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The ??mpact of stalkers on their victims
Abstract
This paper examines the social and psychological impact on victims of stalking.
A group of 100 victims of stalking completed a 50-item questionnaire on their experiences.
The majority of the victims were subjected to multiple forms of harassment including being followed, repeatedly approached and bombarded with letters and telephone calls for periods varying from a month to 20 years. Threats were received by 58 subjects, and 34 were physically or sexually assaulted. All but six victims made major changes in their social and work lives, with 53% changing or ceasing employment and 39% moving home. Increased levels of anxiety were reported by 83%, intrusive recollections and flashbacks by 55%, with nightmares, appetite disturbances and depressed mood also being commonly reported. Suicidal ruminations were acknowledged by 24% of victims. The criteria for a diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder were fulfilled in 37% of subjects, with a further 18% having the clinical features but not qualifying for a stressor involving threatened or actual physical harm.
The study indicates the extent of the social and psychological damage sustained by those subjected to persistent stalking, and underlines the inadequacy of the current legal and medical responses to the needs of these victims.
... Due to this, previous research has made some strides in examining the association between stalking characteristics and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), but the results have been mixed. Studies have explored various stalking characteristics in relation to PTSD symptoms, including the duration of stalking (Bailey & Morris, 2021;Kamphuis et al., 2003;Purcell et al., 2012;Wolf et al., 2021), the variation in stalking behaviours experienced (number of and types of behaviours experienced) (Dardis et al., 2019;Kamphuis et al., 2003;Pathé & Mullen, 1997;Purcell et al., 2012;Purcell et al., 2005), and the victim-stalker relationship (Kamphuis & Emmelkamp, 2001;Pathé & Mullen, 1997;Purcell et al., 2005). Victims of stalking have consistently shown an elevated risk of mental illness (Kuehner et al., 2007) and impaired social functioning (Blaauw et al., 2002). ...
... Due to this, previous research has made some strides in examining the association between stalking characteristics and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), but the results have been mixed. Studies have explored various stalking characteristics in relation to PTSD symptoms, including the duration of stalking (Bailey & Morris, 2021;Kamphuis et al., 2003;Purcell et al., 2012;Wolf et al., 2021), the variation in stalking behaviours experienced (number of and types of behaviours experienced) (Dardis et al., 2019;Kamphuis et al., 2003;Pathé & Mullen, 1997;Purcell et al., 2012;Purcell et al., 2005), and the victim-stalker relationship (Kamphuis & Emmelkamp, 2001;Pathé & Mullen, 1997;Purcell et al., 2005). Victims of stalking have consistently shown an elevated risk of mental illness (Kuehner et al., 2007) and impaired social functioning (Blaauw et al., 2002). ...
... Victims of stalking have consistently shown an elevated risk of mental illness (Kuehner et al., 2007) and impaired social functioning (Blaauw et al., 2002). Research has also reported a high prevalence of depressive disorders and post-traumatic stress disorders among stalking victims, but no definitive conclusions have been reached regarding the relevance of the type and duration of stalking in these outcomes (Bailey & Morris, 2021;Logan & Walker, 2021;Pathé & Mullen, 1997;Vangsgaard et al., 2019). Amar (2006) found that college women who experienced stalking reported significantly more somatization, depression, and hostility symptoms compared to non-victims (Amar, 2006). ...
Background: The experience of stalking presents a threat to the mental and physical health and wellbeing of victims. Although some studies have explored the impact of stalking on victims, few have gone into detail about specific mental health outcomes and their association with various types of stalking behaviour.
Objective: To investigate the psychological consequences among Danish help-seeking victims of stalking who have contacted and received help through the Danish Stalking Center (DSC).
Methods: We used survey-data from stalking victims who sought and received help from the DSC during 2015–2020 (N = 591). Descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, T-tests, and hierarchical logistic regression analysis were used to examine psychological distress symptoms and the relationship between psychopathological symptoms and stalking behaviour characteristics.
Results: Victims reported considerable levels of stalking and psychological distress. Almost 80% of victims reported symptom levels indicative of a diagnosable disorder of PTSD, depression, or anxiety. T-test shoved that following behaviour had the greatest effect size for PTSD-symptoms (t(575) = −5.81, p < .01, d = −.58), anxiety (t(576) = −4.21, p < .01, d = −.42), and somatization (t(572) = −4.29, p < .01, d = −.43). Hierarchical logistic regression analysis showed that stalking victims who experienced following had significantly higher odds of experiencing symptoms of PTSD (OR 2.869; 95% CI, [1.641–5.016]) and anxiety (OR 2.274; 95% CI [1.265; 4.090]).
Conclusion: Being stalked is associated with substantial PTSD-, affective and trauma-related symptoms and psychological distress in general. Together with the strikingly high levels of psychopathology and the particularly grave effects of being followed, it is indicated that stalking is a special type of trauma with many negative and harmful effects. Hence, further research into how to properly help stalking victims through preventive interventions and treatment is needed.
... Studies on the victim impact of stalking have generally taken two forms, studies of impact types and prevalence and studies of predictors of impact. Several studies have focused on stalking impact, reporting types, and prevalence of impact (e.g., Acquadro Maran & Varetto, 2018;Amar, 2006;Dressing et al., 2005Dressing et al., , 2014Kamphuis & Emmelkamp, 2001;Logan et al., 2006;Pathé & Mullen, 1997;Stieger et al., 2008;Westrup et al., 1999). Participants who were the victims of stalking were gathered from criminal justice, clinical, undergraduate, and community samples. ...
... Fear of death or physical harm was reported by 43% to 97% of victims (Amar, 2006;Kamphuis & Emmelkamp, 2001;Morgan & Truman, 2022). Anxiety was reported by 44% to 88% of victims (Dressing et al., 2005;Pathé & Mullen, 1997;Stieger et al., 2008), with 12% to 14% experiencing panic attacks (Dressing et al., 2005;Stieger et al., 2008) and 55% experiencing flashbacks and intrusive thoughts (Pathé & Mullen, 1997). Between 26% and 34.6% of victims reported depression (Dressing et al., 2005(Dressing et al., , 2014Stieger et al., 2008) and 24% considered or attempted suicide (Pathé & Mullen, 1997). ...
