştırmanın amacı, okul psikolojik danışmanlarının iş doyumu ve pozitif psikolojik sermayelerinin iş akışı deneyimlerini yordama gücünün incelenmesidir. Araştırma, 2022-2023 eğitim- öğretim yılında İzmir ilinde devlet okullarında görev yapan 155’i kadın 64’ü erkek olmak üzere toplam 219 okul psikolojik danışmanı ile gerçekleştirilmiştir. Araştırmada okul psikolojik danışmanlarının iş akışı deneyimlerini ölçmek için Çalışmada (İş’te) Akış Deneyimi Ölçeği, iş doyumlarını ölçmek için Minnesota İş Doyumu Ölçeği ve pozitif psikolojik sermayelerini ölçmek için Pozitif Psikolojik Sermaye Ölçeği kullanılmıştır. Katılımcıların sosyo-demografik bilgilerine ilişkin verilerin elde edilmesi amacıyla araştırmacılar tarafından hazırlanan Kişisel Bilgi Formu kullanılmıştır. Elde edilen verilerle aşamalı regresyon analizi yapılmıştır. Araştırma sonucunda, okul psikolojik danışmanlarının iş doyumu ve pozitif psikolojik sermayelerinin iş akışı deneyimini anlamlı bir şekilde yordadığı belirlenmiştir. Araştırmadan elde edilen bulgular alan yazın doğrultusunda tartışılmıştır. Son olarak, araştırmacılara ve okul psikolojik danışmanlarına iş akışı deneyimine dair öneriler sunulmuştur.
Given the crucial role the ocean plays in human and planetary health, ocean literacy (OL)—understanding the ocean’s influence on us and our influence on the ocean—has been gaining momentum as a significant component and determinant of sustainable human-ocean interactions. Underwater virtual reality (UVR) enables participants to take a virtual dive while being simultaneously immersed in water. Through this unique double immersion, UVR is offering new avenues of psychological access and pedagogical opportunities toward the ocean; this study is thus the first to explore UVR’s potential for OL and marine environmental education.
Following two UVR activities in a pool, we conducted semi-structured interviews and survey questionnaires with 19 marine
scientists and education experts. Our findings indicate UVR has important technological and psychological potentials, including
(1) high levels of presence, (2) infrequency of motion sickness, and (3) the ability to trigger powerful emotions and affective states such as awe, empathy, and flow.
In this way, UVR can create a realistic experience of the ocean that
improves OL and reduces psychological distance to marine environmental issues. We also advance a new seven-dimensional OL framework, following our findings that UVR has unique potentials for improving ‘emoceans’, attitude, awareness, and ocean connectedness.
Hypothesized that hardiness—commitment, control, and challenge—functions to decrease the effect of stressful life events to producing illness symptoms. 259 upper- and middle-level male managers (mean age 48 yrs) were administered a battery of tests (including Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale, the Schedule of Life Events, and the Seriousness of Illness Survey) covering a 5-yr period. Results support the hypothesis by showing main effects on illness for both stressful life events and hardiness and an interaction effect for these independent variables. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The transference phenomenon is reexamined from the perspective of its implications as a general feature of human experience, its specific role in psychoanalysis as a manifestation of a transference neurosis, and (in the light of differing approaches to transference interpretation) its role in the personality change process of psychoanalysis. The convergence between social cognitive concepts of personal constructs, schemata, prototypes, scripts, and nuclear scenes and the methods used for identifying transference from psychoanalytic protocols is noted. Transference is interpreted as an inherent feature of the perspective of the human being as an information-seeking, information-processing organism whose experience and expression of emotions is tied to the novelty and complexity of such a continuing cognitive process. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article explores the implications that dispositional optimism holds for physical well-being. Research is reviewed that links optimism to a number of different positive health-relevant outcomes, ranging from the development of physical symptoms to recovery from coronary artery bypass surgery. Additional findings are described which suggest that these beneficial effects are partly due to differences between optimists and pessimists in the strategies that they use to cope with stress. A number of other potential mediators are also discussed, including some that are physiologic in nature. The article closes with a discussion of the relationships between our own theoretical account of the effects of optimism and several other conceptual approaches.
