ArticlePDF AvailableLiterature Review

Self-directed learning

Authors:

Abstract

The ability to acquire skills in self directed learning may be the key link between undergraduate education, postgraduate training, and continuing professional development. If future and current practitioners are to adopt an ongoing reflective and critical approach to practice, we should aim to provide learning opportunities that promote self confidence, question asking and reflection, openness and risk taking, uncertainty and surprise. Teaching techniques that encourage these skills are being introduced widely and have been shown to be at least as effective as traditional methods of education while promoting more enjoyment and enthusiasm among both staff and students.
Archives
of
Disease
in
Childhood
1996;
74:
357-359
MEDICAL
EDUCATION
Self
directed
learning
Angela
Towle,
David
Cottrell
Why
self
directed
learning?
It
is
now
recognised
that
medical
education
has
to
be
a
lifelong
process.
The
practice
of
medicine
and
its
underlying
knowledge
base
change
so
rapidly
that
it
is
essential
that
doctors
continue
to
learn
throughout
their
professional
career.
However,
continuing
professional
edu-
cation
is
not
simply
a
matter
of
keeping
up
to
date,
but
also
entails
reflection
on
practice
in
order
to
incorporate
new
experiences,
to
relate
present
situations
with
previous
experiences,
and
to
reorganise
current
experiences
based
upon
this
process.
Self
directed
learning
enables
the
learner,
whether
student
or
practitioner,
to
do
these
important
things.
As
defined
by
Knowles,1
self
directed
learn-
ing
is
a
process
in
which
individuals
take
the
initiative,
with
or
without
the
help
of
others,
in
diagnosing
their
learning
needs,
formnulating
learning
goals,
identifying
human
and
material
resources
for
learning,
choosing
and
imple-
menting
appropriate
learning
strategies,
and
evaluating
learning
outcomes,
that
is,
they
take
responsibility
for,
and
control
of,
their
own
learning
(see
box
1).
If
self
directed
learning
skills
are
a
prerequi-
site
for
the
good
doctor,
then
we
should
ensure
that
those
entering
the
profession
are
encour-
aged
and
helped
to
develop
these
skills
as
part
of
their
education.
Medical
education
has
traditionally
relied
on
didactic
and
teacher
dominated
methods
of
teaching,
which
have
done
little
to
help
students
develop
either
the
skills
or
the
right
attitudes
for
lifelong
learning.
Although
the
widely
accepted
definition
of
teaching
is
'helping
someone
to
learn',
medical
teachers
have
too
often
concentrated
on
what
they
teach
(for
example,
the
urge
to
'cover
the
subject'
in
lectures)
rather
than
how
to
help
students
learn
most
effectively
and
efficiently
(not
to
mention
enjoyably).
Fortunately
progress
is
now
being
made
to
introduce
more
active,
student
centred
methods
of
education,
and
to
focus
attention
on
the
needs
and
aspira-
tions
of
the
learners
rather
than
those
of
the
teachers.
The
latest
recommendations
on
the
undergraduate
curriculum
from
the
UK
General
Medical
Council
specifically
state
that
learning
through
curiosity,
the
exploration
of
knowledge,
and
the
critical
evaluation
of
evidence
should
be
promoted
and
should
ensure
a
capacity
for
self
education.2
The
medical
education
literature
provides
guidance
as
to
what
will
facilitate
learning
as
well
as
help
cultivate
the
critical
skills
of
lifelong
learning.
Schmidt,
for
example,
gives
three
principles
which
will
make
teaching
more
relevant
and
effective,
based
upon
what
is
known
about
adult
learning.3
(1)
Building
on
prior
knowledge:
students
use
the
knowledge
they
already
possess
to
understand
and
structure
new
information.
(2)
Learning
in
context:
the
closer
the
resemblance
between
the
situation
in
which
something
is
learned
and
the
situation
in
which
it
is
applied,
the
more
likely
it
is
that
transfer
of
learning
will
occur.
(3)
Elaboration
of
knowledge:
information
is
better
understood
and
remembered
if
there
is
opportunity
for
elaboration
(this
includes
discussion,
answering
questions,
teaching
peers,
critiquing).
Examples
of
applications
that
are
currently
being
used
to
cultivate
skills
of
self
directed
learning
and
reflection
are:
problem
based
learning;
small
group
learning;
self
and
peer
evaluation;
self
study
materials;
library
work
and
projects
(both
literature
reviews
and
research);
learning
contracts;
profiling;
simu-
lated
patients;
and
computer
assisted
learning.
Course
features
which
can
enhance
self
directed
learning
are
highlighted
in
box
2.