... Fear of death or physical harm was reported by 43% to 97% of victims (Amar, 2006;Kamphuis & Emmelkamp, 2001;Morgan & Truman, 2022). Anxiety was reported by 44% to 88% of victims (Dressing et al., 2005;Pathé & Mullen, 1997;Stieger et al., 2008), with 12% to 14% experiencing panic attacks (Dressing et al., 2005;Stieger et al., 2008) and 55% experiencing flashbacks and intrusive thoughts (Pathé & Mullen, 1997). Between 26% and 34.6% of victims reported depression (Dressing et al., 2005(Dressing et al., , 2014Stieger et al., 2008) and 24% considered or attempted suicide (Pathé & Mullen, 1997). ...
Victims of stalking suffer severe and varied impacts requiring assessment and treatment. Research to inform support is limited. This study examines a national sample of stalking victims to identify the types and prevalence of impact reported and the predictors of impact. A secondary analysis of 258 stalking cases reported to a stalking charity was conducted. Four categories of victim reported impact were coded; psychological and substance abuse, physical health, practical impact on life, and impact on others. Stalking duration, severity, the diversity of stalking behaviors, and the relationship between the victim and perpetrator were investigated as predictors of impact. In all, 48 types of impact were identified with victims experiencing an average of four types. Psychological impact was the most prevalent (91.5%). Several new forms of impact were identified including a variety of impacts on persons known to the victim (e.g., children, friends) in 35.3% of the sample. Increased diversity of stalking behavior was predictive of impact in all models (explaining 11% of the variance in total impact scores), except for physical impact which was not analyzed due to low prevalence. Stalking impact was prevalent and varied, suggesting that victims (and potentially those close to them) require trauma-informed support from clinicians. Future research should include the development of a stalking impact index to improve the consistency of research and clinical assessment of need.
... For example, California Law (under Penal Code 646.9 PC) requires the stalking perpetrator to make a credible threat towards the target ). Given that studies of stalking have found that threats are made in approximately 40-50% of cases (Baum et al. 2009;Budd et al. 2000;Pathé and Mullen 1997), definitions requiring threats (such as the California stalking law) may ignore substantial numbers of targets. ...
... Stalking is a 'course of conduct in which one individual inflicts on another repeated unwanted intrusions and communications to such an extent that the victim fears for his or her safety' (Pathé and Mullen 1997). ...
... Stalking can have profound consequences for targets. Psychologically, targets are at an increased risk of developing anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress symptoms; physically, targets can develop somatic symptoms, such as digestive problems and extreme tiredness, and are also at an increased risk of violence resulting in injury or death; socially, targets may become isolated from their family and friends, and interpersonal relationships may be disrupted; and financially, targets may lose money due to time taken off work (e.g., to attend court) or because of costs incurred when attempting to escape the perpetrator (Diette et al. 2014;Dressing et al. 2005;Pathé and Mullen 1997;Purcell et al. 2002). Stalking can also have significant personal impacts on targets, with many targets having to make lifestyle changes in an attempt to deter the perpetrator (Dressing et al. 2005;Pathé and Mullen 1997). ...
Honour is a universal concept, but its meaning, value and applications are variable historically and culturally. Also, not a single community, culture or class has the monopoly on defending one’s honour through violence. It has been attributed as an underlying cause of horrific violence, for example, duelling in England, foot binding in China, sati (burning of a widow in her dead husband’s funeral pyre) in India and the honour-based retribution system in the Southern States of the USA. These practices have been eliminated, yet honour crimes such as domestic abuse, sexual, psychological and economic abuse, acid attacks, forced marriage, forced suicide, female genital mutilation and honour killing still occur in many countries.This chapter argues that the notions of honour, dishonour and shame are interconnected and underpin an organised set of social structures called the honour system. The system operates through norms, rules and practices to control the sexuality, body and behaviour of women and girls. The system uses various harmful practices against women and girls who do not conform to the system’s prescribed rules and norms. These practices are categorised as honour crimes.KeywordsHonourHonour crimesHonour killingHonour-based violenceHonour abuse
... For example, California Law (under Penal Code 646.9 PC) requires the stalking perpetrator to make a credible threat towards the target ). Given that studies of stalking have found that threats are made in approximately 40-50% of cases (Baum et al. 2009;Budd et al. 2000;Pathé and Mullen 1997), definitions requiring threats (such as the California stalking law) may ignore substantial numbers of targets. ...
... Stalking is a 'course of conduct in which one individual inflicts on another repeated unwanted intrusions and communications to such an extent that the victim fears for his or her safety' (Pathé and Mullen 1997). ...
... Stalking can have profound consequences for targets. Psychologically, targets are at an increased risk of developing anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress symptoms; physically, targets can develop somatic symptoms, such as digestive problems and extreme tiredness, and are also at an increased risk of violence resulting in injury or death; socially, targets may become isolated from their family and friends, and interpersonal relationships may be disrupted; and financially, targets may lose money due to time taken off work (e.g., to attend court) or because of costs incurred when attempting to escape the perpetrator (Diette et al. 2014;Dressing et al. 2005;Pathé and Mullen 1997;Purcell et al. 2002). Stalking can also have significant personal impacts on targets, with many targets having to make lifestyle changes in an attempt to deter the perpetrator (Dressing et al. 2005;Pathé and Mullen 1997). ...
The following chapter provides an overview of the existing adult and adolescent stalking literature. This chapter begins with a discussion of stalking definitions. There is currently a lack of agreement amongst academics, governments, and practitioners on how best to define stalking, which has led to inconsistencies in how stalking is defined within law and research. The implications of definitions for our understanding of stalking and the support provided to targets of stalking are discussed. Findings from the adult and adolescent stalking literature are then described and compared, with a focus on prevalence rates, target and perpetrator characteristics, stalking behaviours, and the impacts of stalking. Throughout this chapter, several notable gender differences are identified. Females are at significantly higher risks of being targets of stalking, and the psychological, physical, and lifestyle impacts of stalking may be greater for female targets. Males are significantly more likely to be perpetrators of stalking, and gender differences in the stalking behaviours used by male and female perpetrators are identified. This chapter concludes that stalking can and should be considered a form of gender-based violence, and recommendations for research and practice are suggested.KeywordsAdolescent stalkingHarassmentObsessional following
... A review of the few studies examining persistence in stalking suggests that individuals who choose to engage in continued stalking behaviours towards the same victim over long periods of time may be at greater likelihood of suffering from major mental illness (i.e., delusional beliefs) McEwan et al., 2017a), may be more likely to target acquaintances rather than intimate partners or strangers (Lyon et al., 1999;McEwan et al., 2009;Pathé & Mullen, 1997;Purcell et al., 2004), tend to be older than 30 years (Johnson & Thompson, 2016;McEwan et al., 2009) and may be motivated by attempts to initiate a relationship or conversely, anger/revenge (Johnson & Thompson, 2016;McEwan et al., 2009). One study based on a predominantly female sample's self-report indicated that persistence in stalking may be associated with more severe stalking-related behaviours such as threats, physical harm, and property damage (Johnson & Thompson, 2016). ...
