Content uploaded by Jürgen M Steinacker
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Jürgen M Steinacker
Content may be subject to copyright.
Training and overtraining: An overview and experimental results in endurance sports
Abstract
Overtraining can be defined as "training-competition > > recovery imbalance", that is assumed to result in glycogen deficit, catabolic > anabolic imbalance, neuroendocrine imbalance, amino acid imbalance, and autonomic imbalance. Additional non-training stress factors and monotony of training exacerbate the risk of a resulting overtraining syndrome. Short-term overtraining called overreaching which can be seen as a normal part of athletic training, must be distinguished from long-term overtraining that can lead to a state described as burnout, staleness or overtraining syndrome. Persistent performance incompetence, persistent high fatigue ratings, altered mood state, increased rate of infections, and suppressed reproductive function have been described as key findings in overtraining syndrome. An increased risk of overtraining syndrome may be expected around 3 weeks of intensified/prolonged endurance training at a high training load level. Heavy training loads may apparently be tolerated for extensive periods of time if athletes take a rest day every week and use alternating hard and easy days of training. Persistent performance incompetence and high fatigue ratings may depend on impaired or inhibited transmission of ergotropic (catabolic) signals to target organs, such as: (I) decreased neuromuscular excitability, (II) inhibition of alpha-motoneuron activity (hypothetic), (III) decreased adrenal sensitivity to ACTH (cortisol release) and increased pituitary sensitivity to GHRH (GH release) resulting in a counter-regulatory shift to a more anabolic endocrine responsibility, (IV) decreased beta-adrenoreceptor density (sensitivity to catecholamines), (V) decreased intrinsic sympathetic activity, and (VI) intracellular protective mechanisms such as increased synthesis of heat-shock proteins (HSP 70) represent a complex strategy against an overload-dependent cellular damage.
... В дополнение к индексу монотонности был использован индекс напряженности [1,3,11], также являющийся достоверным маркером риска развития заболеваний, который в исследовании составил 107,4 ± 51,2 у.е. ...
... Индекс острой/хронической усталости и ЧСС в покое. Значения индекса ACWR у студентов-спортсменов колебались в диапазоне от 0,88 до 1,11 баллов, что соответствует «золотой середине» по шкале норм и среднему риску травм [3,11]. При этом средняя ЧСС покоя составляла 61 уд/мин. ...
Relevance. The prevention of overtraining in student sports is an important task for achieving optimal athletic results and minimizing the risks of illnesses and injuries. It requires consideration of both training loads and assessment of the functional state. The aim of the study was to identify individual dynamics and average group values of functional state indicators and physical load doses in student-athletes of team sports and martial arts. The objective of the study was to identify individual dynamics and average group values of functional state indicators and physical load doses in student-athletes of team sports and martial arts. Material and methods. The research involved 24 qualified student-athletes aged 19-20 with an average sports experience of 10.7 ± 1.7 years. Data were collected using an electronic athlete diary, which analyzed data on heart rate, recovery status, and other indicators over the course of a month. Results. According to the data obtained, the average value of the monotony index was 2.1 ± 0.8 units, the tension index was 107.4 ± 51.2 units, the ACWR index was 1.1 ± 0.2 points, and the TRIMP was 55 ± 31.5 units. The integral indicator of the functional state of the student-athletes was, on average, assessed as "good". Conclusions. The research showed that the electronic athlete diary can serve as an effective tool for monitoring functional states and adjusting training loads, which will help reduce the risk of overtraining, illness, and injuries among student-athletes.
... In particular, anxiety can decrease athletes' ability to regulate their emotions, which may make them more sensitive to signals of fatigue and discomfort during training, thus increasing their perception of effort (Parfitt, Rose & Burgess, 2006;Borg, 1998). On the other hand, a new level of intensity imposed during training can cause physiological maladjustment (i.e., metabolic change, lactic accumulation, muscle fatigue), which could lead to psychological pressure and consequently an increase in the state of anxiety in athletes (Lehmann et al., 1997). ...
... Other factors could be the causes of these results such as the physical state of the swimmers (e.g. muscular exhaustion, insufficient recovery) (Lehmann et al., 1997). Self-confidence was negatively influenced after intensive training (−8.96%) and after standard training (−7.01%). ...
Background
An increase in training intensity could create changes in psychological and physiological variables in competitive athletes. For this reason, it is very relevant to know how an intensive training block could influence psychological variables in competitive swimmers. This study examined the effect of an intensive training block (HIT) for 2 weeks on the anxiety state and swimming performance compared to standard aerobic training.