Followed 78 adult workers for 1 week with the experience sampling method. (This method randomly samples self-reports throughout the day.) The main question was whether the quality of experience was more influenced by whether a person was at work or at leisure or more influenced by whether a person was in flow (i.e., in a condition of high challenges and skills). Results showed that all the variables measuring the quality of experience, except for relaxation and motivation, are more affected by flow than by whether the respondent is working or in leisure. Moreover, the great majority of flow experiences are reported when working, not when in leisure. Regardless of the quality of experience, however, respondents are more motivated in leisure than in work. But individuals more motivated in flow than in apathy reported more positive experiences in work. Results suggest implications for improving the quality of everyday life.
Explanatory style, the habitual ways in which individuals explain bad events, was extracted from open-ended questionnaires filled out by 99 graduates of the Harvard University classes of 1942-1944 at age 25. Physical health from ages 30 to 60 as measured by physician examination was related to earlier explanatory style. Pessimistic explanatory style (the belief that bad events are caused by stable, global, and internal factors) predicted poor health at ages 45 through 60, even when physical and mental health at age 25 were controlled. Pessimism in early adulthood appears to be a risk factor for poor health in middle and late adulthood.
What constitutes enjoyment of life? Optimal Experience offers a comprehensive survey of theoretical and empirical investigations of the 'flow' experience, a desirable or optimal state of consciousness that enhances a person's psychic state. The authors show the diverse contexts and circumstances in which flow is reported in different cultures, and describe its positive emotional impacts. They reflect on ways in which the ability to experience flow affects work satisfaction, academic success, and the overall quality of life
What constitutes enjoyment of life? Optimal Experience offers a comprehensive survey of theoretical and empirical investigations of the 'flow' experience, a desirable or optimal state of consciousness that enhances a person's psychic state. The authors show the diverse contexts and circumstances in which flow is reported in different cultures, and describe its positive emotional impacts. They reflect on ways in which the ability to experience flow affects work satisfaction, academic success, and the overall quality of life
What constitutes enjoyment of life? Optimal Experience offers a comprehensive survey of theoretical and empirical investigations of the 'flow' experience, a desirable or optimal state of consciousness that enhances a person's psychic state. The authors show the diverse contexts and circumstances in which flow is reported in different cultures, and describe its positive emotional impacts. They reflect on ways in which the ability to experience flow affects work satisfaction, academic success, and the overall quality of life
I: Background.- 1. An Introduction.- 2. Conceptualizations of Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination.- II: Self-Determination Theory.- 3. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Perceived Causality and Perceived Competence.- 4. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Interpersonal Communication and Intrapersonal Regulation.- 5. Toward an Organismic Integration Theory: Motivation and Development.- 6. Causality Orientations Theory: Personality Influences on Motivation.- III: Alternative Approaches.- 7. Operant and Attributional Theories.- 8. Information-Processing Theories.- IV: Applications and Implications.- 9. Education.- 10. Psychotherapy.- 11. Work.- 12. Sports.- References.- Author Index.
this chapter compares responses to the Experience Sampling Method from a sample of American students in the Chicago area studied by Csikszentmihalyi and Larson (1984) and a sample of Italian students from a classical lyceum in Milan
the purpose of the comparison is to ascertain whether and to what extent respondents in these two cultures report similar experiences across their daily life in terms of the flow theory as operationalized by the challenge/skill ratio
given the importance of the high school in the lives of these two groups of adolescents, the chapter also focuses on studying
the U.S. sample consisted of equal numbers of 14-, 15-, 16-, and 17-year-olds / the Italian one was made up of students between 16 and 18 years of age (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Twenty-five adolescents reported their daily activities and the quality of their experiences for a total of 753 times during a normal week, in response to random beeps transmitted by an electronic paging device. In this sample adolescents were found to spend most of their time either in conversation with peers or in watching television. Negative affects were prevalent in most activities involving socialization into adult roles. Television viewing appears to be an affectless state associated with deviant behavior and antisocial personality traits. The research suggests the importance of a systemic approach which studies persons' activities and experiences in an ecological context. The experiential sampling method described in this paper provides a tool for collecting such systemic data.