... Overall, the literature strongly suggests that former intimate partners are at increased risk of experiencing physical harm during the course of stalking perpetration (Burczycka, 2016;Farnham et al., 2000;Harmon et al., 1998;McEwan et al., 2009;McEwan et al., 2017a;Meloy, 1998;Meloy et al., 2001;Morrison, 2008;Mullen et al., 1999;Palarea et al., 1999;Pathé & Mullen, 1997;Rosenfeld & Harmon, 2002;Schwartz-Watts & Morgan, 1998;Sheridan & Davies, 2001;Zona et al., 1993), particularly if individuals have uttered threats within the context of their stalking behaviour (Brewster, 2002;Harmon et al., 1998;McEwan et al., 2009;Morrison, 2008;Rosenfeld & Harmon, 2002;Sheridan & Davies, 2001). There is also some evidence to suggest a history of having engaged in previous physical harm may increase risk for escalation to physical violence in the context of stalking (Mullen et al., 1999;Palarea et al., 1999). ...
... Victims of stalking behaviors experience major effects on mental health, including high levels of post-traumatic stress, depression, and anxiety (Basile et al., 2004;Baum et al., 2009;Budd et al., 2000;Dovelius et al., 2006;European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights., 2014;Fleming et al., 2012;Kamphuis et al., 2003;Kuehner et al., 2007;Matos et al., 2011;Miller, 2012;Pathé & Mullen, 1997;Podaná & Imríšková, 2016;Purcell et al., 2002Purcell et al., , 2005Thomas et al., 2008), as well as general well-being, including social, physical, and financial effects (Blaauw et al., 2002a;Brewster, 2003;Dreßing et al., 2020;Korkodeilou, 2017;Kuehner et al., 2012;Lacey et al., 2013;Logan & Cole, 2007;Logan & Walker, 2017;Pathé & Mullen, 1997;Worsley et al., 2017). In fact, exposure to persecutory conduct inflicts notable harm on victims' physical and mental well-being, affecting social and occupational functioning (Kuehner et al., 2007;Matos et al., 2019;Villacampa & Pujols, 2019). ...
... Victims of stalking behaviors experience major effects on mental health, including high levels of post-traumatic stress, depression, and anxiety (Basile et al., 2004;Baum et al., 2009;Budd et al., 2000;Dovelius et al., 2006;European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights., 2014;Fleming et al., 2012;Kamphuis et al., 2003;Kuehner et al., 2007;Matos et al., 2011;Miller, 2012;Pathé & Mullen, 1997;Podaná & Imríšková, 2016;Purcell et al., 2002Purcell et al., , 2005Thomas et al., 2008), as well as general well-being, including social, physical, and financial effects (Blaauw et al., 2002a;Brewster, 2003;Dreßing et al., 2020;Korkodeilou, 2017;Kuehner et al., 2012;Lacey et al., 2013;Logan & Cole, 2007;Logan & Walker, 2017;Pathé & Mullen, 1997;Worsley et al., 2017). In fact, exposure to persecutory conduct inflicts notable harm on victims' physical and mental well-being, affecting social and occupational functioning (Kuehner et al., 2007;Matos et al., 2019;Villacampa & Pujols, 2019). ...
Stalking is a global spread phenomenon consisting in harassing, annoying, unwanted, and intrusive behaviors, often considered regular in courting. These behaviors are part of the broader range of gender-based violence. In accordance with the theory of ecological systems, this study aimed to investigate the presence of gender differences in the perception of the severity of stalking actions, considering the role of the type of violence perpetrated (physical versus verbal) and the relationship between the author and victim (Resentful ex-partner, Incompetent suitor rejected, Neighbor in dispute). The results showed gender differences in the main dimensions investigated by the questionnaire (Moral Disengagement, Normlessness beliefs, Empathy, and Perception of the Severity of Stalking). In addition, the results show that the perception of severity is influenced by the type of relationship and the type of violence perpetrated, differently between men and women. Results were discussed based on the development of literature on the topic.
... Em relação ao deslocamento físico, as mudanças de endereço provisórias e permanentes decorrentes do receio de que o stalking continue ou se agrave foram relatados neste estudo. As mudanças no estilo de vida podem envolver mudanças de residência, local de trabalho ou escola (Pathé & Mullen, 1997). Como exemplo, o relato de Maria sobre a mudança permanente de residência, afim de "despistar" o stalker: "... com certeza impactou assim, na minha escolha de querer mudar da casa da minha mãe. ...
... Outra estratégia adotada pelas vítimas e que também repercutem na rotina se refere ao comportamento de não sair de casa. Algumas vítimas de stalking evitam ambientes sociais e acabam permanecendo em casa com medo de encontrar o stalker (Pathé & Mullen, 1997). Também foi possível encontrar relatos nesse sentido, conforme exemplo a seguir: "(...) eu lembro que, quando aconteceu, eu passei acho que uns dois meses com muita dificuldade de sair de casa." ...
O stalking é um fenômeno caracterizado por comportamentos de perseguição e assédio à vítima. O objetivo deste estudo foi conhecer a percepção de mulheres vitimadas pelo comportamento stalker a respeito das repercussões em suas vidas. Foram entrevistadas seis jovens mulheres, entre 22 e 28 anos. Os instrumentos utilizados foram uma ficha de dados sociodemográficos e uma entrevista individual semiestruturada, ambos elaborados pelas pesquisadoras. Por meio da Análise Temática encontraram-se três modalidades das repercussões existentes: emocionais, sociais e nas rotinas. Nas repercussões emocionais aparecem o medo, a culpa, o incômodo e a raiva; nas repercussões sociais emergem as consequências nos relacionamentos e nas redes sociais; já nas repercussões na rotina, discutem-se as alterações nas atividades diárias e no deslocamento físico. Por fim, compreende-se que as repercussões desencadeadas pelo stalking vivenciado são severas e estão inter-relacionadas numa circularidade causal. Essas repercussões afetam negativamente a vida dessas mulheres e provocam um sofrimento intenso.