Methods
Twenty-two male competition swimmers were randomly assigned to two groups: HIT group ( n = 11; age = 16.5 ± 0.29 years) and control group following the standard training program ( n = 11; age = 16.1 ± 0.33 years). Psychological status variables (cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety and self-confidence) and swimming performance (100-m front crawl) were measured pre-and post-test.
Results
A significant effect of time was found for all psychological variables and swimming performance (F ≥ 17.6; p < 0.001; d ≥ 0.97). Furthermore, a significant group × time interaction effect was found in cognitive (F = 14.9; p < 0.001; d = 0.62) and somatic anxiety (F = 5.37; p = 0.031; d = 0.55) were found. Only a significant group effect was found in somatic anxiety (F = 27.1; p < 0.001; d = 1.2). Post hoc comparison revealed that both groups increased their cognitive anxiety and swimming performance, and decreased their self-confidence from pre to post test. However, cognitive anxiety increase significantly more in the HIT group compared to the control group. Furthermore, only the HIT training group significantly increased somatic anxiety over time, while somatic anxiety did not change significantly over time in the control group.
Conclusion
Our findings indicated that a sudden increase in training intensity increased state anxiety more than standard training, but both conditions similarly enhanced swimming performance. Although the current level of psychological state is not affecting swimming performance negatively over this period, it should be regularly monitored by psychologists as it over a longer training period perhaps could have a negative influence on swimming performance.
... Implementing targeted interventions, such as sleep hygiene practices, which have gained prominence in the sports context, is considered an economical, non-invasive, and effective method capable of improving subjective and objective sleep parameters in athletes [64][65][66][67]. Other adjustments, such as better control over training load [68] and psychological support, may be essential for mitigating the impact of accumulated stress on recovery and performance [69]. However, this study had some limitations. ...
Background: Assessing sleep quality is essential in sports science, particularly in ultra-endurance sports, where recovery is critical for performance and health. Objective: This study aimed to identify sleep quality patterns among endurance and ultra-endurance athletes using hierarchical clustering analysis, with comparisons by sex and modality. Method: Data were collected during the La Misión Brasil competitions in 2023 and 2024, using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI). The questionnaire was emailed to all registered runners two weeks before the event. A total of 490 athletes participated, including 276 men (mean ± SD age: 43 ± 11 years) and 214 women (mean ± SD age: 43 ± 13 years). Statistical analyses included Cohen’s d and r effect sizes, and a 95% confidence interval for hypothesis testing. Residuals between-cluster proportions were assessed within a range of −3.3, ensuring a 99.7% confidence level for significant differences. Results: The results showed that endurance runners had better sleep quality, with most scoring low on the PSQI. In contrast, ultra-endurance athletes displayed greater variability, with a higher prevalence of poor sleep quality, particularly in women. Conclusions: The hierarchical clustering method effectively identified distinct sleep patterns, providing insights into the dynamics of recovery and performance. These findings highlight the impact of increased physical and psychological demands in ultra-endurance sports and emphasize the need for tailored sleep monitoring strategies to optimize the recovery and performance of athletes.
... mental fatigue perception) of training. Weekly TL, training monotony [19] (the variation in TL during the week), and training strain [10] (the overall stress during a week of training) can be calculated from TL data using s-RPE. In addition to providing athletes and coaches with quick and easy feedback on internal load conditions, the TL monitoring method using s-RPE allows timely adjustments of TL and training plans to enhance athletic performance and decreases the risk of sports injuries. ...
Background The objective of this study was to establish the criterion-related validity of the session-rating of perceived exertion (s-RPE) method in adolescent athletes.
Methods According to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA 2020) guidelines, a meta-analysis (PROSPERO ID: CRD42022373126) was performed using Stata 15.1 software. Eight data�bases using the following terms: (‘s-RPE’ OR ‘Rating Perceived Exertion session’ OR ‘RPE session’ OR ‘RPE’ OR ‘Rate of Perceived Exertion’ OR ‘Rated of Perceived Exertion’) AND (‘Adolescen*’ OR ‘Youth*’ OR ‘Teen*’) AND (‘validity’ OR ‘cor�relation’ OR ‘concurrent validity’) were searched up to 2022. Articles meeting the inclusion criteria were screened and adopted the “Methodological Index for Non-Randomized Studies (MINORS)” to evaluate the risk of bias.
Results An initial 1798 studies using the s-RPE method were identifed and fnally, a total of 16 studies were included for further analysis. The relationship between assessment instruments CR-10 or CR-100 modifed methods of s-RPE and the heart rate measures of these selected studies were calculated using correlation coefcient (r values) and Fish�er’s z-score. A strong to very strong correlation between s-RPE and HR was observed (overall: r=0.74; CR-10: r=0.69; CR-100: r=0.80). CR-100 scale (Fisher’s z=1.09) was shown to have a higher criterion validity than that of the CR-10
scale (Fisher’s z=0.85).