As
examples
of
how
self
directed
learning
can
work
in
practice,
we
shall
focus
on
two
con-
trasting
methods:
problem
based
learning
and
self/peer
evaluation.
We
will
discuss
these
two
areas
in
relation
to
facilitating
undergraduate
learning
but
the
principles
involved
are,
of
course,
equally
relevant
for
postgraduates
and
for
consultants
engaged
in
continuing
profes-
sional
development.
A
further
reading
list
is
provided
at
the
end
of
the
paper
for
those
wish-
ing
to
get
more
ideas
about
teaching
and
learn-
ing
methods
that
foster
student
centred
and
self
directed
learning.
Problem
based
learning
In
the
introduction
to
their
useful
book,
Boud
and
Feletti
identify
problem
based
learning
as
the
most
significant
innovation
in
education
This
is
the
ninth
in
a
series
on
medical
education.
King's
Fund
Centre
for
Health
Services
Development,
London
A
Towle
Academic
Unit
of
Child
and
Adolescent
Mental
Health,
University
of
Leeds
D
Cottrell
Correspondence
to:
Dr
Angela
Towle,
University
of
British
Columbia,
Division
of
Educational
Support
and
Development,
Office
of
the
Coordinator
of
Health
Sciences,
400-2194
Health
Sciences
Mall,
Vancouver,
BC,
V6T
1Z3,
Canada.
Self
directed
learning
activities
*
Setting
own
learning
goals
*
Identifying
appropriate
learning
resources
*
Selecting
appropriate
learning
strategies
*
Selecting
important
from
unimportant
*
Integrating
material
from
different
sources
*
Tirne
management
*
Monitoring
achievement
of
learning
outcomes
*
Monitoring
effectiveness
of
own
study
habits
357
group.bmj.com on March 31, 2017 - Published by http://adc.bmj.com/Downloaded from
Towle,
Cottrell
for
the
professions
for
many
years,
possibly
the
most
important
development
since
the
move
of
professional
training
into
educational
institu-
tions.4
The
principal
idea
behind
problem
based
learning
is
that
the
starting
point
for
learning
should
be
a
problem,
query,
or
puzzle
that
the
learner
wishes
to
solve.
There
are
four
broad
goals5:
integration
and
relevance
of
knowledge;
development
of
clinical
reasoning;
independent
learning;
and
a
more
interesting
curriculum
for
staff
and
students.
Problem
based
learning
originated
at
McMaster
University
in
Canada
in
the
mid-
1960s
and
has
since
been
adopted
by
perhaps
30
medical
schools
throughout
the
world
as
the
sole
or
major
learning
method
and
by
several
hundred
as
one
of
the
methods
in
a
hybrid
curriculum.
In
its
purest
form
(for
example
at
McMaster
and
Maastricht),
a
problem
is
presented
to
a
group
of
students
and
the
group
decides
what
it
needs
to
know
in
order
to
solve
it.
The
learn-
ing
objectives
of
such
an
exercise
are
generated
by
the
students
and
several
groups
of
students
simultaneously
encountering
the
same
prob-
lem
will
end
up
learning
different
things.
A
more
structured
problem
based
learning
system
might
entail
a
list
of
learning
objectives
generated
by
the
teachers
or
course
organisers
to
which
students
are
guided
gently.
Some
medical
schools
(such
as
Harvard)
mix
prob-
lem
based
learning
with
more
traditional
forms
of
teaching
such
as
lectures
and
seminars
which
are
related
to
the
problems
being
studied.
Comparisons
of
different
curricula
suggest
that
students
perform
as
well
following
problem
based
courses
as
students
receiving
traditional
courses,
but
do
indeed
acquire
a
more
inquisitive
and
self
directed
style
of
learning.6
Problem
based
learning
typically
occurs
in
small
tutorial
groups
of
five
to
10
students.
The
teacher's
role
is
to
facilitate
the
learning
process,
not
to
give
the
students
information.
Students
are
presented
with
a
problem
and
encouraged
to
ask
themselves
questions,
the
answers
to
which
will
help
solve
the
initial
problem
and
increase
their
understanding
of
the
underlying
processes
involved.
Some
of
the
answers
will
come
from
the
prior
knowledge
of
group
members,
others
will
need
to
be
researched.
In
its
commonest
form
in
the
early
years
of
medical
programmes,
a
problem
is
progressively
unfolded,
with
additional
information
becom-
ing
available.
The
problem
can
be
simple
or
elaborate,
written
on
paper,
introduced
by
a
video
or
in
some
combination
of
formats.
Effective
problems
can
be
based
on
a
variety
of
questions
-
an
individual
patient,
a
puzzle
in
normal
function,
an
ethical
dilemma,
or
an
issue
of
community
concern.