... Sementara itu, dalam tinjauan literaturnya, Jordan, dkk (2009) menemukan indikasi depresi, dan suicidal ideation pada wanita korban kekerasan seksual. Sementara itu, pada wanita yang pernah menjadi korban stalking ditemukan adanya indikasi kecemasan, depresi, sleeplessness, kemarahan, dan simtom-simtom trauma lainnya (Davis, dkk., 2002, Pathé & Mullen, 1997. Banyaknya ancaman bagi kesehatan mental wanita akibat pengalaman kekerasannya merupakan hal yang patut menjadi sorotan, terlebih lagi studi literatur yang dilakukan oleh Ribeiro, Andreoli, Ferri, Prince, dan Mari (2009) menemukan bahwa dibandingkan pria, wanita memiliki kemungkinan lebih tinggi untuk mengalami masalah dalam kesehatan mentalnya akibat keterpaparan terhadap peristiwa traumatis. ...
Abstrak. Pengetahuan mengenai kondisi psikologis wanita yang menjadi korban kekerasan menjadi penting untuk dimiliki, terutama bagi para praktisi kesehatan mental, seperti psikolog dan psikiater. Terlebih lagi di Indonesia, di mana belum ada banyak penelitian yang berfokus pada penyintas kekerasan. Studi ini dilakukan untuk memberikan gambaran mengenai kondisi psikologis wanita penyintas kekerasan di Indonesia. Penelitian ini menggunakan tiga kuesioner, yaitu kuesioner riwayat kekerasan, DASS-21, dan Trauma Resilience Scale. Penelitian ini menemukan bahwa kecemasan yang dilaporkan partisipan (n = 134) merupakan salah satu kondisi psikologis yang paling perlu dijadikan perhatian bersama dengan resiliensi trauma yang sebagian besar berada di bawah rata-rata. Hasil penelitian ini dapat dijadikan salah satu referensi dalam menentukan intervensi yang tepat bagi wanita penyintas kekerasan.Kata Kunci: kecemasan, resiliensi, trauma, penyintas kekerasan, DASS-21,Trauma Resilience ScaleAbstract. Knowledge about the psychological condition of women who experienced violence is important, especially for mental health practitioners such as psychologists and psychiatrists. Moreover, in Indonesia, there are not many studies which focused on violence survivors. This study is aimed to describe the psychological condition of women who experienced violence. This study used 3 questionnaires: experience of violence questionnaire, DASS-21, and Trauma Resilience Scale. This study found that anxiety which reported by participants (n = 134) is one psychological condition that needs most attention, along with trauma resilience which mostly were reported to be below average. Result of this study can be used to be one of the references in determining suitable intervention for women who experienced violence.Keywords: anxiety, resilience, trauma, violence survivor, DASS-21, Trauma Resilience Scale
... Regarding the effects of stalking, international research has shown that the majority of those who are stalked experience symptoms of traumatic stress (Pathé & Mullen, 1997) and other forms of psychological, social and vocational damage (Blaauw, Winkel, Arensman, Sheridan & Bjerregaard, 2002;Brewster, 1998). Our findings conform with this international research. ...
... Regarding the effects of stalking, international research has shown that the majority of those who are stalked experience symptoms of traumatic stress (Pathé & Mullen, 1997) and other forms of psychological, social and vocational damage (Blaauw, Winkel, Arensman, Sheridan & Bjerregaard, 2002;Brewster, 1998). Our findings conform with this international research. ...
... Außerdem weisen mehrere Studien (u. a. Belik, 2007;Pathè & Mullen, 1997;Port, 2012a) Nicht selten werden Betroffene wegen der Auswirkungen des Stalkings auf ihre Gesundheit vom Arzt oder von der Ärztin krankgeschrieben oder suchen therapeutische Hilfe auf (Dreßing et al., 2020, S. 348). Das Risiko einer psychischen Erkrankung ist bei Stalkingbetroffenen erhöht. ...
The article is devoted to the problems of stalking – an intrusive persecution of a person by another human being, which is a form of harassment and intimidation; generally, it is expressed in pursuing the victim, and it’s further tracking. The stalking phenomenon is not new, however, has rooted itself as an offense in recent history. The analysis of the USA criminal legislation is presented by the Criminal Code of California State, as the first state to criminalize this act in the country and in the world. The purpose of this research is consistently studying and examining stalking in detail as an illegal phenomenon, the history and the causes of its occurrence, the typology of stalkers, the conditions for the act of persecution, the analysis of the US criminal law prohibiting and describing stalking, its forms and types. The study of the question seems relevant in connection with frequent stalking cases in Kazakhstan, enables to track patterns in calls and responses to the threat of such an illegal phenomena. The scientific significance of the study rests upon the obtained results, which expand the theoretical foundation of this issue, the causes of its occurrence and the ways to tackle it. The research’s methodological basis is the dialectical-materialistic method’s comprehension of social processes and phenomena. Within this article were used general scientific, historical-legal, legal, comparative-legal, formal-logical, concrete-sociological methods, as well as the system analysis method. The historical method takes a special place in this work, in particular specifically-historical, chronological, as well as other methods. The article considers the terminological apparatus of stalking as an illegal phenomenon, its historical context, the events chronology that led to its criminalization, the typology of stalkers, types and forms of stalking. The issues of norm and pathology and their influence on the frequency of persecution are also to be considered as well. The author concluded that the causes that give a rise to stalking more often come out of stalker’s unhealthy interest in victim, as well as conclusions that the illegality lies in the intentional and conscious, systematic, illegal stalker’s behavior, involving no harm, which indicates a formal composition of the offense. The value of the conducted research based on the analysis of the criminal chronology of stalking and the normative analysis of the Criminal Code of California State, the social context’s consideration and the psychological aspect leading to stalking. The practical significance of the work results lies in the subsequent opportunity of applying the knowledge in the work of practicing psychologists, lawyers, lawmakers and human rights defenders in their activities, advocacy projects, recommendations and their own conclusions. In this article the terms stalking and harassment differ in meanings.