This paper evaluates the effectiveness of the Experience Sampling Method (ESM) among preadolescents and young adolescents by examining its implementation in a study of 483 5th-9th graders. Four specific methodological questions are addressed: (1) How adequate is the sampling of adolescents? (2) How adequate is the sampling of adolescents' experiences? (3) Does the method alter the phenomenon it attempts to measure? (4) How valid are the data obtained? Methodological information collected as part of the study suggests that the data obtained by the ESM accurately represents most of the experience of most of the individuals in the sample population.
ABSTRACT The present study examined the relationship of personality, experience while studying, and academic performance. One hundred and seventy talented high‐school students (68 males, 102 females) completed the Personality Research Form (PRF) and recorded their experience via the Experience Sampling Method (ESM). The results showed that controlling for ability, work orientation, a PRF factor, was a better predictor of grade than experience. However, an experiential variable, intrinsic motivation while studying, was related to the difficulty level of courses students took over the 4 years in high school. The results supported the notion that there are two kinds of motivation in scholastic achievement, one directed toward long‐term goals, the other directed toward ongoing experience.
SUMMARY Models for the analysis of hierarchically structured data are discussed. An iterative generalized least squares estimation procedure is given and shown to be equivalent to maximum likelihood in the normal case. There is a discussion of applications to complex surveys, longitudinal data, and estimation in multivariate models with missing re- sponses. An example is given using educational data.
What is happiness? Why are some people happier than others? This new edition of The Psychology of Happiness provides a comprehensive and up-to-date account of research into the nature of happiness. Major research developments have occurred since publication of the first edition in 1987 - here they are brought together for the first time, often with surprising conclusions. Drawing on research from the disciplines of sociology, physiology and economics as well as psychology, Michael Argyle explores the nature of positive and negative emotions, and the psychological and cognitive processes involved in their generation. Accessible and wide-ranging coverage is provided on key issues such as: the measurements and study of happiness, mental and physical health; the effect of friendship, marriage and other relationships on positive moods; happiness, mental and physical health; the effects of work, employment and leisure; and the effects of money, class and education. The importance of individual personality traits such as optimism, purpose in life, internal control and having the right kind of goals is also analysed. New to this edition is additional material on national differences, the role of humour, and the effect of religion. Are some countries happier than others? This is just one of the controversial issues addressed by the author along the way. Finally the book discusses the practical application of research in this area, such as how happiness can be enhanced, and the effects of happiness on health, altruism and sociability. This definitive and thought-provoking work will be compulsive reading for students, researchers and the interested general reader
At the end of some of the chapters, mathematical appendices are given for readers who require details of estimation procedures, contruction of confidence intervals, hypothesis testing, and the like. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Elementary psychology students can easily comprehend the principle of "drive" in animal behavior if presented with numerical records of the visitations by
hungry animals to various compartments or squares of a modified maze as compared with visitations of
fed animals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Theorizes that human evolution is a process of interaction among 3 teleonomies: (1) intrasomatic genetic memory that tends to reproduce itself, (2) extrasomatic cultural memories that tend to reproduce their own kind, and (3) experiences tending to replicate themselves within the life cycle of individual consciousness (psychological selection). Psychological selection occurs through a process called flow. Flow is a dynamic state that characterizes consciousness when experience is attended to for its own sake. Such states occur most frequently when a person is involved in creative activities such as art, religious rituals and disciplines, and play and sports. The state of flow is induced when a good fit results from the interaction between the rules of cultural memory (challenges) and the genetic memory (the actor's skills). It is concluded that evolution seems to have built into humans a predisposition to enjoy the integration of the 2 great negentropic systems of culture and biology into a 3rd system of information in consciousness. (75 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This is an essential book, especially for those interested in understanding the origins of the American psychological tradition, the history of ideas, and the significant developments of the rise of science in general. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The topics that are to be treated in this book were unduly neglected by psychology for many years but are now beginning to come to the fore. My own researches into attention and exploratory behavior began in 1947, and at about the same time several other psychologists became independently impressed with the importance of these matters and started to study them experimentally. It is interesting that those were also the years when information theory was making its appearance and when the reticular formation of the brain stem was first attracting the notice of neurophysiologists. During the last ten years, the tempo of research into exploratory behavior and related phenomena has been steadily quickening. The book is prompted by the feeling that it is now time to pause and take stock: to review relevant data contributed by several different specialties, to consider what conclusions, whether firm or tentative, are justified at the present juncture, and to clarify what remains to be done. The primary aim of the book is, in fact, to raise problems. The book is intended as a contribution to behavior theory, i.e., to psychology conceived as a branch of science with the circumscribed objective of explaining and predicting behavior. But interest in attention and exploratory behavior and in other topics indissociably bound up with them, such as art, humor and thinking, has by no means been confined to professional psychologists. The book has two features that would have surprised me when I first set out to plan it. One is that it ends up sketching a highly modified form of drive-reduction theory. Drive-reduction theory has appeared more and more to be full of shortcomings, even for the phenomena that it was originally designed to handle. The second surprising feature is the prominence of neurophysiology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
ABSTRACT In this article we review the history of the scientific use of self-recording and conclude that there are three basic methods: (a) interval-contingent, in which respondents report on their experiences at regular intervals, (b) signal-contingent, in which respondents report when signaled, and (c) event-contingent, in which respondents report whenever a defined event occurs. We then discuss the relative merits of these techniques for answering different questions. Finally, we note that self-recording of small events is a departure from the science of psychology as typically practiced, requiring an acceptance of reality as defined by respondents.
The analysis of repeated measures data can be conducted efficiently using a two-level random coefficients model. A standard assumption is that the within-individual (level 1) residuals are uncorrelated. In some cases, especially where measurements are made close together in time, this may not be reasonable and this additional correlation structure should also be modelled. A time series model for such data is proposed which consists of a standard multilevel model for repeated measures data augmented by an autocorrelation model for the level 1 residuals. First- and second-order autoregressive models are considered in detail, together with a seasonal component. Both discrete and continuous time are considered and it is shown how the autocorrelation parameters can themselves be structured in terms of further explanatory variables. The models are fitted to a data set consisting of repeated height measurements on children.
Recognition of our need for an integrative theory- preferably, theories - of cognition, affect, and action can be traced as far back as early Greek philosophy. To understand the complex dynamics of thought, feeling, and behavior is to grasp one of the most central and enduring mysteries of human experience itself. During its first century of emancipation from classical philosophy, the discipline of psychology was dominated by competing perspectives, each of which claimed to know the most accurate solution to the mystery. For classical (radical) behaviorism, the linchpin around which the organism revolves is its behavior and the consequences it produces-hence the assumption that one need only change the behavior and the thoughts and feelings will follow. Cognitive and social psychologists were quick to disagree, however. For them, motoric behavior is a functional peripheral expression of more central structures-attitudes, beliefs, and other such thought patterns. Their prescription, in its most simplified form, was to change the thoughts and the feelings and actions would follow. The third perspective in this triad was made up of the evocative, feeling-oriented theorists who maintained that intense emotional experiences are the key to modifying maladaptive patterns of thought and action. Classical psychoanalysis, gestalt therapies, and some forms of humanistic psychology actually straddled the cognitive and affective nodes of this hypothetical triangle by arguing that emotionally laden cognitive material (memories, beliefs, roles) had to be "worked through" and transformed (via insight, awareness, and differentiation) in order to achieve meaningful and enduring personal change. The above rendition may strike some readers as oversimplifying, as well it may be. Contemporary advocates of behaviorism are careful to include some respectful reference to thought and feeling processes, and cor
Two experiments, in which Ss were exposed to sequences of colored shapes, investigated effects on ratings of “pleasingness”
and “interestingness” of variables that had previously been shown to affect ratings of “novelty.” The results indicate, on
the whole, that both pleasingness and interestingness increase with novelty. These findings run counter to those of experiments
indicating an inverse relation between novelty and verbally expressed preference. Two further experiments examined effects
of some variables that might account for this apparent discrepancy. Homogeneous sequences declined in judged “pleasantness”
more than sequences in which several stimuli were interspersed, and simple stimuli became less pleasant as they became less
novel, while complex stimuli declined less or became more pleasant. The findings are related to hypotheses regarding mechanisms
of hedonic value. Two crucial predictions were confirmed in a fifth experiment.