Supplementary
materials
may
include
further
written
informa-
tion,
laboratory
data
or
pathology
slides,
read-
ing
lists,
and
computerised
databases.
A
typical
problem
in
paediatrics
might
be
as
follows:
'An
11
year
old
girl
has
not
attended
school
for
three
weeks
because
of
recurrent
episodes
of
central
abdominal
pain.
A
full
history,
examination
and
relevant
special
investigations
have
failed
to
reveal
any
organic
cause'.
Initial
discussion
of
the
problem,
usually
with
a
tutor
present,
is
used
to
identify
gaps
in
knowledge
and
learning
goals
are
set
for
later
individual
or
small
group
study.
This
problem,
with
some
guidance
from
the
tutor,
may
lead
the
students
to
explore
the
organic
causes
of
abdominal
pain
and
their
appropriate
investigation
and
management,
psychological
and
sociological
theories
concerning
the
mechanisms
of
'non-organic'
pain,
methods
of
psychiatric
assessment
of
children
and
families,
the
role
of
services
dealing
with
special
educa-
tional
needs,
psychological
treatments
and
many
other
related
areas.
In
subsequent
sessions
the
tutor
will
have
to
be
prepared
to
provide
more
information
to
the
students
about
the
problem,
for
example,
the
results
of
the
child's
physical
investigations
or
the
family
background.
When
planning
problem
based
learning,
attention
must
be
given
to
the
resources
that
will
be
needed
by
students
in
between
tutorials
to
answer
the
questions
they
have
set
them-
selves.
These
will
include
library
and
audio-
visual
materials,
but
may
also
include
staff
who
will
need
to
be
warned
that
a
group
of
questioning
students
may
descend
on
them
to
seek
explanations
that
will
help
their
learning.
While
no
two
problem
based
learning
ses-
sions
are
the
same,
most
proceed
through
the
following
stages:
(1)
Analysis
of
the
problem.
(2)
Identification
of
the
information
required
in
the
form
of
questions.
(3)
Study
to
formulate
the
answers
to
ques-
tions.
(4)
Application
of
the
newly
acquired
knowledge
to
the
initial
problem.
Thus,
much
of
the
work
carried
out
by
the
students
will
be
in
between
the
tutorial
sessions
facilitated
by
the
teacher
when
the
group
meets
to
review
progress.
Teachers
are
required
to
operate
in
very
different
ways
to
facilitate
this
kind of
learning:
clear
learning
objectives
need
to
be
set
for
each
problem
presentation
and
tutors
must
learn
skills
in
small
group
teaching
to
facilitate
the
analysis
and
questioning
which
should
occur
in
the
initial
session.
They
also
have
to
resist
the
temptation
to
control
the
direction
of
the
discussion
and
to
provide
information
instead
of
encouraging
students
to
find
out
for
themselves.
Studies
have
shown
that
tutors
with
expert
knowledge
of
the
problem
being
discussed
are
more
directive,
speak
more
frequently
and
for
longer,
provide
Course
features
that
enhance
self
directed
learning
*
Clear,
advance
information
about
tasks
*
Specific
performance
goals
for
assignments
*
Intrinsic
rewards
for
task
completion
*
Timetabling
that
allows
sufficient
time
for
task
completion
*
Trust
that
learners
will
remain
on
task
*
Support
for
student
learning,
for
example,
personal
tutors,
study
skills
courses
*
Formative
assessment
and
feedback
that
enables
students
to
monitor
and
modify
their
own
learning
*
Appropriate
summative
assessment,
that
is,
that
tests
problem
solving
rather
than
rote
repetition
of
facts
*
Appropriate
staff
development/teacher
training
358
group.bmj.com on March 31, 2017 - Published by http://adc.bmj.com/Downloaded from
Self
directed
learning
359
more
direct
answers
to
questions,
and
suggest
more
topics
for
discussion
than
do
non-expert
tutors.7
These
effects
may
discourage
the
development
of
active,
self
directed
learning.
Teachers
and
students
involved
in
problem
based
learning
curricula
overwhelmingly
sup-
port
the
process.
The
energy
and
shared
sense
of
purpose
in
the
tutorials
is
often
infectious;
the
opportunity
to
test
ideas
and
use
the
language
clearly
improves
cooperation
and
fluency;
students
are
actively
engaged
and
have
the
time
for
self
study
(and
to
pursue
other
interests).
The
evidence
about
whether
prob-
lem
based
learning
is
worthwhile
is
still
frag-
mentary,
partly
because
good
comparative
studies
are
difficult,
but
what
is
known
without
doubt
is
that
graduates
from
problem
based
learning
curricula
perform
no
worse
than
others
and
that
both
staff
and
students
have
a
more
interesting
and
enjoyable
experience.