The Stalking Assessment and Management (SAM; Kropp et al., 2008) and the Stalking Risk Profile (SRP; Mackenzie et al., 2009) were published in 2008 and 2009 respectively and designed to assess risk of stalking behaviour. Based on generally accepted criteria of what constitutes a Structured Professionals Judgement (SPJ) tool (i.e. a combination of static and dynamic risk factors which also includes case formulation and risk management considerations; Hart et al., 2016), in my opinion, the SAM and SRP are the only stalking risk assessments which can be considered SPJ tools. The current REA was conducted to explore the evidence base underpinning both assessments. Overall, there was limited evidence to draw any conclusions on the interrater reliability, internal reliability, internal consistency, discriminant validity or predictive validity due to the lack of peer reviewed research for either the SAM or SRP. Only two studies evaluated the SRP, whereas seven evaluated the SAM. The findings of this REA must be interpreted with caution given the limited amount of relevant research identified and included in the analysis, specifically the lack of evaluative studies involving the SRP. There are also concerns about the quality of the studies included, which generally include small samples, retrospective research designs, a lack of adequate comparison groups and difficulties identifying cases of stalking and recidivism. Further research is required to provide robust empirical support for claims regarding the validity and reliability of both assessment tools.
The world leaders adopted the United Nations Sustainable Development Gaols in 2015, with 17 goals achieved by the end of 2030. Each of these 17 goals aims to establish a just, equal and sustainable society for humans and other living beings. This chapter provides an understanding of the issues related to social work practice and suitability. The literature included in this chapter addresses issues related to women’s empowerment, social work models for climate adoption, sustainable development goals and aging, legal social work, human rights and social work.
Background
Stalking can escalate into violent acts such as threatening and inflicting physical harm, posing a serious threat to personal safety. To prevent exacerbating stalking victimization, victims must seek help and report incidents to the police or relevant authorities. However, victims, in general, underreport these incidents to public institutions. Moreover, there is insufficient understanding of why victims of stalking, especially men, refrain from seeking help. Therefore, this study used text mining to explore the reasons victims of stalking in Japan do not seek help while considering the severity of victimization and analyzing data separately for men and women.
Methods
Among 908 Japanese individuals who reported experiencing repeated stalking behavior from a former intimate partner in the past five years, 253 men and 321 women who did not consult public authorities were included in this study. Participants provided their experiences of being stalked by former romantic partners and were classified into stalking-only, threatened, and physical aggression victim groups based on their self-reported experiences in an online survey. Reasons for not seeking help were collected through open-ended questions and analyzed using text mining.
Results
A co-occurrence network analysis revealed that among men in the threatened victim group, the reason for not seeking help was the belief that their complaints would not be taken seriously. The physical aggression victim group did not seek help due to the perception that a female perpetrator does not pose a danger. Among women in the physical aggression victim group, concerns about provoking the perpetrator or worsening the situation by seeking help, as well as feelings of embarrassment, were reasons for not seeking assistance.
Conclusions
The identification of gender stereotype-related reasons among male victims was a valuable insight that could only be obtained through comparison with female victims. However, the study was limited to addressing the individual characteristics of the cases, thus providing only hypothetical insights into general trends. In future research, it will be necessary to generate hypotheses from the findings of this study and accumulate hypothesis-testing research to develop effective strategies for promoting help-seeking behavior among stalking victims.
Victims of stalking are exposed to threatening behaviours over prolonged periods of time and their experiences have been described by them as “emotional or psychological rape”, “psychological terrorism”, and “rape without sex”. Research has shown that the more victimisation a person experiences, the more he or she resorts to a variety of attempts to manage the stalking behaviour. Many methods have attracted criticism, specifically the use of civil injunctions to reduce the risk of violence and continued stalking. This article discusses the phenomenon of stalking, victim responses, and factors that may escalate stalking behaviour. It is posited that duration and intensity of stalking, in addition to the risk and harm to victims, can be reduced by researching the effectiveness of a myriad of proposed responses. This article looks to inform the best practices in the strategic intervention of stalking by distinguishing maladaptive and adaptive victim initiated responses.
While prior research has studied associations between child abuse and nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI), there is limited research assessing unwanted pursuit behavior (UPB) victimization and NSSI. In addition, few studies have assessed the self-reported functions of NSSI among survivors of violence. Among a sample of 18–25-year-old young adults ( N = 333), both UPB victimization and child abuse were significantly associated with NSSI frequency. In regression models, UPB victimization was associated with increased use of affect regulation, antidissociation/feeling-generation, self-punishment, and antisuicide functions, while child abuse was associated only with antidissociation/feeling-generation and self-punishment. Affect regulation mediated the association between UPB victimization and NSSI frequency, but not the association between child victimization and NSSI frequency. Implications for research and clinical practice will be discussed.
The present study aims to identify the nature of stalking and coping strategies used by stalking victims to deal with stalkers through their lived experiences. Semi-structured interviews were employed to gather data from twenty participants from a college in the Larkana District of Sindh and analyzed using interpretative phenomenological analysis. Participants in the study reported being watched, followed, communicated with, and harassed. They experienced continuous and unwanted letters, calls, text messages, and items, as well as various forms of overt and subtle intimidation, including physical and verbal aggression. The study’s findings indicate that initially, all participants attempted to avoid their stalkers. When this approach was ineffective, most participants turned to other coping mechanisms, such as seeking help from their families and directly confronting the offenders. However, neither the victims nor their families reported the stalking to formal institutions, such as the police.
Background
Stalking can escalate into violent acts such as threatening and inflicting physical harm, posing a serious threat to personal safety. To prevent exacerbating stalking victimization, victims must seek help and report incidents to the police or relevant authorities. However, victims, in general, underreport these incidents to public institutions. Moreover, there is insufficient understanding of why victims of stalking, especially men, refrain from seeking help. Therefore, this study used text mining to explore the reasons victims of stalking in Japan do not seek help, while considering the severity of victimization and analyzing data separately for men and women.
Methods
Among 908 Japanese individuals who reported experiencing repeated stalking behavior from a former intimate partner in the past five years, 253 men and 321 women who did not consult public authorities were analyzed. Participants were classified into stalking-only, threatened, and physical aggression victim groups based on their self-reported experiences in an online survey. Reasons for not seeking help were collected through open-ended questions and analyzed using text mining.