Conclusion Preliminary fndings showed that s-RPE using either CR-10 or CR-100 scales can be used "stand�alone" for monitoring internal training load for children and adolescent athletes. Future studies should focus on whether CR-100 could better perform than CR-10 for junior and children athletes in diferent age groups
and sports as well as the causes leading to potential scoring biases.
We examined changes in the haematological, metabolic, immunological, hormonal, and psychological fields using selected variables in 20 professional soccer players, over the course of a competitive season. The team performance was assessed by computing the winning percentage. A symptom checklist was used to assess the severity of upper respiratory tract infections. A high-intensity training programme induced a significant increase in cortisol and uric acid concentrations. Despite lower glutamine concentrations than the normal range throughout the study, infection occurred only in two of the soccer players. Moreover, the levels of immunological factors IgA, IgG, and IgM, and the haematological parameters were unaltered. Subsequent decreased performance coincided with changes in specific mood states of the team. Our results show some alterations on the metabolic, hormonal, and psychological variables over the five fields studied, suggesting that combined psychological and physiological changes during training are of primary interest to monitor the training stress in relation to performance in team sport.
The article reports on a collaboration between special police units and science, from the perspective of science - the perspective of both authors. The central substantive role in this relationship is played by self-determination theory (SDT), which originates in learning and motivation research. At its core, SDT contains the empirically confirmed assumption that motivation, learning and health are causally related and that this can be strengthened by taking into account the basic needs for autonomy, competence and social inclusion.
Knowledge of SDT has turned the training concept of a special operations forces in a German federal state X on its head, as it were. A training course for prospective SOF-officers, conducted for the first time in 2022, was designed along SDT´s key concepts. The results confirm the prognosis: 80% of the recruits successfully completed the course and showed high-quality operational behavior both during the course and in the later operational context, which corresponds to the objectives of the course for the competence development of SOF-officers. As we assume, SDT also offers learning potential for other police special units in Germany, which would particularly benefit the motivation, performance and health of SOF-officers in a high-performance profession.
Background: The objective of this study was to establish the criterion-related validity of the session-rating of perceived exertion (s-RPE) method in adolescent athletes.
Methods: According to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA 2020) guidelines, a meta-analysis (PROSPERO ID: CRD42022373126) was performed using Stata 15.1 software. Eight databases using the following terms: (‘s-RPE’ OR ‘Rating Perceived Exertion session’ OR ‘RPE session’ OR ‘RPE’ OR ‘Rate of Perceived Exertion’ OR ‘Rated of Perceived Exertion’) AND (‘Adolescen*’ OR ‘Youth*’ OR ‘Teen*’) AND (‘validity’ OR ‘correlation’ OR ‘concurrent validity’) were searched up to 2022. Articles meeting the inclusion criteria were screened and adopted the “Methodological Index for Non-Randomized Studies (MINORS)” to evaluate the risk of bias.
Results: An initial 1798 studies using the s-RPE method were identified and finally, a total of 16 studies were included for further analysis. The relationship between assessment instruments CR-10 or CR-100 modified methods of s-RPE and the heart rate measures of these selected studies were calculated using correlation coefficient (r values) and Fisher’s z-score. A strong to very strong correlation between s-RPE and HR was observed (overall: r=0.74; CR-10: r=0.69; CR-100: r=0.80). CR-100 scale (Fisher’s z=1.09) was shown to have a higher criterion validity than that of the CR-10 scale (Fisher’s z=0.85).
Conclusion: Preliminary findings showed that s-RPE using either CR-10 or CR-100 scales can be used "stand-alone" for monitoring internal training load for children and adolescent athletes. Future studies should focus on whether CR-100 could better perform than CR-10 for junior and children athletes in different age groups and sports as well as the causes leading to potential scoring biases.
Sympathetic dysfunction is characterized by postural hypotension, decreasing blood pressure without compensatory tachycardia during graded supine ergometric exercise, impaired catecholamine metabolism, and hypersensitivity to catecholamines. We report on eight patients, seven with sympathetic dysfunction, of whom three patients were treated for the first time with programmed subcutaneous noradrenaline administration by means of a microdosing pump over a time period of 1.5-13 months. A clear improvement in blood pressure values, orthostasis tolerance, and exercise capacity has been observed in these three patients which permit them to extend their action radius. Adjustment of the noradrenaline dose to the wide range of everyday stress and the possible occurrence of adrenoreceptor desensitization, however, remains a severe problem.