Selilpeer
evaluation
The
ability
to
evaluate
one's
own
work
and
that
of
others,
is
a
skill
which
all
doctors
should
acquire
and
one
which
is
essential
if
students
are
to
continue
to
set
learning
objectives
for
themselves
after
qualification
and/or
con-
tribute
to
the
learning
of
others.
Despite
this,
there
are
often
few
opportunities
to
develop
this
ability
in
traditional
curricula.
Whether
such
assessments
should
be
summative
(con-
tributing
to
decisions
about
the
student's
future)
or
formative
(providing
guidance
about
future
study)
is
open
to
debate.
What
is
clear,
however,
is
that
such
assessment
helps
stu-
dents
to
develop
skills
of
critical
analysis
and
constructive
feedback,
and
promotes
openness
about
the
assessment
process.8
Self
or
peer
assessment
is
often
a
key
com-
ponent
of
problem
based
learning
but
can
be
introduced
as
part
of
the
learning
process
in
conjunction
with
most
forms
of
teaching.
For
example
students
might
be
set
the
task
of
assessing
their
own
ability
to
examine
the
cardiovascular
system
at
the
mid-way
point
on
a
paediatric
firm.
To
do
this
they
would
have
to
consider
what
constitutes
good
practice,
what
would
be
a
minimal
acceptable
perfor-
mance,
how
much
variation
is
allowed
between
students
while
still
performing
an
'acceptable'
examination
and
so on.
The
process
of
decid-
ing
on
these
criteria
and
standards
would,
of
itself,
be
an
important
learning
experience
as
would
the
subsequent
experience
of
participat-
ing
in
the
assessment,
observing
and
judging
the
skills
of
others,
and
receiving
feedback
on
one's
own
performance.
Students
may
involve
staff
in
discussions
about
setting
standards
and
staff
may
be
involved
in
the
assessment
of
some
or
all
of
the
students.
Discussions
about
the
possible
reasons
for
differences
between
marks
awarded
by
themselves,
by
peers,
and
by
teachers
provide
further
useful
opportunities
for
learning.
Students
are
increasingly
expected
to
work
in
groups
on
projects
and
assignments.
Similar
principles
can
be
applied
to
self
and
peer
assessment
of
this
kind
of
work.
Assessment
of
group
work
is
often
difficult
for
teachers
as
it
is
not
clear
which
students
within
the
group
are
responsible
for
the
work.
Within
the
frame-
work
of
self
assessment,
groups
can
be
asked
to
provide
a
mark
for
the
piece
of
work
produced
but
also
marks
for
the
relative
contributions
of
the
members
in
their
group.
Advance
knowledge
of
this
form
of
marking
can
have
interesting
effects
on
the
motivation
of
group
members
to
collaborate
and
contribute!
For
those
wishing
to
find
out
more,
a
useful
series
of
papers
on
self
and
peer
assessment
in
higher
education
has
been
collected
by
Brown
and
Dove.9
Conclusion
The
ability
to
acquire
skills
in
self
directed
learning
may
be
the
key
link
between
under-
graduate
education,
postgraduate
training,
and
continuing
professional
development.
If
future
and
current
practitioners
are
to
adopt
an
ongoing
reflective
and
critical
approach
to
practice,
we
should
aim
to
provide
learning
opportunities
that
promote
self
confidence,
question
asking
and
reflection,
openness
and
risk
taking,
uncertainty
and
surprise.
Teaching
techniques
that
encourage
these
skills
are
being
introduced
widely
and
have
been
shown
to
be
at
least
as
effective
as
traditional
methods
of
education
while
promoting
more
enjoyment
and
enthusiasm
among
both
staff
and
students.
We
are
grateful
to
an
(anonymous)
referee
some
of
whose
com-
ments
have
been
incorporated
into
this
article.
1
Knowles
M.
Self-directed
learning:
a
guide
for
learners
and
teachers.
New
York:
Association
Press,
1975.
2
General
Medical
Council.
Tomorrow's
doctors.
London:
General
Medical
Council,
1993.
3
Schmidt
HG.
Problem-based
learning:
rationale
and
descrip-
tion.
Med
Educ
1983;
17:
11-6.
4
Boud
D,
Feletti
G,
eds.
The
challenge
of
problem-based
learn-
ing.
London:
Kogan
Page,
1991.
5
Barrows
HS.
A
taxonomy
of
problem-based
learning.
Med
Educ
1986;
20:
481-6.
6
Schmidt
HG,
Dauphinee
WD,
Patel
VL.
Comparing
the
effects
of
problem
based
and
conventional
curricula
in
an
international
sample.