Results
A co-occurrence network analysis revealed that among men in the threatened victim group, the reason for not seeking help was the belief that their complaints would not be taken seriously. The physical aggression victim group did not seek help due to the perception that a female perpetrator does not pose a danger. Among women in the physical aggression victim group, concerns about provoking the perpetrator or worsening the situation by seeking help, as well as feelings of embarrassment, were reasons for not seeking assistance.
Conclusions
The identification of gender stereotype-related reasons among male victims was a valuable insight that could only be obtained through comparison with female victims. However, the study was limited to addressing the individual characteristics of the cases, thus providing only hypothetical insights into general trends. In future, accumulating empirical evidence through hypothesis-testing research is required to develop effective strategies to promote help-seeking behaviors among victims of stalking.
This study aimed to assess the impact stalking has on the physical and psychological wellbeing of survivors and their experiences of accessing of health services. To achieve this a self-assessment questionnaire was developed, circulated through social media channels and promoted on the websites of support services for people who experience stalking. There were 105 respondents to a survey, all who self-defined as being victims of stalking. Results indicated that prior to stalking events, 86% of participants reported no health issues. However, when reviewing health issues after having been stalked, 74% did report health problems. We also found that 23% of survivors experienced some physical injury as a result of being stalked. Results also indicated that while only 30% of participants reported ongoing psychological or mental health problems before stalking, this rose to 95% experiencing such difficulties following stalking events. Healthcare services were accessed due to stalking by 60% of participants and a further 8% of participants accessed the service due to domestic violence. Given the serious impact stalking can have, it is essential that victims have access to appropriate health care services. Conclusions centre around the appropriate training of Health care professionals (HCPs) to recognise when a patient might be a victim of stalking and how to provide appropriate support. Healthcare services could be tailored to the unique needs of stalking victims and be available in multiple locations, including hospitals, primary care settings, and online. Findings also indicate that HCPs also need to understand the different forms of stalking and how to respond appropriately. Additionally, it is important to provide support in terms of safety planning, providing information about legal options, and providing referrals to other appropriate services. The results are discussed in context to the current literature.
Araştırmanın temel amacı, akademik stalk kavramına ilişkin algı ve deneyimleri görünür kılmak ve kavram ile ilgili genel ve geçerli bir tanım ortaya koymaktır. Bu amaçtan hareketle tümevarımsal bir çıkarımda bulunmak amacıyla nitel araştırmanın veri oluşturma analiz ve teknikleri kullanılmış ve fenomenolojik bir yaklaşım benimsenmiştir. Katılımcılar nitel araştırmalarda kullanılan amaçlı örnekleme kapsamında kartopu yöntemi ile belirlenmiştir. Veriler tematik içerik analizi yöntemiyle MAXQDA 22 ile analiz edilmiştir. Araştırma sonucunda “Kişisel Sunum: Gören Olmak” ve “Zorunlu İfşa: Görünen Olmak” şeklinde iki ana tema elde edilmiştir. Ana temalar kapsamında akademik stalk kavramı, akademik stalk yapan yani “gören kişi”ler ve stalklanan yani “görülen kişi”ler açısından değerlendirilmiştir. Ayrıca akademik stalk yapılan platformlar, akademik stalk kriterleri ve her iki taraf açısından akademik stalkun neden ve sonuçlarını ele alınarak akademik stalk kavramı olumlu, olumsuz, akademik ve genel anlamda kavramsallaştırılmıştır. En genel anlamda “Akademik stalk, akademisyenlerin birtakım sosyal ve akademik platformlarda, farklı amaç ve niyetlerle ya da olumlu ve olumsuz duygularla, seçtikleri kriterlere göre yayın odaklı ve kişi odaklı olarak yapmış oldukları ve sonucunda her iki tarafın da (görünen ve gören) akademik yeterliliğini, mesleki ve kişisel hayatını etkileyebilecek olumlu ve olumsuz birtakım sonuçlara yol açan bir davranış biçimidir” şeklinde tanımlanmıştır.
Research has focused on intimate partner violence (IPV) against women either before or after separation, but little attention has been paid to the changes in and persistence of violent behaviors from one situation to the next. This study contributes to the literature by comparing the changes in types and frequencies of abusive behaviors of women's former husbands. This allows us to understand how mechanisms of power are enacted through IPV both before and after separation. We interviewed 19 women in the Midwestern United States who had experienced IPV by their former husbands and had subsequently divorced them. Data were analyzed using qualitative content analysis. The findings suggest that verbal abuse and using children were the most common forms of IPV both pre‐ and postseparation. Many preseparation behaviors were replaced by other forms of abuse; for example, physical abuse was not experienced after separation. Some forms of IPV, such as stalking and economic abuse, escalated after separation. This reveals that exerting control over women through nonphysical forms of IPV was more common after separation. In particular, using axial and selective coding approach, our findings present three composite narratives of women's experiences of the changes in, and the escalation and persistence of, the violence they faced. The three composite narratives show how abusive behaviors are situated within patriarchal notions of dominance, power, and control over women and their children. The implications of the findings are discussed in terms of healthcare services, advocacy‐based victim assistance, school officials, and the courts.