The effects of 7 successive days of prolonged jogging on aerobic performance and biochemical markers of muscle and red blood cell damage were examined in 10 moderately fit men, ages 27 ± 2 yr (mean±SE). The subjects jogged for 2 h per day at 78 ±4% of maximal heart rates and covered a total of 129 ± 2 km, nearly eight times their regular weekly training distance.
At baseline, maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max) during treadmill tests averaged 3.45 ±0.24 L/min, or 44.7 ± 1.4 ml/kg/min. On follow-up tests 2d after the week of increased training, V̇O2max (3.56 ±0.17 L/min) and treadmill performance were not significantly improved. Body weight declined from 79.5 ± 4.6 kg to 77.8 ± 4.4 kg (p < 0.05) because of reduced body fatness (16.8±2.3% to 13.6± 1.7%, p < 0.05). Weight-adjusted V̇O2max increased to 46.4 ± 2.0 ml/kg/min (p < 0.05). However, heart rate and systolic blood pressure were not significantly changed at rest, or during submaximal and maximal treadmill exercise. Mean hemoglobin concentration at treadmill testing declined from 14.9 ±0.3 g/dl to 13.3 ±0.3 g/dl (p < 0.05).
Leg muscle soreness, especially in the thigh region, persisted in all subjects after 3 d. Soreness was accompanied by chronic elevations (p < 0.05) in serum levels of myoglobin, creatine kinase (CK), lactic dehydrogenase (LD), aminoaspartate, and the isoenzymes CK-MB and LD1,2. Serum haptoglobin levels after jogging fell from 86±9 mg/dl to 60± 8 mg/dl (p < 0.05), suggestive of foot-strike hemolysis. It was concluded that leg muscle fibers and red blood cells were damaged by the unaccustomed high training distance. The reduction in hemoglobin concentration may have attenuated potential training effects on aerobic performance by decreasing the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. The intensified training did not promote a short-term gain in cardiovascular fitness.
The influence of an acute beta-adrenoceptor blockade on work capacity, oxygen intake, plasma catecholamines, and on energy metabolism was investigated in 9 healthy subjects during graduated ergometric exercise. The examinations were carried out after p.o. administration of 10 mg bunitrolol (BU), methypranol (ME) and placebo in random sequence. The exercise capacity shows a 15% decrease after both beta-blockers; heart rate shows a maximum 20% (BU) and 25% (ME) reduction, respectively. On account of the greater sympathetic intrinsic activity BU does not influence the resting heart rate, in contrast to ME (-8%; p greater than 0.05). BU leads to a decrease of the catecholamine levels (with low sympathetic tone), which is assumed to be caused by an effect on presynaptic receptors. At the same submaximum exercise levels plasma catecholamines are higher after BU and ME than after placebo; however, the maximum levels are not reached with placebo. In relation to the relative oxygen intake, which is inhibited by 4-6% by BU and ME (p greater than 0.05), the differences of the catecholamines decrease in performance caused by beta-blockade. BU does not show an influence on lactate, glucose, free fatty acids, and glycerin and thus represents a more selective blockade. ME inhibits lipolysis (measured by the glycerin level) by a maximum of approx. 50%. Lactate level increase is approx. 30% lower with ME. Glucose level decrease is approx. 20% higher with ME than with placebo.
The influence of a 4-week unaccustomed average 103% mileage increase (ITV, increase in training volume; n = 8; average baseline mileage 85.9 km.week-1, final mileage 174.6 km.week-1) on performance and neuromuscular excitability (NME) was tested in experienced distance runners and controlled 1 year later by a 4-week unaccustomed average 152% increase in tempo-pace and interval-runs (ITI, increase in training intensity; n = 9; baseline 9 km.week-1 final 22.7 km.week-1) with an average total mileage of 61.7 km.week-1 (week 1) to 84.7 km.week-1 (week 4). Seven athletes participated in ITV as (week 4). Seven athletes participated in ITV as well as in ITI. During incremental treadmill test performance at a lactate concentration of 2 mmol.1-1 (2 LP) increased, and at 4 mmol.1-1 (4 LP) performance did not change, whereas total running distance (TD) during the incremental test decreased in ITV compared to an increase in 2 LP, 4 LP and TD during ITI which may indicate that there was an ITV-related overtraining. The NME of the reference muscles vastus medialis and rectus femoris deteriorated in ITV (day 28 compared to 0) compared to constant values during ITI, reflecting an ITV-related overload of neuromuscular structures.