J7ournal
of
Medical
Education
1987;
62:
305-15.
7
Silver
M,
Wilkerson
L.
Effects
of
tutors
with
subject
expertise
on
the
problem-based
tutorial
process.
Acad
Med
1991;
66:
298-300.
8
Calhoun
JG,
Ten
Haken
JD,
Woolliscroft
JO.
Medical
stu-
dents'
development
of
self-
and
peer-assessment
skills:
a
longitudinal
study.
Teaching
and
Learning
in
Medicine
1990;
2:
25-9.
9
Brown
S,
Dove
P.
Self
and
peer
assessment.
Birmingham:
Standing
Conference
on
Educational
Development:
UK,
1991.
(SCED
paper
63.)
Further
reading
Gibbs
G,
Habeshaw
T.
Preparing
to
teach.
Bristol:
Technical
and
Educational
Services
Ltd,
1989.
Habeshaw
H,
Habeshaw
T,
Gibbs
G.
53
Interesting
things
to
do
in
your
seminars
and
tutorials.
Bristol:
Technical
and
Educational
Services
Ltd,
1992.
Jaques
D.
Learning
in
groups.
London:
Kogan
Page,
1991.
Newble
D,
Cannon
R.
A
handbook
for
medical
teachers.
3rd
Ed.
Dordrecht:
Kluwer
Academic
Publishers,
1994.
Ramsden
P.
Learning
to
teach
in
higher
education.
London:
Routledge,
1992.
group.bmj.com on March 31, 2017 - Published by http://adc.bmj.com/Downloaded from
Self directed learning.
A Towle and D Cottrell
doi: 10.1136/adc.74.4.357
1996 74: 357-359 Arch Dis Child
http://adc.bmj.com/content/74/4/357
Updated information and services can be found at:
These include:
service
Email alerting box at the top right corner of the online article.
Receive free email alerts when new articles cite this article. Sign up in the
Notes
http://group.bmj.com/group/rights-licensing/permissions
To request permissions go to:
http://journals.bmj.com/cgi/reprintform
To order reprints go to:
http://group.bmj.com/subscribe/
To subscribe to BMJ go to:
group.bmj.com on March 31, 2017 - Published by http://adc.bmj.com/Downloaded from
... Understanding how clinical learning takes place and what could stand as an indicator of learning among students is crucial since the clinical environment is riddled with challenges especially to meet the needs of students (Siddiqui, O'Halloran & Hamdorf 2021). Towle and Cottrell (1996) affirm that medical education literature provides guidance as to what will enable learning and help develop critical skills of lifelong learning among health professionals in practice settings. These include integration of prior knowledge with new learning. ...
... The elaboration of knowledge through activities such as discussion, questioning, peer teaching and critique, facilitates comprehension and retention (Schmidt 1983). The clinical learning indicators will enhance students' understanding on building prior knowledge; thus, they will be able to use the knowledge which they already possess to understand and structure new information (Towle & Cottrell 1996) and choosing meaningful connections among subject areas that helps students build on their diverse experiences. The framework that integrates the concepts of SRL, SDL and transformative learning could guide in the development of clinical learning indicators that would empower students in resource-limited settings (Ramani & Leinster 2008;Towle & Cottrell 1996). ...
... The clinical learning indicators will enhance students' understanding on building prior knowledge; thus, they will be able to use the knowledge which they already possess to understand and structure new information (Towle & Cottrell 1996) and choosing meaningful connections among subject areas that helps students build on their diverse experiences. The framework that integrates the concepts of SRL, SDL and transformative learning could guide in the development of clinical learning indicators that would empower students in resource-limited settings (Ramani & Leinster 2008;Towle & Cottrell 1996). ...
Article
Full-text available
Background: Understanding how clinical learning takes place and what could stand as an indicator of clinical learning is crucial. There are existing challenges in the clinical learning environment that require clinical indicators. These serve as accountability standards in settings that have challenges of human resources and material poverty. Thus, clinical indicators are pre-requisites for self-regulation and self-directedness to promote lifelong learning. The reality that exists in today’s Malawian health education institutions and clinical settings requires that those in training receive support and guidance on how essential competencies and skills can be acquired during training.Objectives: The objective of this scoping review was to identify current literature on clinical learning indicators among health professional students.Method: The Joanna Briggs Institute’s (May 2020) standards for scoping reviews including narrative synthesis were followed in the conduct of this review. The protocol was registered in the Open Science Framework https://osf.io/yj9nr.Results: The results generated seven themes on clinical learning process and these are (1) planning for learning, (2) awareness of self-directedness in clinical learning, (3) knowledge of achievement of learning outcomes, (4) educators’ evidence of students’ clinical learning, (5) students’ perspective on clinical learning, (6) students’ knowledge of achievement in practice and (7) impact of prior knowledge on clinical learning.Conclusion: Clinical learning indicators among undergraduate health professionals are essential and clinical learning should be a planned endeavour by the students before the clinical placement settings.Contribution: This study contributed to understanding clinical learning indicators and self-regulated learning practices among healthcare students.