This paper describes the development and validation of a general causality orientations scale. Causality orientations are conceptualized as relatively enduring aspects of people that characterize the source of initiation and regulation, and thus the degree of self-determination, of their behavior. Three orientations—autonomy, control, and impersonal—are measured by the three subscales of the instrument. Individuals are given a score on each orientation, thus allowing the use of the theoretically appropriate subscale (or, in some cases, a combination of subscales) to predict affects, cognitions, and behaviors. The scale was shown to have internal consistency and temporal stability. The orientations were shown to fit appropriately into a nomological network of constructs and to relate to various behaviors that were hypothesized to be theoretically relevant.
Cognitive scientists who model creative thinking on computers claim that the ability of their programs to replicate the discovery of scientific laws (e.g., Kepler's third law from Brahe's data) means that creative thinking in humans is nothing but problem solving of the kind computer heuristics use. This claim is shown to be a mystification based on a misunderstanding of creativity, on unrealistic replications of the initial conditions present at the inception of creative processes, and on a misleading identification of rationality with complex human thought processes. Some of the implications of such mystification for understanding thought processes in general are reviewed.
This article reviews statistical issues that arise in temporal data, particularly with respect to daily experience data. Issues related to nonindependence of observations, the nature of data structures, and claims of causality are considered. Through the analysis of data from a single subject, we illustrate concomitant time-series analysis, a general method of examining relationships between two or more series having 50 or more observations. We also discuss detection of and remedies for the problems of trend, cycles, and serial dependency that frequently plague temporal data, and present methods of combining the results of concomitant time series across subjects. Issues that arise in pooling cross-sectional and time-series data and statistical models for addressing these issues are considered for the case in which there are appreciably fewer than 50 observations and a moderate number of subjects. We discuss the possibility of using structural equation modeling to analyze data structures in which there are a large number (e.g., 200) of subjects, but relatively few time points, emphasizing the different causal status of synchronous and lagged effects and the types of models that can be specified for longitudinal data structures. Our conclusion highlights some of the issues raised by temporal data for statistical models, notably the important roles of substantive theory, the question being addressed, the properties of the data, and the assumptions underlying each technique in determining the optimal approach to statistical analysis.
There has been a burgeoning interest in studying daily events and experiences. This article discusses a variety of methodologic challenges that face daily event and experience researchers. The issues discussed include techniques for measuring events, the development of event checklists, sampling event content, specifying event appraisals, event validation procedures, and the creation of summary measures derived from event checklists. Procedural issues discussed include determining the number of observations and persons needed for daily event studies, the evaluation of response, attrition, and missing item bias, and problems linking event reports over time.