This chapter presents findings from a recent Irish research report which investigated the experiences of stalking among 892 self-selecting respondents. With reference to international literature and that study, Part 2 of this chapter outlines the relationship between the stalker and the person stalked. Part 3 identifies the types of behaviours stalkers perpetrate. In Part 4 we look at the psychological, physical, social and economic effects of this behaviour on the person stalked. Finally, in Part 5 we discuss how growing international awareness of the problem of stalking has led to a European trend towards criminalising stalking in addition to criminalising harassment. We will situate the recent Irish legislative proposal to introduce a new stalking offence in that context.KeywordsStalking legislationHarassmentLaw in IrelandStalking behavioursStalking impacts
Popular media representation of ‘stalking’ often focuses on the romanticised notion of crime, with a young man fighting to be with his love interest. However, the media representation will often forget to show the psychological and physical impact that stalking has on its victims. Due to unclear legislative definitions of stalking, claims of ‘stalking movies’, especially in cases when stalking is not viewed negatively, can create confusion for the audience. The COVID-19 pandemic saw the usage of popular streaming services like Netflix, Amazon Prime Video, Apple TV and Disney+ increase, especially among the younger generations in society. The confusion created by ‘stalking movies’ can significantly impact adolescent perceptions of love and romance, leading them to duplicate what they have seen. The normalisation of stalking behaviours could lead to the escalating number of cases of adolescent perpetrators of stalking.KeywordsAdolescentStalkingSteaming servicesPopular cultureRomance and thriller moviesMisconceptions
The current criminal justice system has limitations in providing victim protection services before stalking victims actively request intervention. Therefore, this study aims to report to investigative agencies such as the police and propose measures to diagnose the risk on their own and prevent additional serious criminal damage to potential victims before protection is made. This study proposes the development of a victim's risk self-diagnosis tool from a stalking risk assessment tool through a review of previous studies. Specifically, it was suggested to consider the relationship between the perpetrator and the victim, and to select and utilize common risk factors from existing risk assessment tools. In addition, a procedure is required to objectively confirm the victim's subjective risk perception. As a result of self-diagnosis of stalking victims, it was proposed to provide customized crime victim safety measures according to the risk level of stalking victims, secure the effectiveness of access restriction orders through the introduction of two-way electronic supervision.
This study investigates the predictive validity of two risk instruments for stalking, the Guidelines for Stalking Assessment and Management (SAM) and the Stalking Risk Profile (SRP), in a sample of 86 forensic psychiatric patients. We compare these tools against a well-validated violence risk assessment measure (Historical, Clinical, Risk Management-20, Version 3 (HCR-20V3)) for violent and stalking-related outcomes. Dynamic (mutable) components of each tool were rated at three annual intervals and revealed significant change across time. The HCR-20V3, SAM, and SRP measures showed comparable ability to classify those who recidivated with further stalking from those who did not (area under the curves = .72-.73, P < 001). Time-varying scores from the dynamic subscales of the HCR-20V3 and SAM contributed significantly to the prediction of stalking, whereas nonstalking violence was primarily forecast by the static (Historical) scale of the HCR-20V3. This suggests comparable validity of general violence and stalking risk tools for assessing the risk of stalking in forensic patients. Stalking-specific risk factors on the SAM and SRP will likely be of added clinical value in terms of tailoring risk management and treatment plans. Findings also emphasize the importance of attending to changes in risk status over time and incorporating time-sensitive methodologies into predictive models.
Stalklama ya da diğer bir deyişle ısrarlı takip mağdurun yaşam kalitesini önemli ölçüde tehlikeye atabilecek yaygın bir suçtur. Bu nedenle bireysel düzeyde ve toplumsal müdahale düzeyinde çok boyutlu psikososyal ve kriminolojik yaklaşımlar gerektirmektedir. Stalklamanın hukuki ve hukuki olmayan (araştırma, klinik çalışmalar vb.) tanımlamaları ülkeden ülkeye ve hatta eyaletten eyalete değişiklik göstermektedir. Tüm bu tanımlamalarda, ısrarlı bir şekilde yapılan eylemler örüntüsünün kişide huzursuzluk yaratması ve güvenlik endişesi oluşturması; ısrarlı takip literatüründeki ortak unsurlardandır. Ülkemize bakıldığında, 12/05/2022 tarih ve 31848 sayılı Resmî Gazete’de yayınlanan Türk Ceza Kanunu ve Bazı Kanunlarda Değişiklik Yapılmasına Dair Kanun ile ısrarı takip suçu tanımlanmıştır. Partner ısrarlı takibi ise, partner ya da eski partner tarafından yapılan özel bir stalklama biçimidir. Çeşitli nedenlerden dolayı partnerin ya da eski partnerin ısrarlı takibinin sonuçları daha yıkıcı olabilmektedir. Partner takibini etkili bir şekilde ele almak için, onun incelikli ve açık dinamiklerini anlamak önemlidir. Bu dinamikleri anlamak, kadınların güvenliğinin nasıl arttırılabileceği hem yasal süreçler yoluyla hem de genel anlamda kadınların bu süreçle başa çıkma stratejilerini geliştirmeleri ve ısrarlı takiple ilişkili stresten kurtulmalarına yardımcı olmak için bilgi sağlayabilir. Bu nedenle, bu derleme çalışmasında öncelikle partner ısrarlı takibinin ne olduğu, saldırganın ve mağdurun özellikleri, ısrarlı takip taktikleri anlatılacaktır.
The purpose of this study was to compare certain demographic and clinical variables in a group of obsessional followers and in a group of offenders with mental disorders.
A static group design comprised of a nonrandom group of convenience and a randomly selected comparison group was used. Twenty obsessional followers in custody and 30 offenders with mental disorders in custody were evaluated by psychiatrists and psychologists for court-ordered reasons during their criminal proceedings. Both groups were evaluated during the same period, in the same court diagnostic clinic, and for the same psycholegal reasons. The group of obsessional followers was measured on demographic, clinical, and victim variables. Inferential comparisons that used nonparametric statistics were done between groups on selected demographic and clinical variables.
The obsessional followers were significantly older, more intelligent, and better educated than the offenders. There were no significant differences in DSM-III-R axis I diagnoses. Axis II diagnoses showed significant differences, with the obsessional followers more likely to have a personality disorder other than antisocial personality disorder and less likely to have antisocial personality disorder.
The likelihood of obsessional followers having a nonantisocial axis II personality disorder (related to attachment pathology) distinguishes them from offenders with mental disorders in general. They are also likely to be older, smarter, and better educated, consistent with their resourcefulness and manipulativeness. Idiographic aspects of the obsessional followers further illuminate their psychological defenses and object relations.
This paper reviews the evidence for the existence of a complex form of post-traumatic disorder in survivors of prolonged, repeated trauma. This syndrome is currently under consideration for inclusion in DSM-IV under the name of DESNOS (Disorders of Extreme Stress Not Otherwise Specified). The current diagnostic formulation of PTSD derives primarily from observations of survivors of relatively circumscribed traumatic events. This formulation fails to capture the protean sequelae of prolonged, repeated trauma. In contrast to a single traumatic event, prolonged, repeated trauma can occur only where the victim is in a state of captivity, under the control of the perpetrator. The psychological impact of subordination to coercive control has many common features, whether it occurs within the public sphere of politics or within the private sphere of sexual and domestic relations.