... Pedagogically speaking, this study is based on the theory of SDL and constructivism. The SDL theory believes that learners shall be taught to take responsibility for their learning and vocational behaviors through guidance, motivation and stimulation (Ayyildiz & Tarhan, 2015;Garrison, 1997;Gerber et al., 1995;Knowles, 1975;Skager, 1979;Towle & Cottrell, 1996). ...
... Pedagogically speaking, this study is based on the theories of SDL and constructivism. The SDL theory believes that learners shall be taught to take responsibility for their learning and vocational behaviors through guidance, motivation and stimulation (Ayyildiz & Tarhan, 2015;Garrison, 1997;Gerber et al., 1995;Knowles, 1975;Skager, 1979;Towle & Cottrell, 1996). The intervention of this study is designed to help and motivate students in taking responsibility for their learning to promote their study engagement. ...
Article
This study aims to examine the effectiveness of self-directed learning on enhancing speaking accuracy skills of EFL learners at the University of Jordan. To accomplish the objectives of the study, a two-group pretest-posttest design was used as a type of quasi-experimental approach. Forty students of English 100 were randomly chosen as a sample of the study divided into two groups: 20 students of the control group taught using the conventional method, and 20 students of the experimental group taught using the SDL method. The same speaking assessment is given to two groups to collect the data. The researcher relied on an observation card with different criteria to measure the accuracy of speaking skills. One-way MANCOVA was performed to examine the effect of using the SDL method on accuracy in speaking skills. Findings showed a statistically significant effect of the SDL method in developing the speaking accuracy skills of EFL students at the University of Jordan. The study recommended the educators to train learners to be self-directed learners. The results have also been discussed and concluded with recommendations.
... (1) to improve their job prospects; (2) to pursue personal interests or hobbies; (3) to obtain certification of some type; (4) to access particular information or resources; and (5) to find ways to expand upon their formal learning. Despite their differences, each motivator relates to finding a way to improve one's competencies or life situation (Bonk & Lee, 2017•Kapur, 2019• Towle & Cottrell, 1996. ...
Article
Full-text available
The fields and motivations of self-directed learning are for adult educators a matter of their lifelong learning. Teachers openly and remotely train themselves in various fields and develop knowledge, skills and attitudes. These fields include education, computer science, arts, environment, special education, school psychology, etc. The teachers’ motivations mainly include their personal and professional development, their socialization, an offering to other people, the improvement of their life quality etc. The present research, with a qualitative approach, attempted to study the fields and motivations of primary school teachers in terms of their self-directed learning. The semi-structured interview technique was chosen for data collection. The results showed that the fields and motivations of the teachers serve their daily school needs. They are related to their personal and professional development and the critical thinking of both themselves and their students afterwards. Especially due to the Covid19 pandemic crisis the training needs of teachers are carried out openly and remotely. Their participation in various programs, but also their future intention to participate, enhance the need to develop self-directed learning skills, as well as e-learning programs in this direction. The present study can contribute to the increase of knowledge and practice in the development, promotion and planning of self-directed learning interventions in open and distance education, while its originality lies in the fact that no similar research has been implemented in the field of self-directed learning and its connection to lifelong teacher education.
... At that time I saw some examples of books one by one and make a note with understanding, which is self-learning. Self-learning is a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals [19]. Selflearning includes learning through self-directed, self-monitoring, self-regulation, and self-evaluation that construct the knowledge, skills and abilities. ...
Article
Full-text available
This article studies the first author's (Hem) transformation from a traditional practitioner to a critical and culturally responsive Nepalese mathematics teacher. This paper is developed from the perspective of the first author's experience using the first person "I". I have thoroughly examined my past experiences as a student, teacher, and educational researcher in schools within the Surkhet Valley, Nepal. The main purpose of this study is to critically explore my experiences of learning and teaching mathematics, both within and outside their contexts, and to envision myself as a transformative learner, teacher, and educator in mathematics. This study is framed through the research question: How can I envision myself as a transformative learner and teacher of mathematics? This study aims to explore the mathematical concepts that learners have acquired through context-based instruction. Moreover, I gradually shifted my focus from merely solving mathematical problems to effectively teaching my subject through a decontextualized mathematics teacher to a contextualized mathematics teacher. At this moment, I am navigating a critical point and actively searching for more effective alternatives to enhance culturally meaningful learning for students through a shift toward transformation. This study employs a narrative inquiry approach to deeply reflect on my lived experiences as a student, teacher, and educational researcher in mathematics education. In this approach, narratives of pedagogical practices analyze traditional decontextualized mathematics and investigate transformative pedagogy as contextualized mathematics. I utilized three theories: living education theory, sociocultural theory, and transformative theory.