The present study examined the relationship of personality, experience while studying, and academic performance. One hundred and seventy talented high-school students (68 males, 102 females) completed the Personality Research Form (PRF) and recorded their experience via the Experience Sampling Method (ESM). The results showed that controlling for ability, work orientation, a PRF factor, was a better predictor of grade than experience. However, an experiential variable,intrinsic motivation while studying, was related to the difficulty level of courses students took over the 4 years of high school. The results supported the notion that there are two kinds of motivation in scholastic achievement, one directed toward long-term goals, the other directed toward ongoing experience.
The purpose of this study was to identify predictors of survival time in first recurrent breast cancer patients, including psychologic as well as biologic factors. Beginning in 1979, 36 women being treated at the National Institutes of Health for histologically proven recurrent disease were enrolled in this prospective study. At the time of data analysis, 24 had died from their malignancy. Through the use of a Cox proportional hazards model, four factors significantly entered the equation predicting survival time in the sample: Patients with a longer disease-free interval, who expressed more joy at baseline testing, who were predicted to live longer by their physicians, and who had fewer metastatic sites tended to live longer with recurrent disease than others in the sample (X2 = 22.9, p less than 0.0001). Findings from recent clinical and animal studies suggest that regulatory systems within the organism are linked and potentially influence one another. This study has demonstrated that factors at a number of levels--behavioral, as well as biologic--need to be considered in accounting for disease outcome variance.
This article illustrates the use of quantitative time-sampling data in developing a psychology of "optimal experience" to help in the psychiatric development of adequate rehabilitation approaches. The Experience-Sampling Method was used on a sample of 47 Italian adolescent students to measure fluctuations in their experience. We found that the ratio of subjectively experienced challenges and skills was a fundamental parameter that predicted optimal experience as well as boredom and anxiety. In contrast, "low" experience in daily life was viewed as a risk factor that could be minimized to increase the quality of life. Monitoring fluctuations in optimal and low experience may therefore be an important tool in developing personalized psychiatric rehabilitation plans.
To understand the dynamics of mental health, it is essential to develop measures for the frequency and the patterning of mental processes in every-day-life situations. The Experience-Sampling Method (ESM) is an attempt to provide a valid instrument to describe variations in self-reports of mental processes. It can be used to obtain empirical data on the following types of variables: a) frequency and patterning of daily activity, social interaction, and changes in location; b) frequency, intensity, and patterning of psychological states, i.e., emotional, cognitive, and conative dimensions of experience; c) frequency and patterning of thoughts, including quality and intensity of thought disturbance. The article reviews practical and methodological issues of the ESM and presents evidence for its short- and long-term reliability when used as an instrument for assessing the variables outlined above. It also presents evidence for validity by showing correlation between ESM measures on the one hand and physiological measures, one-time psychological tests, and behavioral indices on the other. A number of studies with normal and clinical populations that have used the ESM are reviewed to demonstrate the range of issues to which the technique can be usefully applied.
This study examined exercise and personality-based hardiness as independent buffers of the stressful event-illness relationship. Self-report measures of exercise, hardiness, stressful events and illness were obtained from 137 male business executives. Hardiness and exercise each interact with stressful events in decreasing illness. Further, subjects high in both hardiness and exercise remain more healthy than those high in one or the other only. These additive effects are consistent with the view that hardiness buffers by transforming the events themselves so as to decrease their stressfulness, whereas exercise buffers by decreasing the organismic strain resulting from experiencing stressful events.
The analysis of repeated measures data can be conducted efficiently using a two-level random coefficients model. A standard assumption is that the within-individual (level 1) residuals are uncorrelated. In some cases, especially where measurements are made close together in time, this may not be reasonable and this additional correlation structure should also be modelled. A time series model for such data is proposed which consists of a standard multilevel model for repeated measures data augmented by an autocorrelation model for the level 1 residuals. First- and second-order autoregressive models are considered in detail, together with a seasonal component. Both discrete and continuous time are considered and it is shown how the autocorrelation parameters can themselves be structured in terms of further explanatory variables. The models are fitted to a data set consisting of repeated height measurements on children.