Examined the characteristics of threatening and otherwise inappropriate letters sent to Hollywood celebrities by 214 Ss, who averaged 8 letters apiece. The authors quote excerpts from these letters, describe objects enclosed with them, and provide quantitative data on such variables as the (a) form, appearance, volume, and duration of such letters; (b) S's perceived relationship to the celebrity; (c) thematic content of the letters; and (d) messages and threats they communicate. Comparisons between 107 Ss who pursued encounters with the celebrities and 107 who did not revealed 15 factors associated with such pursuit. The presence or absence of threats was not associated with pursuit behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Obsessional following is a “stalking” behavior in which a person engages in an abnormal or long-term pattern of threat or harassment directed toward a specific individual. In a review of preliminary research during the past 20 years, the author find 10 studies, all nonrandom samples of convenience, published between 1978 and 1995 in which obsessional followers charged with criminal behavior or investigated by law enforcement (N = 180) were identified. Aggregate data from these studies suggest that obsessional followers were likely to be males in their mid to late thirties with prior psychiatric and criminal histories. There was often a chronic history of failed heterosexual relationships and unemployment, but on average the subjects were more intelligent than other criminal offenders. Axis I mental disorders and Axis II personality disorders were common and varied. Approximately one-half of obsessional followers threatened the victims, but usually were not physically violent. Frequency of any personal violence, depending on the study, was 3–36%. Incidence of homicide was less than 2%. The author theorizes that obsessional followers, perhaps a subset of stalkers in general, evidence abnormal, “preoccupied” attachement patterns, their pursuit fueled by a distrubance in their narcissistic fantasy linking them to their victims. Such disruption is usually caused by an acute or chronic rejection that stimulates rage as a defense against shame.
The authors examine the characteristics of threatening and otherwise inappropriate communications sent to members of the U.S. Congress by a sample of 86 subjects, 20 of whom threatened assassination. We quote excerpts from these letters and provide quantitative data on such variables as the volume, duration, form, and appearance of such communications; the enclosures; the subjects' perceived relationships to the recipients; the thematic content of the communications; and the messages and threats communicated. Comparisons between 43 subjects who pursued encounters with members of Congress and 43 who did not revealed 17 factors associated with such pursuit. In this population, threateners were significantly less likely to pursue an encounter than inappropriate letter writers who did not threaten, regardless of the type of threat or the harm threatened. Inappropriate letters to members of Congress are compared with those directed to Hollywood celebrities. Mentally disordered persons writing to public figures often mention and sometimes threaten public figures other than those to whom the letters are addressed, which raises important issues regarding notification of endangered third parties and the sharing of information among protective agencies.
The criminal behaviors of harassment and menacing are difficult to control, and of increasing concern to the general public and local law enforcement officials. In 1992, the New York State Legislature modified the Penal Law, responding to public fears and concerns that stalking behavior may become violent.
Some persons charged with these types of offenses are suffering from psychiatric disorders. Among these disorders are those classified as Delusional Disorders. According to both DSM-III-R (1987–1993) and DSM-IV (1994), there are five specific types of Delusional Disorder: erotomanic, grandiose, jealous, persecutory and somatic. This type of disorder tends to be chronic.
Forty eight cases of persons charged with harassment and menacing in the New York County Criminal and Supreme Court and referred for evaluation to the Forensic Psychiatry Clinic between January 1987 and January 1994 are reviewed. When cases of erotomania and other affectionate/amorous complaints were compared with persecutory/angry forms of harassing behavior, there was a great deal of similarity. When all harassers were compared to the Clinic population as a whole, major differences in ethnicity, age, educational level and sex were noted. Findings are presented regarding incidence, other demographic data, recidivism, violence and clinical diagnosis.
The researchers conclude that erotomania does exist, however, there are other psychiatric disorders which can also be diagnosed in individuals accused of harassing and menacing behavior. From the point of view of the victim and the criminal justice system, the similarities in behavior patterns are more important than the different diagnoses.
Clarification is still required of the nature of pathological love.
A series is presented of 16 personally assessed cases with pathologies of love (erotomania).
The pathologies of love usually involve a mixture of morbid infatuation and a morbid belief in being loved. They occur both in a symptomatic form, as part of an underlying mental illness, as well as in a pure form, where their emergence is to some extent understandable in a vulnerable personality. These disorders often go unrecognised to the detriment of clinical management.
Pathologies of love create distress and disruption to the patient, and place the objects of their unwarranted affection at risk of at best harassment and at worst violence. Although this series of cases, which is drawn predominantly from forensic practice, overemphasises the risk of overt violence, the distress occasioned by pursuit and harassment alone should not be underestimated.
Fourteen patients with pathologies of love (erotomania) are presented; all stalked the object of their disordered affections These cases were encountered in forensic practice and were personally assessed, and in most cases managed, by the authors. Victim impact reports or depositions made by the objects of these patient's unwanted attentions were available.
All patients indulged in stalking behaviours which included following, loitering in the victim's vicinity, approaching, telephoning, and sending letters. The objects of the patient's affections were threatened in five cases, violently assaulted in five – one fatally – and sexually attacked in seven cases. Those believed to stand in the way of their delusional love were also on occasion the victims of violence.
This series is unusual in the degree of intrusiveness and overt violence, which probably reflects the forensic context in which the cases were encountered. The cases comprise a particular group of erotomanics who exhibit stalking and violent behaviour. The erotomanic syndromes often went unrecognised and the threat to the peace and safety of the objects of their affections was not always given proper weight. The clinical importance of this sub-group of stalkers is emphasised, as is their relevance in the legislative, and judicial, responses to stalking.
Erotomania is the delusional belief that one is passionately loved by another. These persons often go to great lengths to approach their object of desire, often necessitating the attention of the law. We have reviewed a forensic sample to select subjects who meet criteria for the diagnosis of erotomania.
Case histories from all of the case files of the Threat Management Unit of the Los Angeles Police Department were reviewed to compare erotomanic subjects with those who were suffering from other disorders. Various demographic and other relevant data were examined to determine if the erotomanic subjects presented similar or different profiles.
Stalking is now illegal: will a paper law nnake a difference?
- Sanford
Obsessional harassment and erotonnania in a criminal court population
- Herman
Stalking the stalker: developing new laws to thwart those who terrorize others
- Gilligan