... Self-learning, also referred to as selfdirected learning, entails active and constructivist processes, during which learners set eujapa.upol.cz goals, monitor and control their actions, and seek knowledge and skills as part of the learning process (Nodoushan, 2012;Svinicki, 2010;Towle & Cottrell, 1996). ...
... [5] The process of SDL involves an individual's assessment of their learning needs, formulation of learning goals, identification of human and material resources for learning, selection and application of appropriate learning strategies, and independent or assisted evaluation of learning outcomes. [6,7] Numerous methods have been used to carry out SDL. To ensure that independent learners do not struggle to meet the objectives, it is best if the goals are specific. ...
Article
Full-text available
Introduction Self-directed learning (SDL) is defined as learning on one’s initiative, with the learner having primary responsibility for planning, implementing, and evaluating the effort. The present study aims to evaluate the effects of SDL on medical students and to find out how well they understood it and how to make it better. Materials and Methods A longitudinal study was conducted among 131 1 st -year medical students for a period of 12 months. A poster competition was conducted, and students were approached by the research team through an in-depth interview to know their experience regarding SDL 10 days following the assignment. Students were asked how the exercise changed their perception of their SDL skills and what improvements they could make. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze sociodemographic data. Thematic analysis was applied to the comments. Results SDL improved the participants’ comprehension of the subject matter, which made learning easier and more engaging. In addition, discussions in groups assisted students in developing their critical thinking and creative abilities. In addition, it enhanced their capacity for cooperative learning and teamwork. Students said that SDL might assist them in examining many facets of their education and modifying it for situations that arise in the real world. The students expressed a desire to participate in more group and individual activities that would increase their engagement, strengthen and improve their learning, and help them develop their abilities. Conclusion This study shows that SDL methods are likely to be positively appraised by the students, where they improve the cognitive, psychomotor, and affective skills of the students. The students commented that adding more creative SDL activities can further make it interesting helping them learn on their own to gain valuable experience and social skills. The following core competencies are addressed in this article: Medical knowledge, Practice-based learning and improvement, and Interpersonal and communication skills.
Article
In this study, it was aimed to determine the views of self-learning teachers on their professional development. In this direction, phenomenological research design from qualitative research methods was used in the research. In the research group, there are 16 teachers working in Meram district of Konya province between June and December in 2023 and giving importance to their professional development. The data were collected through a semi-structured interview form and content analysis method was used to analyse the data. As a result, it was concluded that the participant teachers frequently participated in in-service training activities for their professional development experiences, used social media effectively, felt the need for professional development because they did not consider their current training sufficient, they have been learning teachers since they started their profession, and their motivation and self-confidence increased after the trainings they attended, that they have learning outside the profession and that they learn through social media, professional courses and experts, that their sources of motivation for professional development are student expectations and appreciation, that they receive support from their families, but that they are not provided with sufficient support by their managers and colleagues.
Article
Adaptive e-learning systems (AeLS), which emerged in the late 1990s, offer an alternative to the ’one-size-fits-all’ approach by addressing the demand for individualized learning experiences. These systems typically consist of five elements, including a domain model, a media space, an adaptation model, a user interface, and a learner model. Despite the increasing academic interest in this topic and the rapid development of techniques for adaptation over the past decade, there remains a significant gap in reviews that investigate learner characteristics and the techniques used for characteristic identification. To bridge this gap, we conducted a systematic review with a total of 57 studies reported from 2013 to 2023 to provide a comprehensive overview of the current trends in adaptive e-learning system research. While this review may serve as a reference for setting up a learner model as it provides the landscape of techniques utilized in recent studies, our review revealed a scarcity of research on the development of the learner model, particularly the studies that share clear theoretical or empirical justification of the techniques used for adaptation. We recommend incorporating multiple relevant learner characteristics in learner model and providing clear rationales for selecting these characteristics. We also suggest that future research should consider incorporating adaptive assessment more extensively in AeLSs
Article
Objectives The National Medical Commission of India introduced Competency-based Medical Education in 2019 mandated duration allocation for the self-directed learning (SDL) activity in each course throughout the undergraduate medical programme. A successful implementation requires a structured methodology for the introduction of SDL activities for the undergraduate learner. The objectives of this study were as follows: (1) To develop and implement structured cooperative self-directed learning (Sc-SDL) activity for 1 st -year medical students. (2) To explore perceptions of students for the developed process (Sc-SDL). Materials and Methods A prospective cohort study for 1 st -year medical students was initiated, exposing them to three Sc-SDL activities having sessions in a blended manner. The formative assessment score was analysed by mean, standard deviation and paired t -tests. A validated learner feedback questionnaire was submitted by the participants, which was analysed by the Friedman rank test and satisfaction index. Analysis for open-ended questions from the participants 3 months after completion of the course was by thematic analysis manually. Results The academic score for topics taught through the Sc-SDL approach ranged from 67.62 ± 21.72 to 83.72 ± 24.34 (Activity-1–3), showing significant differences in scores for Activity-1 with 2, and Activity-1 with 3. The maximum satisfaction index score and Friedman rank, from the learner feedback questionnaire were for item 8 (8.80; 93.6%) and the minimum for item 10 (3.28; 57.83%). Three major themes other than suggestions for improvement were identified from the open-ended questionnaire. Conclusion The Sc-SDL approach showed an increase in academic gain, thus enhancing the cognitive approach of the learner. The activity encouraged undergraduate students to attain attributional and social skills such as team-building, sharing, presentation skills and time and conflict management. However, input from other stakeholders needs to be considered.
Book
Part 1: Learning and Teaching in Higher Education 1.Introduction 2.Ways if Understanding Teaching 3.What Students Learn 4.Approaches to Learning 5.Learning form the Student's Perspective 6.The Nature of Good Teaching in Higher Education 7.Theories of Teaching in Higher Education Part 2: Design for Learning 8.The Goals and Structure of a Course 9.Tecahing Strategies for Effective Learning 10.Assessing for Understanding Part 3: Evaluating and Improving the Quality of Teaching and Learning 11.Evaluating the Quality of Higher Education 12.What Does it Take to Improve Teaching?
Article
This study was undertaken to investigate the changes in medical students’ self‐and peer‐evaluative abilities as they progress through both the preclinical and clinical phases of their academic careers. Second‐year medical students were videotaped performing a randomly assigned physical examination. Based on behaviorally anchored checklists, students reviewed and rated their own performances as well as those of two of their peers; faculty also rated the students’ performances. These same students, as seniors, reviewed once again the videotapes of themselves and their peers and rated the performances. The students’ second‐year self‐ and peer‐evaluation ratings were significantly higher than those of the faculty ratings, whereas those same students’ ratings as seniors were not significantly different from the faculty ratings. Implications for integrating the use of self‐evaluation in undergraduate medical education programs are discussed.
Article
With the increased interest in problem-based, small-group learning in medical education, a debate has arisen about whether the tutor should be an expert in the subject under discussion. This 1988 study at Harvard Medical School demonstrates that tutors' expertise has important effects on the process of discussion in a problem-based tutorial. In comparing discussions of subjects in which the tutors described themselves as expert with those in which they did not, the authors found that the tutors with expertise tended to take a more directive role in tutorials: they spoke more often and for longer periods, provided more direct answers to the students' questions, and suggested more of the topics for discussion. Tutor-to-student exchanges predominated, with less student-to-student discussion. These effects endanger an important goal of problem-based learning: the development of students' skills in active, self-directed learning.
Article
In this article, the authors review 15 studies that compare various educational outcomes of problem-based, community-oriented medical curricula with those of conventional programs. The data suggest that problem-based curricula provide a student-centered learning environment and encourage an inquisitive style of learning in their students as opposed to the rote memorization and short-term learning strategies induced by conventional medical education. In addition, community-oriented schools appear to influence the career preferences of their students. The few data available show that significantly larger proportions of graduates from these schools seek careers in primary care. Some of the studies reviewed suggest that students in conventional programs perform somewhat better on traditional measures of academic achievement than do students in problem-based curricula. However, these differences, if any, tend to be very small. Data with respect to performance on instruments measuring clinical competence are inconclusive. Finally, the authors discuss the difficulties involved in carrying out comparative research at the curriculum level.
Article
The increasingly popular term 'problem-based learning' does not refer to a specific educational method. It can have many different meanings depending on the design of the educational method employed and the skills of the teacher. The many variables possible can produce wide variations in quality and in the educational objectives that can be achieved. A taxonomy is proposed to facilitate an awareness of these differences and to help teachers choose a problem-based learning method most appropriate for their students.
Article
Problem-based learning is an instructional method that is said to provide students with knowledge suitable for problem solving. In order to test this assertion the process of problem-based learning is described and measured against three principles of learning: activation of prior knowledge, elaboration and encoding specificity. Some empirical evidence regarding the approach is presented.